Impacts of Colonization

Colonialism
The Contemporary Impacts of Indigenous People
Rufaro Muzorewa
5/14/2017
Professor Jeff Toole
ENG3U1-10
Muzorewa: Colonialism: The Contemporary Impacts on Indigenous People
Table of Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................................3
Preface..........................................................................................................................................4-5
1. Introduction..........................................................................................................................6-12
1.1. The Significance of Colonizations Impact on Indigenous Peoples..........................6-7
1.2. Background of Current Impacts of Colonialism on Native.....................................7-10
1.3. Renowned Expert: Cyndy Baskin.........................................................................11-12
2. The Logistics Behind Colonization....................................................................................13-18
2.1. Role of Control......................................................................................................13-15
2.2. Logic of Evil..........................................................................................................13-16
2.2.1. The Role of Politics...................................................................................17
3. Case Studies........................................................................................................................18-38
3.1. India.......................................................................................................................18-24
3.2. Ireland....................................................................................................................24-27
3.3. South Africa...........................................................................................................27-32
3.4. Canada...................................................................................................................32-38
4. Intl Organizations...............................................................................................................39-43
4.1. Assembly of First Nations (AFN).........................................................................39-40
4.2. United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)......40-41
4.3. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA).................................41-43
5. Solutions.............................................................................................................................44-47
6. Conclusion..........................................................................................................................48-49
7. References..........................................................................................................................50-59
7.1. Works Cited...................................................50-54
7.2. Bibliography..55-59
Appendix..................................................................................................................................60-62
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Abstract
This research paper explores the contemporary impacts colonialism has on indigenous
people. The present issues of indigenous communities and the colonial roots of will be
investigated. Data analysis will proceed inductively, shifting from a broad introductory of the
topic, to narrow where three case studies will be investigated. The introduction includes the
significance of why the colonial impacts must be explored to further understand present
indigenous issues, and a background of how the current issues correlate to colonialism. Next, the
work of a renowned expert, Cyndy Baskin and her analysis and solutions to the current impacts
of colonization on indigenous communities will be studied. This research paper explores the
logistics behind colonialism particularly the role of control and logic of evil. Three specific case
studies including India, Ireland, and South Africa, are to be examined concerning the relationship
between their colonial history and the current issues their indigenous communities experience.
Specifically, the political, economic, social, and religious impacts of colonialism on indigenous
communities will be explored. In addition to an analysis of the current issues of indigenous
people, organizations that seek to aid these communities and resolutions will be also presented in
this research paper. Lastly, the connection of colonialisms impacts on Canadian indigenous
people will be investigated. To conclude the paper, a summary of the research and solutions
providing where to go next in order to help indigenous communities is provided. The means in
which most the data will be retrieved is mainly through reliable websites, articles, and journals.
However, books such as Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad are also used in this research
paper.
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Preface
Colonialism is a concept that has been practiced by civilization since the 15th century. It
affects the colonizers and influences the nation that is being colonized in various ways.
Colonialism can be defined as the control of the people and region of a territory by individuals or
groups of another country (Horvath 46). The purpose of colonization is generally rooted in the
exploitation of a region for the colonizers personal benefit, and countrys economic and political
gain (differencebetween.net). The nation that colonizes another territory is called the colonizer,
and the region that becomes colonized is the colony of the colonizing power. The colonizer will
seek to control the resources and economy of their colony while endeavoring to restrict and
regulate the native peoples political powers (differencebetween.net).
There is a unique distinction between colonialism and imperialism. Imperialism is the

expansion of a countrys powers over another territory often in vicinity, to increase their
economy and political governance (differencebetween.net). Although colonialism is similar to
imperialism, the principle difference that dissociates them from each other is, the presence or
absence of significant numbers of permanent settlers in the colony from the colonizing power
(Horvath 47). During colonization, the colonizer will send representatives to the region being
sought after, and will permanently occupy the region to establish a new settlement. According to
Dr. Ronald J. Horvath, author of A Definition of Colonialism published by the University of
Chicago Press, the colonial effects between the colonizer and the colony can be subdivided into
three main categories: (1) extermination, (2) assimilation, (3) relative equilibrium (Horvath
47).
The extermination of entire native communities is one of the colonial impacts on

indigenous people. Historically, in many cases of colonized countries, entire groups of native
people have been completely annihilated or have significantly decreased in population to the
near point of extinction. The second result of colonization is assimilation which is a method used
to force indigenous people to conform to the colonizers traditions and beliefs. Colonial powers
viewed the people of their colony as uncivilized and their traditional beliefs to be savage like.
Subsequently, the colonizers acted as a donor culture and the colonized people constituted a
host culture (Horvath 47). In this relationship, the donor culture is imposed onto the
colonized communities established with the host culture, often through coercion. Lastly, the
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third colonial effect on the colony according to Horvath is a relative equilibrium. Relative
equilibrium is a symbiotic relationship where the settlers and the natives live in proximity and
there is no eradication and little assimilation of indigenous people (Horvath 47). However, the
colonizers remain to culturally and religiously influence the colonys original traditions. The
impacts of colonization are prevalent even in the twenty-first century.
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1 Introduction
1.1 The Significance of Colonizations Impact on Indigenous Peoples
Colonization has orchestrated long lasting effects on colonized indigenous communities.

Many of the arduous issues native groups undergo currently are rooted in their colonial history.
Many years of economic, political, and resource exploitation of indigenous people and their land,
have created detrimental effects. Numerous countries are divided religiously and politically as a
common result of colonization. This is exemplified in a country such as Ireland, where there is a
great division between Anglican and Catholic worshipers because of the sustainable efforts of
the British imposing their English law, language and culture, as well as the extension of
Anglicanism as an institutional religion (irishsig.wordpress.com). As an aspect of acculturation,
colonizers would impose their spiritual beliefs onto the indigenous people of their colony
because they deemed the colonys spirituality as iniquitous and immoral. Many indigenous
people adopted the imposed spirituality but many others rejected it. This resulted in religious
division among indigenous people who were loyal to their original faith and those who accepted
the new faith. Religious division derived from the perspicacious idea of divide and conquer,
resulted in colonists gaining more power economically and politically. The dissention caused by
religious differences is an apparent issue presently in Ireland and other colonized countries.
Another lasting effect of colonialism is racial division and discrimination among natives
and descendants of settlers. Colonial powers such as Britain, France, and Portugal, persuasively
and manipulatively enforced the idea of white supremacy onto the indigenous people of the
colonized land. White supremacy is an ideology that believes that Indigenous peoples must
disappear. In fact, they must always be disappearing, in order to enable non-indigenous peoples
rightful claim to land (Smith 2). This ideology conjectured that white people are the superior
race while non-white people are inferior. This provided logical reasons to why white people must
dominate every other race. White superiority for many colonizers, justified the subjugation of
various indigenous groups (Mahmud 1226). As a result of the indigenous peoples suppression in
their governmental affairs through the minority rule, a great racial division was constructed and
remains present. Countries such as Zimbabwe and the United States epitomize the colonial
effects of racism. In Zimbabwe, Prime Minister Robert Mugabe began to incite racial discord
between white and black Zimbabweans, blaming many issues the country faced on white
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Zimbabweans due to their ancestral history of colonization. Many white Zimbabwean farmers as
a result were target and displaced. In America, the racial division caused by colonialism between
the indigenous or black Americans and white Americans have currently left indigenous and
black Americans facing discrimination and systemic racism.
Colonialism has also displaced indigenous people and put them onto lands usually
inhabited and barren. In Canada, during colonization in the early fifteenth century, the land was
divided among native Canadians and they were put onto particular areas called reserves.
Presently, aboriginal Canadian especially those on reserves, often receive inadequate health care
and educational services. Aspects that hinder aboriginal communities access to efficient medical
health care are lower levels of education and income (NCCAH 2011), geography, and culture.
The dislocation of pre-colonial communities has made profound impacts within indigenous
groups and has decreased their probability to equitable opportunities. The significance of
comprehensively analysing the colonial impacts on indigenous people is a constructive method
of understanding their present social, political, and economic issues. In order to have progression
within Indigenous communities, the root cause of their communal issues must be explored in
order to achieve pragmatic methods that will aid their progression.
1.2 Background
The affects of colonialism is a global issue because many colonized countries are
underdeveloped and experience the perpetual impacts of assimilation. Various indigenous
communities are often neglected by their government and live in impoverished areas or reserves.
They frequently obtain minimal efforts of sustainable support from their government.
Furthermore, many indigenous communities have lost their traditions and spirituality as a result
of the years of assimilation which forced natives to adapt to the colonizers culture and beliefs.
Although not every issue indigenous people face currently are a result of their colonial past, a
sufficient amount of their issues can be accounted as a consequence of colonialism. In numerous
cases, there are evident inequitable political and economic imbalances between ex-colonies and
the West, who were the main colonizers (Washington.edu). To fully understand the reasons
behind this global injustice, essentially, the colonial history of the country needs to be explored:
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European colonization can be broken into two general periods: first, with the early
European explorers from the 15th to the 17th centuries; and second, in the latter half of
the 19th century beginning with European imperial expansion and culminating in the
scramble for Africa through the end of World War I. Decolonization refers to the
process by which a former colony asserts its independence from its ruling empire.
(Washington.edu)
The postcolonial conditions of ex-colonies often include impoverishment, minimal access to

