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Article history: Wood plastic composite (WPC) beams retrotted with carbon and glass ber-reinforced polymer (CFRP
Received 27 February 2010 and GFRP) composites offer an attractive solution to enhance the behavior of wood in terms of strength
Received in revised form 16 May 2010 and ductility, as well as altering the mode of rupture of such structural members. However, very little is
Accepted 19 June 2010
known about their performance. Thus, this paper presents a theoretical model based on nonlinear WPC
Available online 27 July 2010
properties, to investigate the behavior of hybrid WPCFRP beams. In order to calculate the bending
moment, the model considers an exponential function in the stressstrain diagram of WPC in both ten-
Keywords:
sion and compression parallel to the bers. A four-point bending test conguration was conducted as
Wood plastic composite
CFRP and GFRP
short-term experiments to determine the loaddisplacement relationships of WPC beams with CFRP
Theoretical model and GFRP sheets adhered to the tensile side. In order to validate the employed approach, the results
Flexural performance obtained from the theoretical model were compared with the experimental results where a satisfactory
agreement was achieved.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.06.104
830 M. Naghipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 829837
polymer into the vibration damping of glulam beams strengthened plastic composite beams retrotted with FRP composite sheets. To
with GFRP was investigated by Naghipour et al. [18]. calculate the bending moment, the model considers an exponential
Wood plastic composites (WPC) are offering relatively new re- function in the stressstrain diagram of WPC in both tension and
search questions compared to the conventional wood materials compression, parallel to the bers. The four-point bending test
in recent years. These composites are manufactured by blending was performed to determine the loaddisplacement relationships
wood our and plastics to produce a material which can treat sim- of WPC beams with CFRP and GFRP sheets adhered to the tensile
ilar to 100% plastic-based products [1922]. One of the major ben- side.
ets of the WPC is its resistance against biological deterioration for
outdoor applications where conventional wood products are not 2. Materials and methods
appropriate. Wood plastic composites have emerged as a viable
replacement for industrial structural applications such as water- A number of coupon tests were established to acquire the mechanical proper-
ties and behavior of WPC material in tension and compression as well as the
front structures and bridge decking due to their resistance to mois-
mechanical properties of FRP in tension. Using the characterization of WPC and
ture and decay. However, the largest and fastest growing market FRP composite material, a nonlinear model based on the moment curvature numer-
for WPCs is extruded residential decking and railing [23,24]. Re- ical analysis was presented. Finally, a four-point bending experiment was applied to
cent studies have demonstrated the ability to effectively use wood evaluate the accuracy of the experimental results cross-validated with the theoret-
polypropylene (PP) composites in transportation structures like ical counterparts.
pedestrian and rural highway bridge decks [25]. Also, the demon-
2.1. Material characterization tests
strated application of a polyvinyl chloride wood plastic composite
(PVC WPC) indicates that WPCs are capable of resisting signicant The stressstrain relationships of WPC and FRP composite materials are de-
load demands like those found on an industrial pier deck subjected tailed in the forthcoming paragraph. The approach adopted to describe the proper-
to forklift travel consisting of a 16,000-lbf wheel load with a 600- ties of WPC is based on a series of standard tests. ASTM D 638 [30] is a standard test
lbf/ft. distributed load [26]. Wood plastic composites have also method to examine the stressstrain behavior of WPC samples in uniaxial tension
test. Moreover, the mechanical properties of WPC in compression are obtained
experienced signicant market expansion in recent years as a
through uniaxial compression test of ASTM D 695 [31]. The tensile specimen
replacement for solid wood, mainly in outdoor applications such dimensions are 150 mm long, with the center section being 10 mm wide by
as landscaping timbers, fencing, playground equipment, railings, 4 mm thick by 80 mm long. Also, cross-section dimensions of the compressive spec-
decking, windows and door frames. The acceptance of WPCs into imen are 12.7 12.7 mm with 25.4 mm long. Figs. 1 and 2 demonstrate the exper-
imental stressstrain relationship of WPC in the tension and compression tests,
the construction industry contributes to their popularity.
