Epistemologia de Las Ciencias Sociales

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Presentacin
En cumplimiento de su misin y de sus funciones, el Instituto Colombiano para el Fo-

mento de la Educacin Superior ha realizado diversas acciones que permitan a las
instituciones de Educacin Superior no solamente enfrentar los retos del desarrollo cien-
tfico, tcnico y tecnolgico sino hacer del conocimiento y de la cultura, ejes de calidad
y desarrollo. Esto implica necesariamente fomentar procesos de formacin que adems
de articular y hacer coherentes los campos de conocimiento y sus campos especficos
de prcticas, contribuyan a identificar problemas en diversos contextos y a encontrar o
crear soluciones a partir de procesos de reflexin.
Dentro de este contexto, el ICFES promovi la creacin del Programa de Especializacin

en teora, mtodos y tcnicas de investigacin social, ofrecido en la actualidad por cinco
universidades pblicas a saber: Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad del Valle, Universi-
dad Industrial de Santander, Universidad de Cartagena y Universidad Pedaggica Nacio-
nal, las cuales atendieron el reto propuesto por el Instituto y despus de siete aos de
iniciado el programa, en conjunto han graduado ms de 300 especialistas.
La estructura temtica de esta serie de Investigacin Social la constituyen siete mdulos

orientados al desarrollo de competencias para la apropiacin de metodologas y tcnicas
de investigacin fundamentadas por las teoras que enmarcan las ciencias sociales. Los
primeros cuatro mdulos ofrecen elementos que permiten profundizar e indagar sobre el
objeto y los procesos de conocimiento en las Ciencias Sociales, las principales escuelas
que han surgido a travs de los tiempos y las diferentes perspectivas de anlisis que
conducen a la comprensin de los hechos sociales. Los tres ltimos mdulos orientan la
aplicacin de estas ciencias en el campo de la investigacin educativa, la evaluacin y el
estudio de localidades.
Dada la pertinencia y vigencia de esta serie y aprovechando el desarrollo de las tecnolo-

gas de informacin y comunicacin que nos permite una socializacin ms amplia y gil
de sus contenidos, la presentamos hoy en formato CD ROM con la expectativa que esta
estrategia de aprendizaje sea aprovechada por un mayor nmero de profesores y estu-
diantes de las instituciones de educacin superior del pas.
DANIEL BOGOYA M.
Director General ICFES
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En trminos generales, la epistemologa se define como el anlisis del conocimiento

cientfico. En trminos ms especficos, esta disciplina analiza los supuestos filosfi-
cos de las ciencias, su objeto de estudio, los valores implicados en la creacin del
conocimiento, la estructura lgica de sus teoras, los mtodos empleados en la investi-
gacin y en la explicacin o interpretacin de sus resultados y la confirmabilidad y
refutabilidad de sus teoras.
Los epistemlogos de las ciencias sociales han tratado esos problemas en diversos
momentos de su construccin . En particular, se han referido a cinco problemas princi-
pales: 1 Los supuestos ontolgicos y gnoseolgicos de las ciencias sociales. 2 El
objeto de estudio propio de estas ciencias. 3 La naturaleza de conocimiento que se va a
obtener por la investigacin cientfica. 4 La relacin entre las caractersticas del objeto
investigado y los valores del investigador. 5 La funcin final que debe cumplir la inves-
tigacin cientfica de acuerdo con el modelo elegido para la construccin de las ciencias
sociales. Las diversas posiciones filosficas frente a esos problemas ayudan a compren-
der las distintas escuelas que han surgido en la construccin de las ciencias sociales .
Si bien en este texto no se tratarn los problemas referentes a los puntos 2, 3 y 4, se

plantearn algunos aspectos sobre ellos y se anticiparn los contenidos de los otros dos
problemas. La respuesta al objeto de las ciencias sociales ( segundo problema ) ha
oscilado en la dicotoma estudio de la sociedad global frente al estudio de pequeos
grupos, es decir, para algunos constructores de la ciencias sociales, stas deben estu-
diar el sistema social en su totalidad, y utilizar, por lo tanto, un enfoque macro social.
Para otros, el objeto propio de estas ciencias debe ser el anlisis de los pequeos gru-
pos, de tal modo que el investigador pueda conocer, directa y experimentalmente, el
funcionamiento de esos grupos empleando un enfoque microsocial.
El tercer problema tiene que ver con la naturaleza del conocimiento que debe obtener la
investigacin social de los objetos que estudia. Aqu, la dicotoma se presenta en la elec-
')
cin de un enfoque cuantitativo, por un lado, o un enfoque cualitativo, por otro. El enfoque
cuantitativo buscar la medicin de los fenmenos sociales, en particular, la medicin
individual de las propiedades que se dan en esos objetos, mediante las llamadas variables,
de tal modo que sea posible la utilizacin de las tcnicas estadsticas del caso. La alterna-
tiva cualitativa, por su lado, emplea un enfoque holstico, o sea, un estudio del objeto
tomado en su totalidad, para lo cual deber utilizar tcnicas cualitativas adecuadas para
ese propsito.
El cuarto problema se refiere a la relacin entre el objeto que se investiga y el investiga-