adequate health care, and corrupt governmental systems. These countries are often labeled as
third world countries because they have not developed similar industrial infrastructures the
West deems as progressive (washington.edu). However, the colonial history of ex-colonies must
be considered because colonialism has setback the progression of postcolonial countries. For
example, many countries such as South Africa, have only gained their independence just recently
within the past twenty to thirty years allowing indigenous people to finally have political
influence and rule. While colonizing countries such as Britain and America were able to progress
in their societies due to a lack of colonialism, other countries unfortunately were mostly focused
on gaining freedom and independence from their colonizers. Once independence was gained
through decolonization, ex-colonies were left to deal the arduous task of rebuilding and
constructing their country that had been exploited for the benefit of the colonizer for many years.
During the colonial era indigenous people were prohibited involvement in their governmental
affairs. However, in countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe, after gaining independence
and a majority rule, the government was passed to other corrupt leaders which continued the
retrogression of indigenous communities. Colonization has left ex-colonies in economic deficit
because their economy was exploited during colonization. For instance during Congos colonial
rule by King Leopold of Belgium, the indigenous Congolese population was stripped of all
private property and forced into labor with the sole purpose of extracting and supplying as much
of the colonys resources as possible to the colonizer (scholarblogs.emory.edu). Policies such as
the one implemented in Congo, lead to economic growth for the colonizing country and an
economic stagnation for postcolonial countries. The colonial history of countries explains the
present economic and financial imbalances of postcolonial countries and the West.
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Colonialism has also made social and religious impacts that have resulted in religious
discord and interminable racial oppression. Religion was essential for colonial powers to provide
justification for the expansion of their empires in order to obtain political and geographical
dominance (scholarblogs.emory.edu). Subsequently, European colonizers utilized missionaries to
spread Christianity to various African countries because they were generally convinced that
their Christian, scientific and industrial society was intrinsically far superior to anything that
Africa had produced (Fage 322). The various beliefs of indigenous people were perceived as
inferior to European beliefs. Colonizers used this ideology as a means to manipulate indigenous
people into thinking their traditional doctrines were absurd and that Christianity was the ideal
doctrine that all people should follow as a way to become civilized. This religious approach of
assimilation demolished indigenous people from their spiritual identity. Presently, indigenous
communities struggle with finding a balance between their traditional beliefs and the influential
beliefs of the colonizers. Additionally, colonialism has made social impacts such as racial
division and colorism, that now significantly affect indigenous communities psychological and
self-esteem development. Many native people of ex-colonies suffer from an inferiority complex
that is rooted in years of systemically being taught white supremacy and the prevention of their
basic human rights during and after colonization. Currently, indigenous communities experience
colorism which is a form of discrimination against individuals with a dark skin tone, typically
among people of the same ethnic or racial group (en.oxforddictionaries.com). As a result of the
ideology that people of fair skin are supreme, presently many indigenous people of colour seek
skin lightning products in efforts to come closer to achieving lighter skin. Additionally, various
indigenous communities encounter barriers such as high unemployment rate, high incarceration
rates, and low post secondary rates because of their indigenous background.
It is evident that colonialism has made immense detrimental effects on indigenous people
of ex-colonies politically, economically, socially, and religiously. However, some Western
countries have made efforts to resolve issues within indigenous communities. Resolutions such
as Reconciliation Canada provide programs and initiatives that help indigenous people to
reconnect to their identities and become positive members of society. In global efforts, on
September 13, 2007, the General Assembly of United Nations adopted the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (un.org). This declaration seeks to establish
indigenous communities across the globe and create sustainable methods where Indigenous
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communities can develop economically politically, and socially. Article 2 of the United Nations
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states:
Indigenous peoples and individuals are free and equal to all other peoples and individuals
and have the right to be free from any kind of discrimination, in the exercise of their
rights, in particular that based on their indigenous origin or identity. (un.org)
This article significantly declares the rights of indigenous people that were previously publically
suppressed during colonization. The UNDRIP also "recognizes Indigenous Peoples' basic human
rights, as well as rights to self-determination, language, equality and land, among others
(cbc.ca). The UNDRIP was accepted by 144 countries, 11 abstention, and 4 including Canada,
America, New Zealand, and Australia, voted against UNDRIP
(indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca). Nevertheless, Australia and New Zealand as of 2009
recalled their previous stance on the declaration and have since supported it. Recently in 2016,
Canada finally adopted the UNDRIP and intends to fully support it by implementing the
declaration into the Canadian Constitution (cbc.ca). Overall, this declaration was encouraged and
supported by many countries. The impacts of colonization must be explored in order to begin the
psychological healing process and allow for the economic and political progression of
indigenous communities.
1.3 Renown Expert: Cyndy Baskin
Several professional experts and organizations have recognized that the states of various
indigenous communities to be systematically and developmentally not where they should be
compared to non-indigenous communities. As a result, indigenous issues are being investigated
and efforts to develop resolutions are arising. One professional expert in the history of
colonization and the current impacts is Cyndy Baskin. Baskin is an Associate Professor in the
School of Social Work at Ryerson University located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Baskin is a
part of the Mikmaq and Celtic First Nations and has obtained a BA, MSW, and PhD education
surrounded on Canadian Indigenous peoples history and present issues. Cyndy Baskin is the
chair of Ryerson Universitys Aboriginal Education Council and additionally, is the president of
Native Womens Resource Centre of Toronto (ryerson.ca). Baskin has made great contributions
to improving the lives of several Canadian aboriginals and educating people about indigenous
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current issues. For example, Baskin has been the co-principle investigator in various projects
such as Expanding the circle: Aboriginal people with disabilities focus on rights (ryerson.ca),
Understanding and reducing the impact of vehicular injury in First Nations (ryerson.ca), and
Inuit and Mtis communities and Understanding social work practice in Northern Canada
(ryerson.ca).
Baskins research mainly focuses on the importance on incorporating indigenous views