respectively. Ultimate stress, maximum strain and initial modulus of the WPC in
Most plastics are not stiff and creep-resistant enough for con- tension and compression attained from the experimental tests, respectively, are
struction applications, and need further reinforcement to become shown in Tables 1 and 2. In these tables, the initial elastic modulus was computed
viable products. Typical reinforcements for plastic are heavy and at strain of 0.001 for tension and 0.005 for compression. In general, FRP composite
expensive materials, such as berglass and various minerals. Wood material is composed of two basic segments, ber and matrix (epoxy resin). Carbon
and glass bers are the reinforcing materials in the FRP composite to provide high
bers can be used to provide the reinforcement, with little of the
strength and modulus of elasticity. The FRP sheets are characterized following
weight gain associated with mineral and glass llers [27]. WPC ASTM D 3039 [32] specications. Performing the aforementioned standard test,
materials have stiffness between those for plastic or wood, but the specications of the CFRP and GFRP composites are presented in Table 3. This
the density is generally higher than either. Moreover, the presence work is involved the external bonding of thin FRP sheets onto the tension zones
of WPC beams using epoxy resins. The unidirectional ber-reinforced polymers
of wood in a plastic matrix can result in a lower-cost material with
were glued to WPC with Epoxy Dur 300 adhesive by using the wet application sys-
good stiffness and impact resistance, dimensional stability, resis- tem. The specications and testing standards of matrix (epoxy resin) [30,3436]
tance to rot, excellent thermal properties and low moisture absorp- used in this study are listed in Table 4 which were given by the supplier.
tion than if plastic alone was used. Therefore, they can cost-
effectively replace plastic products in applications such as window 2.2. Installation procedure
frames, cable trunking, rooine products and cladding, in fact any-
where that plastics shapes are used. The lamination process that can be used to x FRP sheet in WPC is manual. In
this process, a surface primer is applied rst to the WPC prepared surface to ll mi-
WPCs can be produced from wood remainders and recycled cro-cavities. After the primer is cured, a layer of putty is applied to level uneven
plastics with low cost and high accessibility. Nonetheless, low spots and ll surface cavities. The recommended resin is then mixed and applied
strength and stiffness as well as susceptibility to creep has resulted to the WPC surface in a thin uniform layer using a roller. The epoxy resin consisted
in the employment of FRP composite sheets for the improvement of two parts of saturant A and B which were mixed in a ratio of 100:34.5 by weight.
and strengthening of WPC members. Although many researchers
developed the utilization of retrotted wooden products with
35
FRP composite sheets, only a few reports on hybrid WPCFRP
structural members can be found in the literature. To use wood
30
plastic composites in structural applications, a better comprehen-
sion of the behavior and material properties under sustained loads 25
must be acquired. Dagher et al. [28] proposed a nonlinear moment
curvature program to predict the behavior of polyvinyl chloride 20
(PVC) and wood plastic composite (WPC) hollow sections in bend-
ing. Taking into consideration an elasticplastic approximation for 15
WPC constitutive relationship and a linear approximation for FRP
constitutive relationship, their theoretical method was conrmed 10
using the manufactured hybrid WPCFRP members with a series
5
of varying reinforcement ratios. Lopez-Anido et al. [29], using a
nonlinear model, investigated the exural behavior of hybrid
0
WPCFRP beams based on the uniaxial material constitutive rela- 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
tionship and structural modeling to analyze and compare the the-
oretical and experimental values.
In this paper, a theoretical model based on nonlinear WPC prop- Fig. 1. The experimental and theoretical tensile stressstrain relationships of WPC
erties is presented to investigate the exural performance of wood samples.
M. Naghipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 829837 831
60 Table 4
The specications and testing standards of the matrix (epoxy resin).
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
2. There is no slipping (debonding) between the FPR composite sheets and the
WPC surface.
Fig. 2. The experimental and theoretical compressive stressstrain relationships of 3. The wood plastic composite beam has two symmetrical orthogonal planes.
WPC samples. 4. After attaining the maximum stress to the ultimate tensile stress in the WPC
composite beam, the effect of the tensile region is ignored.
5. The ultimate moment capacity is obtained when the maximum strain of WPC in
compression or FRP in tension is reached.
Table 1
The material parameters and mechanical properties of WPC under tension test.