dor. En el fondo del problema se encuentran las siguientes preguntas: influye o no el
investigador en el objeto de investigacin que, en la mayora de los casos, est consti-
tuido; por personas? En otras palabras: es posible obtener mediante la investigacin
social un conocimiento que no est perturbado por los valores del investigador, por sus
creencias, preferencias y prejuicios? Existe una ciencia libre de valores? O, finalmente,
es posible la objetividad en las ciencias?
El primer problema, que ser tratado en este mdulo, los supuestos ontolgicos y
gnoseolgicos de nuestras ciencias, est constituido por la adhesin mayor o menor,
consciente o inconsciente, de los investigadores a ciertas concepciones acerca de la
naturaleza ltima de las cosas y de su posibilidad de conocerlas.
El quinto y ltimo problema, que tambin ser abordado en este texto, tiene que ver con la
funcin final que debe cumplir la investigacin, funcin que corresponde a la pregunta cun-
do podemos entender determinado suceso social? Qu deben buscar en ltima instancia
las ciencias sociales mediante sus teoras y sus mtodos de investigacin? Como sabe-
mos, la respuesta se da tambin en la forma de una alternativa: por un lado, para algunos
epistemlogos e investigadores, las ciencias sociales deben explicar los fenmenos que
estudian mientras que para otros, el objetivo final de estas ciencias consiste en la interpre-
tacin de los fenmenos investigados. Este ltimo dilema ha acompaado el proceso de
construccin de las ciencias sociales desde sus primeros momentos y llega hasta nuestros
das en la forma en que se presentarn en algunos captulos de este mdulo.
Para una mejor delimitacin de nuestra exposicin se establecer que el trmino cien-
cias sociales se utiliza aqu para referirnos a ciencias como la sociologa, la ciencia
poltica, la psicologa social, la educacin, la antropologa social y la geografa social.
'!
Otras ciencias sociales, como la historia, la economa, el derecho, para citar algunas,
tienen sus propios enfoques tericos y metodolgicos de tal modo que solo algunos
temas y problemas especficos de esas ciencias caen en los marcos epistemolgicos
presentados en este texto.
La primera unidad del primer mdulo est dedicada a los principales supuestos que
desde la filosofa soportan la construccin de las ciencias sociales. La segunda unidad
presenta el principal problema que se ha dado en esa construccin dado en la alternativa
explicacin frente a interpretacin. La tercera unidad expone, tambin como una intro-
duccin ordenada, el tema de los paradigmas en las ciencias sociales y algunas pro-
puestas de integracin de diversos elementos de esos paradigmas. La cuarta unidad
est destinada a presentar los rasgos generales de algunas nuevas teoras derivadas de
los grandes paradigmas.
El lector no debe, en ningn momento, perder de vista que este trabajo tiene carcter
introductorio. La ampliacin de los temas que puedan interesarle en mayor grado ser
posible con la bibliografa que se indica en el cuerpo del texto como la que hemos sea-
lado al trmino de cada unidad. Nuestro objetivo ha sido el de presentar los conceptos
ms directos e importantes que tienen que ver, desde el punto de vista epistemolgico,
con las respuestas que, desde mediados del siglo pasado, han dado los principales
constructores a la pregunta central de cul debe ser la caracterstica final que deben
tener las ciencias sociales.
LA SOCIOLOGA DE LAS CIENCIAS. UNA NOTA A LA SEGUNDA PARTE
Con antecedentes lejanos en Marx, Engels y Durkheim y, ms recientemente, en Merton