into the area of social work for indigenous and non-indigenous people. In an article written by
Cyndy Baskin named Aboriginal World Views as Challenges and Possibilities in Social Work
Education, Baskin addresses the significance of recognizing Aboriginals worldviews in
education, and particularly in social work. In this article, Baskin refers to four key components
that must be addressed in social work education:
Inclusiveness of Aboriginal world views and ways of helping throughout social work
curriculum; awareness of the history of colonization; insight into the assumptions, values
and biases of the profession, educators and students; understanding of the clients cultural
context; and an emphasis on decolonization. (uwindsor.ca)
Baskin analytically suggests that to improve the effectiveness of help towards aboriginal people,
their perspectives must be taught in school curriculums. As often as concepts such as anti-racist
practices or feminism are taught, the world view of indigenous communities should be taught as
well. Educating students about aboriginal issues will lead to a consciousness of the systematic
and daily problems other Canadian citizens undertake, and what initiatives students can attempt
in efforts to help these communities. Furthermore, Baskin identifies that another factor that will
contribute to indigenous peoples progression, is an acute acquaintance of the history of
colonization in indigenous communities from an aboriginals point of view. She further discusses
how it is not possible to understand any of the contemporary social issues affecting Aboriginal
peoples without an examination of the history of colonization (uwindsor.ca). Issues that are
prevalent in several Canadian aboriginal communities are substance abuse, violence, and
criminalization. Buskins states how substance abuse and violence are coping mechanisms used
by aboriginals to express their trauma of losing their identities and sense of purpose in society
due to colonization. Not only is the knowledge of the history of colonization of aboriginal people
necessary in social work education (or any other aboriginal and historical educational settings),
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but an emphasis on recognizing and examining possible bias and assumptions of aboriginal
communities is also important. This is vital particularly for public servants such as social
workers, nurses and doctors, teachers, police, and any other professions that directly affect
indigenous communities, to insure biases are discovered and ways to limit those biases are
explored. Finally, the last solution Baskin offers in order for the improvement and growth of
indigenous communities is an emphasis of decolonization. Baskin believes that in the process of
decolonizing indigenous communities, aboriginal people should be the main leaders while non-
aboriginal people should support them through activism (uwindsor.ca). According to American
author Michael Hart in his book Seeking Mino-Pimatisiwin, he writes how non-aboriginal people
must learn how to work in a new relationship with Aboriginal people, where Aboriginal people
maintain the freedom to determine our own lives, including our own helping theories,
approaches and practices (Hart 36). Hart and Baskin recognize that as indigenous communities
begin to reclaim their identities through decolonization, non-indigenous people must allow them
to make their own decisions because it allows for self-determination and independence which
were essentially lost during colonization.
These resolutions Cyndy Baskin offers not only apply to Canadian indigenous people, but
can apply to indigenous people universally. Indigenous and non-indigenous communities must
be educated in their colonial history even if their country was the colonial power or they were the
country being colonized. The process of decolonization should be correspondingly taught
alongside the colonial history to ensure the process of recovering their lost identity and complete
independence is obtained. Complete independence is needed because although legally many
colonized countries and communities have gained their independence, economically many of the
countries are still dependant of the West for loans. Baskins resolutions are strategic methods
that should be explored universally within indigenous communities.
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2 The Logistics Behind Colonization
2.1 Role of Control
During the colonial era, it is evident that the colonist had control over indigenous
peoples lands, culture, and governance. However, currently there are apparent policies and
regulations that control indigenous cultures and their developmental progression. During
colonization, indigenous people were restricted in the control of their political affairs and
governance, trade/economy, and property. Instead, most of the control and power over these
areas were taken by colonists for their own convenience and benefit. Not only did colonists
control the economy and government of their colonies, but they also greatly influenced the
religious and cultural traditions of natives. Colonists often established institutions such as
schools and laws that prohibited the indigenous communitys freedom to their own religious
beliefs and traditions. Instead, indigenous people were forced to assimilate to the colonists
religion which was usually Christianity or a form of Christianity. This is exemplified in the
colonial history of America. British colonists in America established laws [mandating] that
everyone attend a house of worship and pay taxes that funded the salaries of ministers
(facinghistory.org). Instituted laws such as the one in America, trivialized and controlled the
religious beliefs of indigenous communities. As a result, native communities currently struggle
with reconnecting to their prior belief systems. Colonists also controlled indigenous languages,
clothing, and essentially influenced native society in its entirety.
Currently, in subtle ways, many wealthy countries remain to have control over
indigenous communities. Subsequently, the lack of development in former colonies cause work
exploitation and tax havens to be prevalent issues in these particular countries. Many western
and European countries often avoid paying taxes in developing countries which is detrimental for
their economy (listverse.com). Also, cheap labour is an issue in developing countries that needs
to be addressed as it takes advantage of indigenous people who live in poverty. Work
exploitation and tax havens are only a few of the ways the West ultimately remains to have
diminutive control over developing countries. It is evident that indigenous communities do not
have complete control over their societies. However, indigenous communities must complete the
process of decolonization in order to become less economically and politically dependent on
western and European countries.
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Many indigenous communities do not have access to the right of self-determination. Self
determination refers to the right to participate in the democratic process of governance and to
influence ones future politically, socially and culturally (iwgia.org). The deprivation of self-
determination for indigenous people allows the government created during colonialism, to keep
the political and economic control over native communities that was forcefully obtain during
colonialism. During colonization, indigenous communities were recognized as second class
citizens and were continuously marginalized. Self-determination provides native communities of
former colonies to regain governance to control their local internal matters, including cultural
and social issues. Countries that were former colonies and do not allow indigenous communities
to self determine their societies, continue to withhold control and power from qualified native
people to determine their own communities progression. An example of an incident whereby
self-determination was prohibited to indigenous people is in the Dakota Pipeline project
introduced in December 2014. The Dakota Pipeline would span from North Dakota, America to
Iowa, America (usatoday.com). This pipeline caused national and international dispute among
those who supported the proceedings of the pipeline project and those who were strongly against
the construction of it. During early April 2016, protests from the indigenous tribe of Standing
Rock Sioux Tribe and their supporters broke out. Those against the construction of the Dakota
Pipeline argued that the project would contaminate drinking water and damage sacred burial
sites (bbc.co.uk). The land the pipeline was supposed to be built on the same land that was
illegally disposed from the indigenous people in a treaty from 1868 (bbc.co.uk). They also stated
how the American government is required to consult indigenous people when a decision
interferes with their land and traditions. The government of America proved its control over
indigenous communities when they declared in February 2017 that the delayed Dakota Pipeline
has planned to grant final easement for the remaining section of the project (bbc.co.uk). The
Dakota Pipeline exemplified how indigenous citizens do not have the ability to make their own
decisions for the social, political, and economic improvement of their communities. Instead the
American government who gained control during colonialism, made the decision that benefits
the American government and oil corporations even if it risked indigenous communities
physical and spiritual security. Self-determination and allowing native people to govern their
lands would have forced the Dakota Pipeline to coordinate a new route for the pipeline that
insured a safe distance away from the Standing Rock Sioux Tribes sacred lands. In various
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former colonies, indigenous powers and their control should be expanded as they are the
originators of the land and have been oppressed for generations as a result of colonization.
However, in order to determine ways to help expand indigenous authority in their country, every
citizen native and non-native, must collectively participate in extensively researching methods to
increase self-determination.
2.2 Logic of Evil
To investigate the impacts of colonialism, the concept of Logic of Evil needs to be

addressed. The Logic of Evil refers to the logistics and rationality that drives one to be a part
of or perform in an evil act. The colonial era was full of corruption but however, there were
complex logistics that gave colonial powers reasons to desire to exploit other countries. Gaining
control over the resources, economy, governance, and people of a country, provided great
dominance for the colonial powers. This desire for power motivated colonists to initiate their
colonial expeditions. In the fifteenth centaury colonists such as Spain, travelled overseas in
search of riches such as gold and silver. An increase in wealth equated to an increase in power.
In order for the colonial powers to obtain wealth during colonization, the colonys resources,
labour, and trade was exploited. Subsequently the current economic states of post-independent
countries are imbalanced and endure financial hardships. Western and European countries often
provide foreign aid to developing countries which fundamentally implements inimical economic
affects.
Colonizing powers had different objectives as to why they began colonizing other
countries, however, political and economic gain are consistent goals that can be observed in
every colonizing power. For instance, Britain was one of the largest colonizing powers and had
the largest empire in the 19th century. The logistics of Britain first beginning to expand its empire
was mainly for trading purposes:
The British began colonising mainly because of their need to trade, rather than the need
for military conquest. This is why they are known as a trade-based empire. In the 16th
century, England was a poor country. When they began colonising, it was not as
missionaries. When the English put to sea, it aimed to seek immediate profits. The
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Industrial Revolution which took place in Europe in 17th century gave rise to the need for
raw materials (skwirk.com)
Britain was not affluent in the 16th century as they did not have sufficient natural resources to
accommodate and provide for their population. In order to provide raw materials to produce
revenue, Britain sought other areas and nations to utilize their desired resources and cheap labour
to produce their finished products. In the case of Britain, introduction of European religion and
military expansion was not the primary goal of colonizing countries. Natives of the colonies
often suffered because of forced assimilation, cheap labour, violence, and oppression. Britain,
along with other colonizing powers often showed contempt towards the colonys oppression as
long as they profited economically and politically.
Also colonists wanted to expand their territory and control the trade within their colonies.
It was more efficient to control trade and grow desired crops when the colonists settled in their
colony. Nationalism in addition to greed also motivated colonialism. Colonial powers such as
Britain and France had great antipathy and antagonism towards each other due to their history of
disputes that led to war. As a result, in Europes conquest and scramble for Africa, Britain and
France wanted to surpass each other in terms of expansion and power
(colonizationofafrica.blogspot.ca). Thusly, they competed to colonize as many possible African
countries as they could in order to exploit the lands resources to increase their economies and
expand their empires. Prior to the colonial competition between France and Britain, By the end
of the 16th century France, England and the Netherlands were competing with Spain and
Portugal for supremacy (kronoskaf.com). The national competition was rooted in the idea of
how colonizing powers had concluded that their country was superior to others. This mindset
was rooted in nationalism and patriotism, and led to colonial powers competing each other to
spread their countries values and ideologies to other nations. The logistics behind colonialism
consisted of various reasons and motives such as economic and political exploitation. However,
regardless of the reasons that justified countries colonizing others, the impacts on the people of
the colony were detrimental to their development. A common consequence of colonialism was
the oppressions of indigenous people and the loss of their identity. The effects of colonialism
perpetuate into indigenous communities lifestyles presently as they face various barriers such as
income inequalities and employment discrimination.
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2.2.1. The Role of Politics
Politics plays an important role in the issues indigenous communities have because of
colonization. Throughout colonization indigenous people were prevented involvement in
governance and political affairs. The control of government of colonies by the colonist, made the
process of enforcing laws that suppressed indigenous communities yet benefited the colonists
less troublesome. The effects of colonial exploitation can be observed in developing countries
and more specifically, in the continent of Africa where most countries experienced exploitive
and oppressive colonization. According to Endalcachew Bayeh a Lecturer at Ambo University,
the political and economic state of contemporary Africa is a result of colonization (Bayeh 89).
For example, it is apparent that many African countries have autocratic governmental systems
which often perpetuate the maltreatment of African indigenous people. This type of government
system was espoused by several African countries because of previously experiencing the more
centralized and authoritarian system of administration of their colonizers (Bayeh 89). Various
African countries have authoritarian political systems because they have adapted this system
from the colonists as they recognize the beneficial aspects it provides for those in power. Also
particular ethnic groups are often marginalized and even persecuted by the government similar to
the way the colonizers trivialized and suppressed the rights of indigenous people (Bayeh 89).
However, these governmental systems are apparent in other developing countries as well and
frequently; those countries are usually former colonies.
As a result of many developing countries adopting this centralized government system