2.3.2. Uniaxial stressstrain relationship of WPC
A0 B0 Initial Ultimate Maximum The proposed theoretical model considers the realistic behavior of WPC in both
(MPa) modulus stress (MPa) strain tension and compression in the form of an exponential function parallel to the -
(MPa) bers, as follows:
Theoretical 29.6478 284.02 7330.4 29.20 0.016 r A1 eBe 1
Experimental 6533.3 29.33 0.016
(average) in which A and B are material parameters that were optimized using the least square
Error (%) 10.87 0.45 method. In the above equation, the parameter A is approximately equivalent to the
maximum stress corresponding to maximum strain. Moreover, the expression A B
is exactly equivalent to the initial bending stiffness. Note that the values of material
parameters are dissimilar in tension and compression. The existence of only one
Table 2 relation with a few parameters in all points of the tensile and compressive stress
The material parameters and mechanical properties of WPC under compression test. strain relationships provides a facile approach for exural nonlinear analysis in com-
parison with those available in the literature. The material parameters in tension
A (MPa) B Initial Ultimate Maximum and compression have been shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Also, these tables
modulus stress strain demonstrate ultimate stress, maximum strain, and initial modulus obtained from
(MPa) (MPa) the theoretical analysis. Theoretical stressstrain relationships of the wood plastic
composite in tension and compression have been illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, respec-
Theoretical 49.9765 63.8323 2318.43 49.674 0.0796
tively. As seen, in initial and nal portions of the compression curve the theoretical
Experimental 2580.05 49.091 0.0796
model overestimates whereas in the middle portion it underestimates the experi-
(average)
mental data. However, there is an excellent conformity in tension. In this work, pre-
Error (%) 11.28 1.17
fabricated I sections of wood plastic composite were utilized in order to enhance the
exural behavior in terms of strength and stiffness. Although the I section is most
popular in steel structures, it is not widely prevalent in wood structures. Moreover,
this shape of section has been less frequently used for discussion in published
Table 3
works.
The specications of FRP.
Afrp
bf tfrp Cfrp
tf tf bf top top
y y h CWI
CWII
tw tw NA
H H
TWII
TWI
t'f b'f t'f b'f wm wm
t'frp t'frp Tfrp
A'frp A'frp fm fm
Tested cross General cross
Strain distribution Stress distribution
section section
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 3. The strain and stress distributions of the WPCFRP composite beam section.
From the condition of the force equilibrium it follows that After the maximum tensile stress of the WPC reaches the ultimate tensile
strength, by ignoring the tensile zone, Eqs. (10) and (11) are simplied to the fol-
C WI C WII C frp T WI T WII T frp 5
lowing form.
where CWI and TWI are compressive and tensile forces of the hypothetical rectangular
area of WPC section, respectively (a rectangular with a width equal to the ange
bf tw etop t f hetop tw ht w =B htw bf ehtf Betop =h =B hbf eBetop =B
width and height equal to the total height of the WPC cross-section). Also, CWII Efrp A0frp H h tfrp =2e2top =Ah 0 12
and TWII are, respectively the compressive and tensile forces of the void rectangular
area of WPC located between two anges which must be subtracted from the forces
M Ahbf t w h h=B=etop t f =B=etop eBetop 1tf =h
of the hypothetical rectangular. Cfrp and Tfrp are the compressive and tensile forces of
2
FRP sheet composite, respectively. Ah bf 1 1=B=etop =B=etop eBetop At f bf tw h tf =2
Using the proposed stressstrain relationship in the force equilibrium equation, 2 1 1
for any general section of the FRPWPC composite beam illustrated in Fig. 3b, Eq.
Ah 1=B2 =e2top tw etop Efrp A0frp h tfrp t 2frp =h 2H Ht frp =h H2 =h
2 4
(5) can be rewritten as follows: 13
Z h Z ht f Z Hh
0 0 0
Be Be
bf A1 e dy bf t w A1 e dy Afrp Efrp efrp bf A 1 eB e dy
0 0 0
Z Hht0f
0 0 0
e 2.3.5. Numerical analysis of WPCFRP composite beam
bf tw A 1 e B
dy Afrp E0frp 0frp e 0 6 The proposed model in this work was programmed using numerical analysis to
0
0 0 investigate the nonlinear behavior of WPCFRP composite beam in bending. The
where A and B are the material parameters in compression and A and B are the
micro-strain increment was utilized for the maximum compressive strain located
material parameters in tension. Afrp and A0frp represent the composite area in the com-
at the uppermost compressive ber of the cross-section of the composite beam.
pression and tension regions, respectively. Also, efrp and e0frp are compressive and ten-
For any top strain etop, the following procedure was followed until the beam was
sile strain of FRP sheets, respectively.
fractured.
The total bending moment of the general cross-section is obtained from the
sum of the moment of forces in cross-section about neutral axis as follows:
(1) Select an incremental strain De.