y otros autores, se ha desarrollado la sociologa de las ciencias, que complementa, en
varios aspectos, el tratamiento que la epistemologa hace de esas disciplinas. Bunge,
que tambin ha escrito sobre esa materia, se refiere, de manera controversial en algunas
calificaciones, a diferentes corrientes que se dan en la sociologa de la ciencia como
podemos apreciarlo en la cita que sigue:
Desde el decenio de 1960 han venido surgiendo nuevas orientaciones en la sociologa

de la ciencia. Si bien los estilos respectivos representan mltiples diferencias, no dejan
'"
por ello de adherirse a una cantidad de dogmas compartidos. Se trata del externalismo,
tesis en cuyos trminos el contenido conceptual (de la ciencia. GB) es determinado por
el marco de referencia social; el constructivismo o subjetivismo, segn el cual el sujeto
investigador construye no solo su propia versin de los hechos sino tambin los hechos
mismos y eventualmente el mundo entero; el relativismo, para el que no existen verda-
des objetivas y universales; el pragmatismo, que destaca la accin y la interaccin a
expensas de las ideas e identifica a la ciencia con la tecnologa; el ordinarismo, que
reduce la investigacin cientfica a pura transpiracin sin inspiracin, negndose a reco-
nocer a la ciencia un rango especial y a distinguirla de la ideologa, de la pseudociencia
y hasta de la anticiencia; la adopcin de doctrinas psicolgicas obsoletas, como el
conductismo y el psicoanlisis, y la sustitucin del positivismo, el racionalismo y otras
filosofas clsicas por multitud de filosofas ajenas a la ciencia e inclusive
anticientficas, como la filosofa lingstica, la fenomenologa, el existencialismo, la her-
menutica, la teora crtica, el postestructuralismo, el descontructivismo, o la escuela
francesa de semitica, segn el caso. Mario Bunge. Sociologa de la ciencia . Buenos
Aires: Ediciones Siglo Veinte, 1993, pp. 17 -18)
Finalmente, la cuarta unidad del mdulo est dedicada a diversos temas y problemas
especficos que se dan en el campo de la investigacin social propiamente tal, todos
relacionados ms o menos directamente con los paradigmas expuestos en las anteriores
unidades, pero, tambin, en el trasfondo lejano, con las elaboraciones epistemolgicas y
las escuelas filosficas que aportan las ltimas fundamentaciones de la ciencia.
;0%&$. -&. /('&0d,X. /(0. ),. &P"($#/#\0. -&. )($. %&',$. /(0%&0#-($. &0. ),$. "X#'&X,$. -($
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X&$]'#-,.&$/]&),$.M#)($\M#/,$.Y."($#/#(0&$.&"#$%&'()\*#/,$.-&.&$"&/#,)./('")&g#-,-
MX&0%&.,.']/b,$.-&.),$./],)&$.0(.&P#$%&.,/&"%,/#\0.]0R0#'&.-&0%X(.-&.),$./#&0/#,$
$(/#,)&$E..?&.,b+.),.0&/&$#-,-.-&.f]&.]$%&-.X&/]XX,.,.),.S#S)#(*X,M+,./#%,-,.&0./,-,
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-&.&$%&.'\-])(.,).X&M&X#X0($.,.),.0,%]X,)&d,.-&.),.&-]/,/#\0.,.-#$%,0/#,E
;@C%6#D(,) 1%$) '/1"$(
Al terminar el estudio del mdulo y de las lecturas complementarias que lo acompa-

an, el alumno deber haber logrado los siguientes objetivos:
1. Identificar los principales supuestos filosficos implcitos o explcitos que estn en

las bases tericas y metodolgicas de las ciencias sociales.
2. Conocer las diversos tipos de explicacin y de interpretacin que se utilizan en las

ciencias sociales.
3. Diferenciar los principales paradigmas contrapuestos que se dan en las ciencias

sociales y los niveles de integracin que se dan actualmente.
4. Conocer los principios fundamentales de nuevas teoras derivadas de los grandes