that was exemplified by colonists, these corrupt governments continue to oppress and limit
opportunities for indigenous people which began during colonialism. Freedoms and rights that
were taken from indigenous people during colonialism, continue to be violated today by
governments that exercise similar governing styles to their colonists. The violations include
freedom of speech, freedom from discrimination, freedom of association and from press. Corrupt
governments continue to perpetuate the oppression of indigenous communities and restrict their
ability to advance their socio-economic status.
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3 Case Studies
3.1 India
India is located in southern Asia and the capital city is New Delhi. According to the
World Bank census conducted in 2013; India has a population of approximately 1.3 billion
people (data.worldbank.org). The current President is Ranab Mukherjee and the Prime Minister
is Narendra Modi. India encounters various social and economic issues which are rooted in
colonialism. Being economically and politically exploited for 190 years has made detrimental
effects on indigenous Indian people that will take numerous years to resolve. Presently, India is
globally regarded as a developing country as it undergoes political corruption, high income
inequality, and although India has a literacy rate of seventy-four percent, it is ten percent below
the world average literacy rate of eighty-four percent. India was colonized by the British Empire
from 1757 to 1947 but absolute British rule of India began in 1857. In that period, the British
influenced Indian culture and politics, and enforced their own European ideals onto indigenous
Indians. These influences mainly derived from the East India Trade Company that composed of
various London businessmen who generated profit from importing spices from South Asia
(history105.libraries.wsu.edu). Through the East India Trade Company, Britains economy was
boosted by instituting heavy taxes and buying raw materials in India for cheap prices, then
selling the processed goods for higher prices. Although these economic establishments benefited
Londons financial growth, it left India in debt and having a dependency on Britain importing
goods. Britain ensured that any goods that could not be produced in India were only bought and
imported from Britain. During Indias colonial rule a major increase of machine-made imports
infiltrated Indian markets following the Charter Act in 1813 (yourarticlelibrary.com). As a result,
India underwent deindustrialization instead of industrialization which means Indias economy
and industry declined. In an article called Economic Impact of British Rule in India, Puja Mondal
explains how deindustrialization disadvantaged artisans and handicraftsmen:
Many artisans, faced with diminishing returns and repressive policies (in Bengal, during
the Companys rule, artisans were paid low wages and forced to sell their products at low
prices), abandoned their professions, moved to villages and took to agriculture. [...] An
18
overburdened agriculture sector was a major cause of poverty during British rule and this
upset the village economic set-up. (yourarticlelibrary.com)
The increase of rural workers resulted in a slow industrial progression in India and currently
fifty-one percent of Indian indigenous people work in rural areas through self-employment
(dnaindia.com). Presently, many of these self-employed workers in rural areas live in poverty
and receive low wages. Also, India shifted from being a net exporter to being a net importer
(yourarticlelibrary.com). As a result of India becoming a net importer, this led to an economic
drain for India. Economic drain is a theory suggested by Dadabhai Naoroji in 1867 which states
how the British deprived Indias economy during colonialism (selfstudyhistory.com). Naoroji
explains how during British colonization wealth constantly flowed from India to England. For
instance, this drain of wealth can be dated back to 1757 after the Battle of Plassey when the
British India Company gained victory over the Nawab Army of Bengal. Accompanied with this
victory, was a gain in political dominance for the British India Company and servants of the
company acquired, privileged status and, therefore, acquired wealth through dastak, dastur,
nazarana and private trade (selfstudyhistory.com). This was the commencement of Indias
economic drain which diminished Indias economy while helping England to progress
industrially. The colonial power continued to utilize Indias natural resources, agriculture, and
revenues for Britains advancement.
As a result, India today remains to be a developing country which still experiences the
long lasting effects of colonialism and imperialism. Before colonization, Indias economy was
the second largest in the world. Currently, Britain continues to send approximately $439 million
to India yearly, in efforts to repay for the harsh history the two countries share (rt.com).
However, this amount of money is minuscule relative to Indias needs and government spending.
It is apparent that Britains foreign aid is not making profound effects in India because as stated
by the World Bank in 2011, thirty-two percent of Indians live below the international poverty
line of $1.25 a day (rt.com). According to Economic Professor Jayati Ghosh when referring to
foreign aid, Its not that we [India] dont have a huge development problem we do. But these
are really things that we must do with our own resources (rt.com). Ghosh suggests that foreign
aid is not what will develop Indias economy but utilizing the resources and skills present in
19
local Indians will create jobs and promote education. By creating more jobs and promoting
education for Indian male and females, this will improve Indias economy long-term.
Another way the British exploited India was through political means and the effects are
evident in post-colonial India. The Indian population was dominant compared to British
colonizers in terms of numbers and population. The colonial power recognized their numerical
advantage and initiated the policy of divide and conquer as previously discussed in the
Significance of Colonizations Impact on Indigenous Peoples. Through this policy, colonizers
would place emphasis on religious, classist, racial, and other differences within indigenous
populations in order to avoid the indigenous majority rebelling against their minority colonial
rule (merriam-webster.com). This policy utilized by the British is described by Priyanka Sen
writer of Impact of British Rule In Indian Politics And Economy, as the most brilliant political
strategy in history as well as being the epitome of cruelty, barbarism and inhumanity
(academia.edu). Divide and conquer was mainly used in three different ways in India: army,
separate electorates, and the partition of Bengal and India (quora.com). Britain ensured that its
army was mainly composed of minority groups in order to avoid the majority influencing the
army. As a result, the army consisted of Sikhs and Ghurkhas. The Sikhs and Ghurkhas
demographics remain present within the Indian Armed Forces currently. This occurred after the
Revolt in 1857 where Rajputs, Brahmins and upper class Muslims were mostly removed from
the Army (quora.com). Utilizing Indians to fight against nationalist Indians that opposed
British colonial rule guaranteed division which made Indigenous Indians more weak in terms
of numbers than the colonizing power.
The second way division was employed was through separate electorates. Separate
electorate describes an electoral process where the minority rule selects individual
representatives contrary to joint electorate, where the majority selects representatives collectively
(historypak.com). In particular, the eligible minority voters often choose representatives within
their same community which guarantees wealth remaining within the elite. In India there was
strife and discord between Muslim people who were mostly located in the western regions of
India (now known as Pakistan) and Hindus who were located in the central and Eastern part of
India (study.com). Britain took advantage of their religious conflicts by selecting Hindu or
Muslim representatives depending on which community had leverage and dominance. In the
20
twentieth century separate electorate processes emerged and the elected Hindus would select
other Hindu representatives while Muslims would choose Muslims. This perpetuated and
intensified the religious division between Indian Hindus and Muslims. Hindu-Muslim conflicts
persist today leaving many homeless, forced to migrate, and 4000 murdered due to mob violence
(culturalsurvival.org). As a result of Britain placing more emphasis between different religious
groups, currently in India, there is an issue of communal and religious violence. Communal
violence refers to a form of violence that occurs between ethnic groups or shared lines.
According to MHA data, from January 2016, to May 2016 there were 278 incidents of
communal violence in which 38 lives were lost and 903 were injured (mattersindia.com).
Factors that incited these violent outbreaks were festivals such as Durga Puja. However, the
Indian authorities and police force response to communal violence is ineffective. The police took
preventative action for only 3 of the 62 incidents that were reported (mattersindia.com).
Communal violence is a direct result of colonialism implementing divide and conquer and
unfortunately, the Indian government and authorities are not taking enough preventative
measures against communal violence.
The partition leads to the final method in which Britain implemented the divide and
conquer policy. The Bengali Hindu began to become more educated and gain more prosperity.
This advancement threatened Britains sovereignty:
To weaken the group and the nationalism that was beginning to get dangerous for them,
Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal in 1905 along religious lines. Indian regions were
seldom organized by religious lines until then. There was a massive protest that forced
the Viceroy [(British deputies)] to back off. (quora.com)
This partition divided land and although it was meant to be temporary, the effects remain. For
instance, the partition created two permanent independent regions currently known as India and
Pakistan. The western region of India with majority Muslims became Pakistan while the eastern
area with mostly Hindus and Sikhs remained as India. This partition displaced fifteen million
people and killed more than a million as Muslims and Hindus migrated (newyorker.com).
Pakistan Historian Ayesha Jalal, writes how the partition was, a defining moment [and]
continues to influence how the peoples and states of postcolonial South Asia envisage their past,
21
present and future (newyorker.com). Jalal explains how the partition has left Indians and
families from other South Asian countries exploring the other potential options of history that
could have occurred if colonial powers did not partition the land. The present day conflicts and
issues created by the partition between different religious and ethnic groups may have been