Z h Z ht f (2) Import the strain etop(i) on the farthest compressive ber in the beginning of
Be Be
M bf A1 e y dy bf t w A1 e y dy Afrp Efrp efrp h tfrp =2 ith step.
0 0
Z Hh Z Hht0f (3) Calculate the neutral axis depth h(i) from Eqs. (10) or (12) using trial and
0 0 0 0
bf A0 1 eB e y dy bf t w A0 1 eB e y dy error method.
0 0
(4) Calculate the total bending moment M(i) from Eqs. (11) or (13).
A0frp Efrp 0frp H h t0frp =2
e 7 (5) Calculate the curvature of the cross-section (curvature = strain/depth to
neutral axis).
Using the assumption of the preservation of plane section in the composite
(6) Record (j(i), M(i)) as one point of the momentcurvature relationship of the
beam, a linear relationship can be written between the strain of any arbitrary point
WPCFRP composite beam.
and that of the farthest compressive ber etop as follows:
(7) Calculate the cumulative values of the strain in the current iteration e(i+1) as
etop y
e 8 the sum of the cumulative values in the previous step e(i), and De in the cur-
h
rent step e(i+1) = e(i) + De.
where y in Eqs. (6)(8) is the distance of the arbitrary point to the neutral axis of (8) Go to the next step and then, repeat steps (1)(7).
cross-section.
According to the tested area section in this paper indicated in Fig. 3a, the FRP
The iteration is stopped when the maximum strain of WPC in compression or
sheet was used only in the tensile region and the cross-section of the WPC beam
FRP in tension is reached. After obtaining the momentcurvature relationship, the
is symmetrical about its centerline. Therefore, the following relation can be applied:
loaddisplacement relationship of the composite beam can be obtained following
0
Afrp 0; bf bf ; tf t0f 9 the application of the curvature-area method (second moment area theorem). In
this method, by selecting an incremental load in any iteration and knowing the cur-
Substituting Eqs. (8) and (9) into Eqs. (6) and (7), integrating, and then simpli- vature of all points of the composite beam, and then calculating the moment area of
fying, we obtain the curvature curve of the half beam round the support point, the loaddisplace-
ment relationship is obtained.
A0 bf A0 tw Abf Atw etop t f B0 B Ah A0 H A0 hetop tw B0 B
0
A0 B AB0 ht w ht w bf AB0 ehtf Betop =h A0 BeHhtf B etop =h
2.4. Experimental procedure of beam tests
0 Betop 0 HhB0 etop =h
hbf AB e BA e Efrp A0frp H h t frp =2e 2 0
top BB =h 0 10
Twenty-one samples were tested to determine their exural characteristics.
M Ahbf t w h h=B=etop tf =B=etop eBetop 1tf =h Three of the beams considered were un-reinforced WPC beams and the others were
0 reinforced with varying layers of CFRP and GFRP. Wood plastic beams were rein-
A0 htf h h=B0 =etop Hbf tw =B0 =etop eB etop H=h1tf =h
forced on the bottom surface of the beam with 13 layers of CFRP and GFRP com-
0 B0 etop H=h1 2
0
A bf h h=B =etop H=B =etop e 0
Ah bf 1 1=B=etop =B=etop eBetop posite sheets. Information of the WPC beams is presented in Table 5. The beams
0
A bf Abf A 0
A htw Aht w A0 Hbf A0 bf
t w At w t2f =2 Ahbf 0 were all under a four-point bending test with the application of the identical loads
located at one-third intervals of the span, according to the ASTM D198-94 [33] stan-
1 2 1 1 2 2 2
A0 t w Ht f A0 Hh Ah A0 H2 A0 h Ah =B2 =e2top A0 h =B02 =e2top tw dard. ASTM D 198-94 is a standard test method which was utilized to determine the
2 2 2
properties of the wooden beams. Fig. 4 shows a schematic view of the four-point
1 bending test for the hybrid WPCFRP beam along with cross-section dimension
etop Efrp A0frp h tfrp t2frp =h 2H Ht frp =h H2 =h 11
4 used in this work.
M. Naghipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 829837 833
Table 5 15
The characterization of WPC beams under four-point bending test.