paradigmas tericos de las ciencias sociales.
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SUPUESTOS FILOSFICOS DE LAS CIENCIAS SOCIALES
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7('(.$&.'&0/#(0\.&0.),.10%X(-]//#\0A.),.-#W&X$#-,-.-&."]0%($.-&.W#$%,.Y.("/#(0&$.%&\X#G
/,$.f]&.$&.b,0.S,X,g,-(.&0.),./(0$%X]//#\0.-&.),$./#&0/#,$.$(/#,)&$.$&.-&S&.,.),.W,X#&G
-,-.-&.b#"\%&$#$.M#)($\M#/,$.&0.),$./],)&$.$&.S,$,.&$,.%,X&,.%&\X#/,.Y.'&%(-()\*#/,E.!0
$&0%#-(.&$%X#/%(A.&)./(0%&0#-(.'#$'(.-&.),$./#&0/#,$.0(./('"X&0-&./(0/&"%($.M#)($\M#/($
/('(.%,)&$A."&X(.&))($.$("(X%,0A.&0.[)%#',.#0$%,0/#,A.)($.$]"]&$%($.SR$#/($.X&M&X#-($.,.),
0,%]X,)&d,.-&.)($.(Sg&%($.,.)($./],)&$.$&.X&M#&X&0.Y.),$."($#S#)#-,-&$.Y.0#W&)&$.-&)./(0(G
/#'#&0%(.f]&.$&."]&-&0.)(*X,X.-&.&))($E.!$.-&/#XA.&0.&).b(X#d(0%&.-&.$].M(X',/#\0A.),$
/#&0/#,$.$(/#,)&$.Y.0,%]X,)&$./(0%#&0&0.-#W&X$,$.+,!-$.#,#%"/$"0-1,('#%2%1/"#."0-1,('#
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f]&.$&.X&),/#(0,0.-&.',0&X,.'R$.-#X&/%,./(0.),.M]0-,'&0%,/#\0.-&.),$./#&0/#,$.$(/#,)&$
-,'($.]0.X&$]'&0.f]&A.&0.$].SX&W&-,-A."X&%&0-&.&0%X&*,X.,)*]0($.-&.$]$./(0/&"%($
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SUPUESTOS DE LAS PRINCIPALES ESCUELAS FILOSFICAS
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En trminos generales, el materialismo es la doctrina ( o doctrinas ) segn la cual todo lo

que existe es materia, es decir, solo existe, en ltima instancia, un solo tipo de realidad
que es la realidad material. La materia es, as, el fundamento de toda realidad y la causa
de todas las transformaciones que se dan en ella.
Los orgenes del materialismo son muy antiguos. Para el presocrtico Demcrito y para
Epicuro (342- 270 a. C.) los elementos ltimos de la realidad son los tomos, partculas
indivisibles e indestructibles que se mueven en el espacio vaco. Las cosas fsicas, los
animales y los hombres estn formados por tomos. Cuando cualquiera de ellos se
desintegran se forman nuevas combinaciones de tomos. El pensamiento es una forma
de sensacin que, a su vez, es explicada como una forma de cambio que se produce en
el alma de las personas. El alma resulta de la combinacin de tomos que provienen de
los objetos exteriores los cuales entran al cuerpo a travs de los sentidos. Cuando la
persona muere, el alma se desintegra en sus tomos componentes.
En el siglo XX el materialismo est representado de manera principal por el materialismo

dialctico y por el fisicalismo. El materialismo dialctico es la posicin filosfica de Marx
y Engels. Para ellos, la naturaleza es la materia que tiene existencia con independencia
de ser pensada. El pensamiento y los fenmenos mentales se desarrollan a partir de la
materia y deben ser explicados en trminos fsicos. El materialismo dialctico tiene
como una de sus preocupaciones centrales el cambio de la realidad. Consecuentemen-
te, considera al mundo como un proceso en el cual, histricamente, se dan fenmenos
nuevos y cada vez ms complejos a partir de los ms simples, siguiendo las leyes de la
dilctica: a ) la ley de transformacin de los cambios cuantitativos en cualitativos; b ) la
ley de interpenetracin de los opuestos que reconoce la existencia de contradicciones
en la naturaleza; y c ) la ley de la negacin de la negacin, o sea, una situacin dada es
reemplazada por otra, de tal modo que lo nuevo surge de la negacin de la situacin
anterior y sta es de nuevo negada y reemplazada, por otra nueva situacin ( el feudalis-
mo es negado por el capitalismo; ste, a su vez , ser negado por el socialismo).
El trmino dialctica en la filosofa de Marx y Engels deriva del concepto de Hegel para
referirse al proceso de cambio en la historia y en la naturaleza. Pero mientras para este
((
ltimo la base de tal proceso era el espritu, para los primeros esa base era la materia. De
ah que se diga que la dialctica de Hegel fue puesta de cabeza por Marx y Engels.
La segunda forma de materialismo presente en el siglo XX es el fisicalismo, propuesto