avoided without the partition.
In the twenty-first century, Pakistan and India have many conflicts and have been at war
several times. For instance, the most recent conflict between Pakistan and India lasted from 2014
to 2016. The conflict between Pakistan and India was the dispute over border skirmishes. This
dispute was over which country controls the Kashmir region/Punjab. Both countries gave
different accounts describing how the opposing country was inciting hostility towards them. The
result of creating boarders within India has resulted in a continuous division and violence
between Pakistan and India.
The economic and political effects of colonialism remain to impact India and Indian
indigenous people. However, colonialism has also made social and cultural impacts to Indian
societies as well. Frantz Fanon was born in the French colony of Martinique on July 20, 1925.
Fanon was a philosopher and critical thinker who supported decolonizing efforts and struggles
after World War II (iep.utm.edu). Although he died of leukemia on December 6, 1961 in the
United States, he remains to be one of the most influential people. Fanon understood the racial
context that was an aspect of colonialism:
It is evident that what parcels out the worldis the fact of belonging to a race... [In]
the colonies the economic substructure is also a superstructure. The cause is the
consequence; you are rich because you are white, you are white because you are rich. The
governing race first and foremost are those who come from elsewhere, those who are like
the original inhabitants the others (Singh 342).
Fanon describes the political, social, and economic privileges white colonizers had over people
in their colonies. The majority of indigenous Indians had no access to the government and were
prohibited from obtaining wealth during the colonial era. Instead, white British colonizers kept
the wealth they gained from exploiting India. British colonizers viewed themselves to be
22
civilized and superior to indigenous Indians simply because they were white. The British
colonizers introduced white supremacy which states that the more white or light skinned one is,
the more intelligent, capable, and worthy that individual is. As a result, currently many Indians
who are darker in pigmentation face discrimination in school, jobs, housing, media, and more.
This discrimination is not just secluded and directed towards dark-skinned Indians, but also
Africans living in India. Indigenous Indians often face colorism as a result of the concept of
white supremacy that emerged during colonialism. In order to begin the process of reducing the
effects of racism and colorism in India, it is necessary for the root causes to be explored
(cmc.edu).
The two root causes that should be explored are suggested by Radhika Parameswaran a
Professor in the Indiana University Media School. They are the caste system and British
colonialism. These parts of Indian history are key components to explore when investigating
racism and colorism in India. The caste system described a system in South Asia where various
occupations and laborious tasks were assigned to individuals according to their skin colour.
These tasks included managing people, reading and interpreting religious text, governing
regions, utilizing intellectual skills and even difficult manual labour. So individuals with lighter
skin were viewed as upper and middle class whose designated castes were indoor tasks and
managing others (cmc.edu). However, darker skinned people were thought to be for manual
labour and outdoor tasks such as farming. The relationship between the caste system before
colonialism and skin colour is still perceived currently by particular Indians which perpetuates
colorism.
The second major component to explore when investigating the cause of racism and
colorism in India is the British colonialism. Colonialism perpetuated skin hierarchy and placed
emphasis on the caste system. During colonization and presently, European features and
whiteness is associated with scientific progression, capitalist, industrial advancement and other
various achievements. Since various Indians associate these achievements with being fair
skinned, dark skin Indians face various forms of prejudice. Particularly, Indian women are often
the main targets of colorism through mainstream media and Bollywood. Not only does colorism
play a role in media but also in employment. During Britains rule, they would employ Indians
by recruiting them for old jobs or low-ranked army positions (Mishra 731). As a result, lighter
23
skin Indians were again given preference over their darker counterparts and hired more
frequently.41 British individuals filled the higher administrative posts, and Indians were kept for
doing menial jobs (Mishra 731). While higher-ranked positions were reserved for British
people, Indian people were left with low paying jobs that did not entail promotions. Skin tone
prejudice in the British Empire allowed lighter skinned Indians to become allies with the
colonizers and form an idea that they were superior to dark-skinned Indian since they were
receiving jobs. Skin tone prejudice is apparent in India currently as women with lighter skin are
often hired more frequently for jobs in Bollywood, beauty ads, and corporate jobs. It is necessary
to investigate the roots of these social issues in order to place policies that discourages and
prohibits skin tone discrimination in employment, media, and other sectors in India. These
policies should also include repercussions if skin tone prejudice is apparent in all sectors of
employment, entertainment, and education.
3.2 Ireland
Ireland is an island that is located in the Northern Atlantic. Its capital city is Dublin and
Ireland has a population of 4.6 million people according to World Banks census in 2013
(data.worldbank.org). Ireland is part of Europe and is ranked as one of the wealthiest countries in
terms of GDP per capita in the EU (irishtimes.com). However, even though Ireland has a
relatively progressive economy and is industrially developed, Irish indigenous people remain to
be susceptible to experiencing the sustainable impacts of Irelands colonial past. Ireland was first
invaded by the Normans from 1169 to 1171, and then the British colonized from 1200 to 1494 of
which Britain claimed Ireland as a part of England (historyofengland.net). However, the British
colonization will be investigated as it is the most recent and continues to have religious and
political impacts in modern-day Ireland. Unlike most colonies, Ireland was an internal colony of
Britain which was when a dominant group of a country exploited the minority group to gain
economic benefits (sociologyguide.com). Irelands colonial history similar to other former
colonies has shaped their current identity. Presently, Catholicism is frequently associated with
Irelands identity as a result of colonization. During Britains conquest to colonize Ireland, they
intended on forming a single dominant religion in Ireland and disregarded Irish Indigenous
religions. However, this objective in reality resulted in competing religious traditions in
Ireland (White 1). It is vital to recognize that indigenous Irish comminutes had their own
24
distinct religions and spirituality before colonization. As a part of creating a single dominant
religion in Ireland, Britain marginalized and abolished the traditional religion of the indigenous
Irish people of their colony (White 2). Although few Irish indigenous religions were able to
survive colonialism, many of the colonized communities of Ireland were forced to assimilate to
Britains culture which gradually separated the indigenous from their original traditions.
Indigenous Irish people spoke Gaelic and were mostly Roman Catholic. However, the
British colonizers spoke English and were predominantly Protestants (enotes.com). Britain
suppressed the Gaelic language and the Roman Catholic religion in various ways. For instance,
they changed road signs and names of prehistoric cites to English names. Currently, other than
the names that were changed back to Irish names after their independence in 1921, many of the
imposed English names remain. Irish Catholics faced oppressive laws that included confiscating
property, criminalizing Roman Catholic worship, creating education availability for only
Protestants, and establishing English as the language of the government (enotes.com). All these
policies disadvantaged and limited opportunity for Irish Catholics (enotes.com). As a result of
these policies and laws, the Irish people faced poverty and lost their Gaelic language and culture.
Additionally, wealth was obtained by the minority Protestants because the policies allowed them
to be in the government and obtain high-ranked jobs and high-quality education. Another result
of the discriminatory laws was civic disputes which is a current issue in Northern Ireland
(enotes.com). The civic unrest is a consequence of the ethnic nationalism in Northern Ireland in
the late twentieth century commonly referred to as the The Troubles (bbc.co.uk). The conflict
was a result of the Protestant loyalists for Britain and the Catholic nationalists who opposed
British rule and imperialism in Ireland. As a result of the religious conflicts between the
Catholics and Protestants receiving economic and educational privileges, presently in Northern
Ireland there are religious disagreements with those who remain to support Britain and
nationalists.
Colonialism in Ireland also made political effects. Indigenous Irish people were
prohibited from obtaining governmental positions. The Union Jack was an attempt of integrating
Ireland into the United Kingdom on January 1, 1801 (White 4). Religion and politics coincided
when making political and economic decisions for Ireland. For example, the Catholic Church
discouraged Ireland joining the Union Jack and suggested it should pursue political
25
independence in order to oppose Britains colonial rule. The integration of religion and politics
in Ireland was a result of indigenous Irish communities rebelling against the British Protestant
assimilation:
In the case of Irish nationalism, the Catholic Church became a powerful political actor
because of its desire to resist the attempt to convert the Irish masses to Protestantism that
began in earnest in the early nineteenth century. (White 4)
The Catholic Church became active in Irish politics in attempts to reduce the protestant
conversion while secular politicians joined religious figures in attempt to gain independence
from Britain. The effects of this religious and political integration have resulted in the lack of
plurality in various parts of Ireland in the twentieth century. As recent as 2013, ninety percent of
schools in Ireland are Catholic schools. However, as demographics are changing and an increase
of secularism is occurring, various Irish citizens find it difficult to find diverse schools or non-
religious schools (theatlantic.com). The Irish government is not prioritizing increasing diverse
education and plurality in Ireland.
Social impacts of colonialism in Ireland included forms of foster care abuse,