Load (KN)
A3 3 3 Carbon ber
Theoretical
B1 3 1 Glass ber
B2 3 2 Glass ber
B3 3 3 Glass ber
Experimental
5
15
3.1. Flexural performance of FRPWPC specimens
sults of the tested specimens are shown in Tables 69. As seen, Theoretical
the average ultimate load of the un-reinforced beams in experi-
mental method was obtained at 10.46 kN, while a value of
10.12 kN was obtained from the theoretical analysis. In the rein-
forced tested beams, the increase of the FRP layers caused an 5
enhancement of ultimate load from 13.90 for one layer to
18.85 kN for three layers in specimens strengthened with CFRP,
and from 12.80 kN for one layer to 18.47 kN for three layers in
those strengthened with GFRP. The increase percentage of the
ultimate load in the composite beam with three layers of carbon 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
and glass ber reinforcement in comparison to the un-reinforced
Displacement (mm)
specimens, are 80.3% and 76.6%, respectively. Additionally, these
values in theoretical analysis reached 60% and 46%, respectively, Fig. 6. The experimental and theoretical loaddisplacement relationships of WPC
for three layers of CFRP and GFRP. According to Table 10, the car- beams reinforced with 1 layer of CFRP (A1).
bon sheets bring about a considerable enhancement in initial
stiffness, altering from 6.2% to 53.6% for the specimens A1A3, 3.2. Evaluation of the failure modes
as compared to the WPC unretrotted beams. Furthermore, the
enhancement of initial stiffness in beams B1B3 reinforced with The failure modes of WPC beams un-reinforced and rein-
glass sheets corresponds to 7.829.3%. forced with FRP have been shown in Table 9. The failure mode of
LVDT
Sec: A-A
20 20
15 Experimental 15
Experimental
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
Theoretical Theoretical
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Fig. 7. The experimental and theoretical loaddisplacement relationships of WPC Fig. 10. The experimental and theoretical loaddisplacement relationships of WPC
beams reinforced with 2 layers of CFRP (A2). beams reinforced with 2 layers of GFRP (B2).
25 25
20 20
Experimental
Experimental
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
15 15
Theoretical Theoretical
10 10
5 5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm)
Fig. 8. The experimental and theoretical loaddisplacement relationships of WPC Fig. 11. The experimental and theoretical loaddisplacement relationships of WPC
beams reinforced with 3 layers of CFRP (A3). beams reinforced with 3 layers of GFRP (B3).
Table 6
15 Experimental and theoretical results (without reinforcement).
Experimental Theoretical
Sample Sample Sample Average
no. 1 no. 2 no. 3
Theoretical (mm)
Table 9
Comparison of experimental and theoretical values.
Number of Mean exp. ult. Percentage increased Theoretical Error (%)a Failure modes
the beam load (N) exp. ult. load (%) ult. load (N)
Un-reinforcement A0 10457.67 10,120 3.3 Flexure failure in tensile region
CFRP A1 13898.7 32.9 13,746 1.1 CFRP rupture
A2 17721.33 69.5 18,115 2.2 CFRP rupture
A3 18,851 80.3 22,010 14.4 Distortion compression region
GFRP B1 12,805 22.4 13,359 4.1 Flexure failure in tensile region, GFRP rupture
B2 17130.67 63.8 16,589 3.3 Flexure failure in tensile region, GFRP rupture
B3 18467.67 76.6 19,511 5.3 Flexure failure in tensile region, GFRP debonding
a
Error (%) = (Theoretical ult. load Exp. ult. load)/(Exp. ult. load) * 100.
836 M. Naghipour et al. / Construction and Building Materials 25 (2011) 829837
Table 10
Theoretical and experimental values initial stiffness.
Layers number Mean experimental initial stiffness Percentage increased exp. initial stiffness (%) Theoretical initial stiffness Error (%)a
(kN/mm) (kN/mm)
Un-reinforcement A0 600.77 639.43 6.44
CFRP A1 637.85 6.2 709.46 11.23
A2 808.09 34.5 766.6 5.13
A3 922.88 53.6 814.12 11.78
GFRP B1 647.96 7.8 674.43 4.09
B2 659.04 9.7 706.47 7.20
B3 777.01 29.3 735.96 5.28
a
Error (%) = ((Theoretical initial stiffness Exp. initial stiffness) / (Exp. initial stiffness) * 100.
1000
900
900
800
Initial stiffness (N/mm)
700
600
500
400
Theoretical
300
Experimental
200
100
0
0 1 2 3
Fig. 13. The failure modes of specimen B3 (reinforced with 3 layers of GFRP). Layers number
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