por algunos miembros del positivismo lgico ( Crculo de Viena ). Segn ellos, un enun-
ciado solo tiene significado si puede ser verificado. Con relacin a enunciados de tipo
psicolgico, ellos solo tienen significado si se expresan en una conducta corporal. De
este modo, la psicologa es una parte de la fsica. Al respecto, conviene hacer notar que
el conductismo que admite solo los datos que pueden ser observados es una forma de
fisicalismo.
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Hay varias formas de racionalismo, como el metafsico (toda la realidad es de carcter

racional), psicolgico (el pensamiento es superior a las emociones y a la voluntad) y el
racionalismo gnoseolgico o epistemolgico cuyos conceptos centrales tienen mayor
pertinencia con nuestro tema de los supuestos filosficos de las ciencias sociales. En
esa forma el racionalismo afirma que es posible conocer la realidad mediante el pensa-
miento puro, sin necesidad de ninguna premisa emprica. En esencia, esa es la posicin
de tres de los ms destacados representantes del racionalismo: Descartes, Leibniz y
Spinoza. Por ejemplo, Descartes prob la existencia de Dios y del mundo fsico a partir
de la premisa racionalmente indudable pienso, luego existo .
El conocimiento es propiamente tal cuando tiene necesidad lgica y validez universal.

Slo la razn puede permitir decir que una cosa es como es y no puede ser de otra
manera. Slo la razn tiene la capacidad de obtener por s misma, mediante la deduccin
a partir de las ideas innatas, otros conocimientos del tipo todo efecto tiene una causa,
que es evidente pues establece una relacin necesaria. Tales conceptos reciben el nom-
bre de juicios sintticos, que por tener su origen en la razn son conocimientos a priori!
El racionalismo moderno ha tomado diversas formas, alejadas de las pretensiones ms

extremas expresadas en los siglos XVII y XVIII. Se mantiene, desde luego, la importancia
de la razn en el conocimiento de la realidad dentro de los diversos usos del trminos
()
racionalismo. A ellos corresponden las posiciones epistemolgicas de Gastn Bachelard

y de Karl Popper que destacan tanto el papel de la razn y de la experiencia emprica en
la investigacin cientfica.
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El empirismo (del griego empeira = experiencia) sostiene que todo conocimiento se

basa en la experiencia, afirmacin con la cual se opone directamente al racionalismo
para el cual, segn acabamos de ver, el conocimiento proviene, en gran medida, de la
razn. Para el empirismo radical, la mente es como una tabla rasa que se limita a
registrar la informacin que viene de la experiencia.
De manera semejante al racionalismo, se distinguen tres tipos de empirismo: 1) el psico-

lgico, para el cual el conocimiento se origina totalmente en la experiencia; 2) el empirismo
gnoseolgico que sostiene que la validez de todo conocimiento tiene su base en la expe-
riencia; y 3) el empirismo metafsico segn el cual no hay otra realidad que aquella que
proviene de la experiencia y, en particular, de la experiencia sensible.
El empirismo fue desarrollado esencialmente por una serie de filsofos ingleses entre los
que se destacan Locke, Hume y J. S. Mill.
El empirismo niega la existencia de ideas innatas, invocadas por los racionalistas, las
cuales, segn ellos, pueden ser descompuestas en conceptos ms simples que se deri-
van de la experiencia o bien esos conceptos no son conceptos genuinos ya que no se les
puede asignar ningn significado ( por ejemplo, el concepto de sustancia de los racionalistas
que es una mera palabra de carcter metafsico, pero que no significa nada ).
Tambin los empiristas niegan que haya verdades necesarias a priori, como dicen los
racionalistas. Por otro lado, el empirismo acepta los juicios sintticos a priori, pero basa-
dos en la experiencia, a diferencia de los racionalistas para quienes eso, juicios seran
verdades autoevidentes, vlidos con independencia de la experiencia.
Finalmente, el empirismo rechaza toda metafsica y, de manera inversa, da a la ciencia

un alto valor como medio superior de adquirir conocimientos.
(!
Una parte importante de la investigacin en ciencias sociales tiene bases en algunos