employment discrimination, and hate crimes towards black indigenous Irish people. Institutional
and systemic racism in Ireland is a product of British colonialism and imperialism. Rosemary
Adase is the co-founder of the Mixed Race Irish campaign and support group. She is an example
of a victim of systemic racism in Ireland. In a Catholic foster care home called Mother and Baby
Homes, Adase along with other mixed Irish citizens faced various forms of abuse because of
their ethnicity. Mixed children became victims of sexual abuse from nuns and other foster care
children, received verbal abuse, derogatory terms, and physical and emotional abuse. Irish people
of colour also face prejudice in employment and abuse in the workplace. However, Adase
discusses the root causes of systematic racism in Ireland:
The system had taken the eugenics of British imperialism, and Irish society, the church,
had to civilise us. Our Irishness was an inconvenience, and society did not want us. We
were the dust of Irish society, to be swept away, never acknowledged as existing. Many
still want us, and the racism, to be airbrushed away (irishtimes.com)
26
Rosemary Adase discusses the corruption that was present within the Catholic Church and its
objective in the colonial era to teach indigenous communities how to be civilized. The ideas of
white Catholics being superior people than any other race built the foundation for Irish religious
and governmental systems to have prejudice. Imran Khan is known for publically speaking
during the controversial case of Stephen Lawrence murder on April 22, 1993 in London. In this
case a young black boy was stabbed to death by alleged five white men and the suspects were not
found guilty except for two that were eventually convicted seventeen years later. Khan discusses
how the Stephen Lawrence case remind him of the conditions in Ireland and challenges the Irish
government stating that it is inadequate in dealing with racism. He claims how there is a
shocking lack of progress in terms of preventing racism and there seems to be an inability at
Government level to acknowledge that racism is an issue (thejournal.ie). Although
institutional racism in Ireland was essentially established in the colonial era, the systems have
remained throughout the years after. Many indigenous Irish people continue to be victims of the
educational, political, and economic systems built on discrimination. It is the Irish governments
obligation to recognize these current issues to ensure each citizen in Ireland has access to an
adequate life free of prejudice.
3.3 South Africa
South Africa is located in southern Africa and has three capitals including Cape Town,
Pretoria, and Bloemfontein. According to a World Bank census from 2013, South Africa has a
population of approximately fifty-million people (data.worldbank.org). South Africa is known
for its profound natural attractions such as Kruger National Park and the Table Mountain.
However, South Africa undergoes various economic, political, and social issues that affect the
daily lives South African indigenous communities. Numerous issues present in South Africa are
rooted in their colonial history. Before Europeans came to Southern Africa, there were various
native communities that inhabited the southern African area such as the Bantu people, Sotho,
Nguni, Tsonga, and Venda (sahistory.org.za). Each of the native communities established
political and economic systems. They formed sustainable farms and agriculture, and were
herders.
27
The Portuguese navigator Bartholomeu Dias was one of the first Europeans to travel to
the southern tip of Africa in the 1480s (bbc.co.uk). The Portuguese Europeans continued to come
to southern Africa until the 1495 (bbc.co.uk). In1652, the Dutch colonized South Africa and
established the Dutch East India Company on a site that later became Cape Town (bbc.co.uk).
The company settled in the southern Africa in order to establish a site in which they could supply
VOC ships travelling to Asia with the necessities they needed (sahistory.org.za). The British then
colonized South Africa in 1795 and gave the colony in 1802 during the Peace of Amiens for a
short period of time. They finally retook the colony in 1809 till 1931. During these periods of
foreigners settling on South African indigenous lands, native South Africans lives and culture
was neglected and abused by the European settlers.
During the Dutch colonization, native South Africans were perceived as inferior to the
Dutch. They introduced laws and customs that benefited the Dutch which allowed them to
become the ruling class (sahistory.org.za). The Khoikhoi people who lived in the southern area
of South Africa had contact with the Dutch that became calamitous. The Khoikhoi population
tried to resist Dutch expansion by attacking farms and their cattle. However, the Dutch would
counter-attack each time which resulted in hundreds of Khoikhoi people killed because they did
not have the advance weaponry such as guns that the Dutch had (sahistory.org.za). This military
disadvantage essentially left Khoikhoi people with two options; move to remote dry lands where
crops cannot grow and face starvation or work as servants for the Dutch for little to no wages.
Not only did the Dutch cause these native South African communities to retrogress in their
economic state and enslave them, but they also lost much of their language and cultural identity
in the process.
Dispossession of indigenous South African land was introduced during the Dutch
colonial era and lasted as late as 1994. The effects of land dispossession of Black South Africans
are still present in black communities in South Africa.
Underpinning this inequality is a racially skewed distribution of land. Land policy in

South Africa over the past one hundred years actively supported the emergence of White
commercial agriculture and capitalist profiteering through, among other measures,
28
eliminating independent African production and restricting access to land in small

communal reserves designated solely for African occupation. (sahistory.org.za)
Indigenous people of South Africa were forced onto small overcrowded reserves where the land
was unusable. However, for white South Africans they were able to use land abundant with
fertile soil. This resulted in poverty stricken black communities and starvation. Currently, black
rural South African land differs greatly from the Free State and Cape where colonizers
established themselves years before. In the table1 of the proportions of households below the
poverty line, it demonstrates the disproportional numbers of indigenous Africans and white
people who live below the poverty line. These statistics are a result of the land dispossession
during and after colonization which advanced white people yet hindered black South Africans.
The table shows that out of the South African households that are below the poverty line, more
than half of them are African while white people make a miniscule percent of them along with
Indians and coloured people. In 2016, out of 43 million, 42 000 white South Africans live in
poverty compared to the 27 million black South Africans who live in the rural area
(independent.co.uk). This is a direct result of colonialism and apartheid that occurred in South
Africa.
During the British colonial rule in South Africa from 1795 to 1931, many South Africans
were enslaved and the Forced Labour Model was introduced. Forced Labour forced indigenous
people to work and provide services against their will under a threat of punishment
(antislavery.org). With Britains increasingly growing Empire, they were constantly searching
for land they could utilize to maintain their empires expansion. South Africa attracted the
British and other European colonizers because it was (and still is) rich in valued minerals such as
diamonds and gold. Colonizing countries exploited indigenous South African lands by forcing
natives to grow crops solely to export them to Britain instead of feeding South African
communities and families. This repeatedly helped Britains industry and economy grow in order
to be the ruling class in South Africa. Like many other former colonies, contemporary South
Africas political system was greatly influenced during colonization. South Africa adopted a
more centralized form of government and the government often marginalizes certain groups
1
Please see appendix 1. Table: Proportion of Households Below the Poverty Line
29
similar to the political system during colonialism. Colonialism also influenced the culture and
religions of native South Africans.
Missionaries built clinics in remote rural areas and provided education for native South
Africans but their intent was rooted in similar reasons as colonizers. Colonizers used the bible to
justify exploiting South Africa with the objective of teaching the natives how to be civilized
since missionaries viewed them as barbaric. South African civil rights activist and educator
Desmond Tutu once stated When the missionaries came to Africa they had the Bible and we
had the land. They said 'Let us pray.' We closed our eyes. When we opened them we had the
Bible and they had the land (globalblackhistory.com). This quote essentially describes how
colonizers and missionaries would use Christianity as a means to disguise their real intents of
exploiting South African lands and resources. Consequently, many South African indigenous
people lost their traditional religions and were forced to assimilate to European doctrines and
culture. Presently, Christianity is one of the most predominate religions as 86.8% are Christians
while 0.3% of the South African population practices African traditional beliefs
(brandsouthafrica.com). Many native South Africans lost their identity because of colonialism.
One of the largest and most detrimental effects of colonization in South Africa is
apartheid which made social, political, and economic impacts on indigenous South Africans.
Apartheid refers to the legal racial segregation that was imposed by the National Party in 1948
until 1994 which curtailed rights of black people, who were in the majority, in order to maintain
minority rule by white people (our-africa.org). The government segregated black and white
South Africans in various sectors including education, housing, health care, and more. White
people were given superior services, opportunities, and education than non-white communities.
More than 9 million black people were stripped of their right to vote and access to basic
education (reference.com). Similar to Jews in Germany, black people were forced to carry
passports at all times so that authorities could obtain identification effortlessly. Black people also
faced judicial corruption as they could be incarcerated for up to six months without any form of
hearing. Additionally, policies and laws such as Public Safety Act and the Criminal Law
Amendment Act legally allowed authorities to torture and execute any person they perceived to
be a threat. Black South Africans were prohibited from moving into the city from the rural area
unless they obtained a permit from the government and if they did receive a permit, they would
30
be forced to work in low-skill environments and factories in the city. This provided cheap labour
for white South Africans business owners and provided segregation in the workplace
(reference.com). Years of oppression and systemic racial discrimination upon non-white South
Africans during colonialism and apartheid have made substantial effects on indigenous South
African groups.
One impact of colonialism and apartheid on indigenous South Africans is income

inequality. For instance, although the average income of black families has increased by 169% in
the past 10 years, the average white household still earns six times more than its black
equivalent (grantcraft.org). This income inequality is also a result of the educational differences
between the black and white communities. Areas that have an abundance of white people often
have more equipped and improved educational services than those that are predominately black.
Another result of colonialism and apartheid is the rise in xenophobic acts towards
foreigners in South Africa. Many of the xenophobic violence in found in predominantly black
townships. These townships were created during apartheid when certain areas were designated
for whites only and black people were evicted then forced to relocate into urban townships.
These townships were overcrowded, squalid, and segregated from the rest of the white minority
population. Even today, these townships remain squalid and ramped with crime. Xenophobia
refers to an intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries or different
nationalities. Although there are many white foreigners in South Africa, the acts of xenophobic
violence are constantly directed to black foreigners:
Internalized racism demonstrates itself as the absence of attacks against White

immigrants because Black African immigrants are pejoratively portrayed by the media as
foreigners; whereas, Whites are considered tourists or expats. (globalresearch.ca)
Internalized fear is a result of colonialism and mainly apartheid due to centuries of witnessing
violence against black people. The violence directed mainly towards black South Africans
resulted in many people believing that violence against black people is less harsh than against
white people (globalresearch.ca). Hence the majority of the xenophobic violence is towards
black foreigners and not white foreigners who are described in different terms that such as tourist
31
and expatriates. These particular terms are often are presumed as mediocre or good.
Additionally, apartheid ghettoised ethnic groups creating interracial group and African prejudice.
Many indigenous South Africans presume black African foreigners of engaging in criminal
activity such as prostitution and drug trafficking, and are the main reason for poverty and the
high-unemployment rates in South Africa. The current government under President Jacob Zuma
and his party the South African Communist Party, are currently undermining the current issue of
xenophobia in South Africa. The government instead deemed the acts of violence as isolated
incidents and refused to send any military support to the affected areas (theguardian.com).
Although xenophobia has many roots in colonialism and apartheid, it is vital for the government
to recognize that it is an epidemic. They government should be challenged to begin initiating
programs and laws that will help the indigenous South African population and the white
community have more economic and political equity. If an increase in jobs, education, and
improved townships are offered for South Africans, they will lack motivation to direct violence
towards African foreigners because of the countrys economic and developmental state.
3.4 Canada
Canada is the second largest country in the world after Russia and is located above the
US in North America. The capital city is Ottawa and according to World Bank, in 2015, Canada
had a population of approximately 35.9 million (data.worldbank.org). Canada is a developed
country and is relatively wealthy. However, Canadian indigenous people often live on reserves
that are overcrowded, have inadequate housing, low education and income levels, and high levels
of incarceration and unemployment (ictinc.ca). The long legacy of colonialism accounts for why
these issues are predominant in Canadian Aboriginal communities. Prior to European
colonialism, First Nation communities had established organized sovereign nations and regions.
First Nations implemented their own form of economies, government, and laws. They also had
their own distinct cultures, languages and religions before the influence of Eurocentric cultures
was enforced. In the 15th century, Canada was colonized by first the French and then Britain until
Canada received its complete independence from Britain in 1982.
During colonialism, Aboriginals were displaced and put onto designated lands that were
deficient in growing crops and are now known as reserves. Through various laws and policies,
32
First Nations were culturally and politically oppressed by the Canadian government. Various
treaties were negotiated and implemented between the British and indigenous Canadians.
However, many of these treaties allowed the government to place First Nations on reserves:
Governor James Douglas entered into treaties with some of the Aboriginal nations on
Vancouver Island for acquisition of some of their lands. These treaties established
reserves for these nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights.
(fngovernance.org)
These reserves seemed to guarantee aboriginal people many advantages. However, the British
North America Act of 1867 broke these previous treaties and gave the Parliament of Canada
selective jurisdiction over Indians and Lands reserved for Indians (fngovernance.org). As a
result, Aboriginals whom they referred to as Indians had little control over their own governance
and political affairs. Through the Indian Act of 1876, the government was granted legal authority
to eradicate and replace Aboriginal cultures and traditional forms of government
(fngovernance.org). The Indian Act also prohibited any new treaties from forming. Also, in areas
such as British Columbia, First Nation lands were dispossessed and smaller lands were reserved
for Aboriginals without their consent (fngovernance.org). While Aboriginals were put on these
reserves, the European colonizers were able to progress their communities in Canada and
economically aid Britains Empire. However, the development of First Nation communities was
significantly hindered.
Presently, these reserves still exist and are in poor conditions. For instance, many
reserves in Canadian provinces have been under at least one drinking water advisory in the last
decade (cbc.ca). From 2004 to 2014, the majority of First Nations in Canada have reported
water sanitation problems. The province of Manitoba has the lowest water advisory of 51% in
First Nations communities out of all provinces (cbc.ca). The lack of running and sanitary water
on reserves is due to bacteria, pressure, and insufficient pipe connections. This water issue is
exemplified in the Neskantaga First Nation community in Ontario, whereby they have to boil
their water and have had the longest water advisory that has lasted 20 years (cbc.ca). Cindy
Blackstock, director of the First Nations Child and Family Caring Society and associate
professor at the University of Alberta describes how the solution to this particular issue on
33
reserves is that of simplicity; it could be alleviated by one simple promise...provide everyone a