supuestos principales del empirismo, desde luego, el valor dado a la experiencia como
origen del conocimiento y como ltima instancia de contrastacin de las teoras. Pero,
justamente, en cuanto reconoce que la ciencia est compuestas de teoras, el empirismo
cientfico reconoce el papel de la razn en la prctica cientfica y en el desarrollo de la
ciencia. En tal posicin se puede clasificar al socilogo francs Emile Durkheim que
para sus opositores es uno de los ms destacados empiristas dentro de las ciencias
sociales, como lo es tambin para ellos un positivista, en cuanto a la importancia dada al
mtodo de las ciencias naturales en la investigacin social.
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De igual manera que en las otras escuelas filosficas, es posible distinguir varios tipos de
realismo. Como realismo metafsico, el termino realismo fue utilizado por primera vez
para designar la posicin segn la cual las ideas generales o universales, como se deca
entonces, tienen existencia real, independientes de ser pensadas o no. Como realismo
gnoseolgico afirma que el conocimiento es posible sin necesidad de que la conciencia
imponga sus propias categoras a la realidad. Dentro de esta corriente se encuentran
filsofos y epistemlogos como Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore y Mario Bunge, en nues-
tros tiempos. Todos ellos se oponen a toda forma de idealismo.
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LECTURAS COMPLEMENTARIAS
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Tomada de: Mario Bunge. La investigacin cientfica.

Barcelona: Ediciones Ariel, 1969, pgs. 208-230, 240-244.
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Madrid: MacGraw-Hill, 1993, pgs. 364-369-372-375-379-380-384-391.
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El autor
El autor de este texto es el profesor Guillermo Briones socilogo de la educacin quien

ha desempeado labores docentes y de investigacin en las universidades de Chile,
Flacso, San Marcos de Lima, Nacional de Colombia, Pedaggica Nacional de Colombia,
entre otras. Ha sido profesor visitante en los Programas de Doctorado en Educacin en
las Universidades Catlica de Chile, Universidad Metropolitana de Ciencias de la Educacin,
de Santiago de Chile y en la Universidad de Extremadura de Espaa.
El profesor Briones ha sido Asesor Tcnico Principal de la UNESCO durante 12 aos con
funciones en la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, de Lima y en el Ministerio de
Educacin de Colombia. Tambin se ha desempeado como consultor internacional de
CEPAL, UNESCO, UNICEF, IDRC y SECAB con misiones en varios pases de Amrica
Latina y consultor del Ministerio de Educacin y del Consejo Superior de Chile.
Ha realizado numerosas investigaciones en el campo de la sociologa de la educacin y

de evaluacin de sistemas y programas de educacin y salud comunitaria.
Entre sus libros principales se encuentran: La evaluacin interactiva, Mtodos y tcnicas

de investigacin para las ciencias sociales, evaluacin de programas sociales, Mtodos
y tcnicas de investigacin para la educacin y las ciencias sociales, Formacin de
docentes en investigacin educativa, Preparacin y evaluacin de proyectos educativos
y filosofa y Teora de las ciencias sociales. Cada uno de esos textos tiene tres y ms
ediciones.
Actualmente es profesor de la Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Chile

y profesor emrito de la misma institucin. Es tambin Director del Centro Iberoamericano
de Educacin a Distancia (CIEDIS).

Epistemologia de Las Ciencias Sociales

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La estructura temtica de esta serie de Investigacin Social la constituyen siete mdulos

Dada la pertinencia y vigencia de esta serie y aprovechando el desarrollo de las tecnolo-

En trminos generales, la epistemologa se define como el anlisis del conocimiento

Si bien en este texto no se tratarn los problemas referentes a los puntos 2, 3 y 4, se

El cuarto problema se refiere a la relacin entre el objeto que se investiga y el investiga-

LA SOCIOLOGA DE LAS CIENCIAS. UNA NOTA A LA SEGUNDA PARTE

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3. Diferenciar los principales paradigmas contrapuestos que se dan en las ciencias

4. Conocer los principios fundamentales de nuevas teoras derivadas de los grandes

En trminos generales, el materialismo es la doctrina ( o doctrinas ) segn la cual todo lo

En el siglo XX el materialismo est representado de manera principal por el materialismo

La segunda forma de materialismo presente en el siglo XX es el fisicalismo, propuesto

Hay varias formas de racionalismo, como el metafsico (toda la realidad es de carcter

El conocimiento es propiamente tal cuando tiene necesidad lgica y validez universal.

El racionalismo moderno ha tomado diversas formas, alejadas de las pretensiones ms

racionalismo. A ellos corresponden las posiciones epistemolgicas de Gastn Bachelard

El empirismo (del griego empeira = experiencia) sostiene que todo conocimiento se

De manera semejante al racionalismo, se distinguen tres tipos de empirismo: 1) el psico-

Finalmente, el empirismo rechaza toda metafsica y, de manera inversa, da a la ciencia

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