good glass of water, and stop discriminating in service provision" (cbc.ca). The Canadian
government lacks provision of adequate services to First Nations on reserves. As result of
colonialism, some of the reserves Aboriginals were placed on are located in remote northern
areas where transportation to provide food, health care, and educational services are expensive
and difficult to transport especially during summer when lakes are not frozen. Due do the lack of
efficiency of the locations reserves are on, they are stricken with high unemployment and low
education rates which leads to poverty.
Poor housing is also ramped in reserves across Canada. For example, in the province of
Manitoba the housing situation in reserves is deteriorating because funding has been rationed to
go towards other areas (news.nationalpost.com). An estimated 2 billion is required to repair and
improve the overcrowded and dangerous infrastructure in Manitoba alone. However, the
Canadian government has a diminutive budget of 150 million for housing on reserves across
Canada (news.nationalpost.com). The improvement of the housing situation on reserves has to be
implanted promptly as the housing is only worsening as time continues with little effort going
towards improving reserves.
Not only is housing and water sanitation availability a problem on the reserves, but lack
of adequate health care service is problematic as well. On March 10, 2016, photographs of First
Nations children from the Nishnawbe Aski Nation covered in rashes and skin diseases were
released onto the internet (ppgreview.ca). A total of 16 children required immediate medical
attention and the government immediately sent medical professionals to go door-to-door to
investigate any more medical cases. Many of the infections and diseases such as skin rashes
observed on these First Nation children are a direct result on unsanitary water and living
conditions of reserves. Another health issue is mental health. In the beginning of March 2016
within the Cross Lake Cree community of 8300 people, six suicides and 140 suicide attempts
occurred over an extremely short period of time. Similar to other reserves, the conditions were
very poor and insanitary. Large families would be living in small houses at once. The leaders of
the community stated the insufficient medical service conditions of reserves:
34
The community leaders stated that, despite utilizing all frontline medical workers, they
did not have enough access to mental health facilities, nor the resources to deal with high-
risk cases or emergencies. (ppgreview.ca)
The lack of mental health services also coincides with the high unemployment rates as
professionals from outside the reserves are required to come. In additions, on remote reserves
clinical services are in long distances away from their communities and as a result, families will
often treat serious or severe health problems with drugs such as Tylenol or Advil. The extreme
poor conditions in reserves cause depression and high amounts of stress among First Nations
especially children, youth, and young adults.
The graph2 First Nations Suicide Rate Versus Non-aboriginal Population shows a
comparison of the large gap of suicides between the general Canadian population and the First
Nations population. The graph demonstrates how there is a huge gap of the amount of suicides
between native and non-native Canadians. For every 100 000 there are one hundred and two
more male First Nations that commit suicides than the general population and for females, there
is 30 more First Nations that commit suicide. Although there are programs to prevent and
decrease the high suicide rates in indigenous communities in Canada, First Nations continue to
have suicide rates double that of the national average, and Inuit communities tend to have even
higher rates (thecanadianencyclopedia.ca). There are individual factors as to why the suicides
rates are high such as depressions and chronic medical problems. However, there are social and
historical factors that play a vital part in the increase suicide rates. The Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples formed in 1991 discusses the impacts colonialism has on indigenous
societies:
Our central conclusion can be summarized simply: The main policy direction, pursued
for more than 150 years, first by colonial then by Canadian governments, has been
wrong. Successive governments have tried sometimes intentionally, sometimes in
ignorance to absorb Aboriginal people into Canadian society, thus eliminating them as
distinct peoples. Policies pursued over the decades have undermined and almost
erased Aboriginal cultures and identities. (thecanadianencyclopedia.ca)
2
Please see appendix 2. Graph: First Nations Suicide Rate Versus Non-Aboriginal
35
As a result of the policies establish during and after colonialism, Aboriginal peoples rights have
been suppressed and their identity has been lost. Colonists intentionally established laws and
policies that marginalized Aboriginals and the policies that remained years after Canadas
independence, perpetuated the oppression of native Canadians. These policies allowed poor
living conditions, and inadequate health care and education systems. Colonial settlement also
removed natives autonomy which they had previously practiced before foreign influence. These
institutional factors attribute to the high suicidal rates in Canadian indigenous communities.
Another major impact of colonialism in Canada was the residential schools from 1880 to
1996. The Residential Schools were religious schools supported by the government and run by
the church that were instituted to assimilate Aboriginal children to mainstream Euro-Canadian
culture and beliefs (thecanadianencyclopedia.ca). Attendance was made mandatory between ages
4 to 15 under the policy called Aggressive Assimilation. Residential schools were federally run
under the Department of Indian Affairs (cbc.ca). Native Canadian children were separated and
forbidden to visit their families. This resulted in PTSD within Aboriginal communities. The main
purpose and objective of residential schools was to enforce European adopted lifestyle onto the
Native Canadian children, and for aboriginal traditions to diminish, or be completely abolished
in a few generations (cbc.ca). In these inadequate and poorly kept schools, food was low in
quantity and many children suffered from diseases. (thecanadianencyclopedia.ca). Also,
Aboriginal children were force to abandon their traditional spiritual beliefs and native languages.
Instead, teachers taught Christian values because they perceived First Nation religions as uncivil
and barbaric. Under threats of punishment, they prohibited Aboriginal languages to be spoken
and instead were taught French or English. Many students experienced abuse verbally,
psychologically, physically, and sexually. Furthermore, many Native children died in the
overcrowded residential schools. In particular, at least 4,000 of the estimated 150 000 First
Nations, Inuit, and Mtis, died from being underfed and malnourished which consequently
allowed them to become more susceptible to deadly diseases such as tuberculosis and influenza
(thecanadianencyclopedia.ca).
The effects of residential schools are intergenerational and apparent in contemporary

Canadian indigenous communities. The effects include high rates of addiction, abuse, violence,
illness and death (cbc.ca). Survivors of residential school often suffer from trauma which leads
36
to various mental health diseases such as PTSD, depression, bipolar disorder, etc. Also, since
many survivors were young when they went through the Residential schools, because of the
abuse, many are not knowledgeable in how to raise families and demonstrate affection towards
family members. This results in children often emotionally and physically abandoned or abused
by parents who suffered abuse in the school from staff. Aboriginal people were also taught to be
shameful of their own culture which resulted in a lost in sense of identity and self-hatred. After
residential schools, suicide and addiction to drugs and alcohol as a coping mechanism increased.
The Canadian government should acknowledge that many of the issues Aboriginal communities
experience on an individual and community base are rooted in colonialism and residential
schools. More effort towards improving housing and water conditions, increasing healthcare
facilities to combat physical and mental issues in indigenous Canadian reserves needs to be
prioritized.
On April 7, 2017, the Regional Director General of Indigenous and Northern Affairs
Canada of the Ontario Region, Anne Scotton, responded to a student email3 request discussing
the measures the Canadian government is taking and plans to take to improve the quality of life
for First Nations. Scotton states how the government of Canada is committed to renewing the
relationship between Canadians and Indigenous people:
This renewal must be a relationship based on recognition of rights, respect, co-operation

and partnership. Through this process of re-engagement, Indigenous and Northern Affairs
Canada hopes to make real progress on the issues most important to First Nations,
including housing, employment, health and mental health care, community safety and
policing, child welfare, and education. (Scotton)
Scotton and the Canadian government recognize the colonial history of First Nations and how
their present living conditions and state of institutions reflect the effects of colonialism. Housing,
employment, health care, educations, child welfare, and security are the main aspects of
indigenous communities that need to be improved. The Canadian government plans to achieve
this as the Budget 2017 proposes to invest an additional $4 billion over 10 years, starting 2018
to 2019, to build and improve housing, water treatment systems, health facilities and other
3
Please see appendix 3. Email from Regional Director General of Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, Anne
Scotton
37
community infrastructure (Scotton). Aboriginal peoples rights and freedoms were violated
during and after colonialism and their communities remain to experience the effects. Poor
housing and infrastructure and inadequate health care are some of the factors the Canadian
government strives to improve by implementing more programs and providing more funding
towards First Nation communalities. The Canadian government owes indigenous Canadians
access to quality living as the Canadian government in the past, oppressed First Nations through
policies and laws established during colonisations such as Residential Schools. Increasing the
budget for First Nations is one act that will help their communities to develop to the standard of
living the rest of the general population of Canada lives in. As the majority of non-Aboriginals in
Canada can access adequate health care facilities, quality education, sustainable housing, and
healthy water quality, Aboriginals should be able to access these fundamental rights as well.
38
4 Intl Organizations
4.1 Assembly of First Nations (AFN)
Various professionals have created organizations, founded associations, initiated

campaigns and more initiatives to help develop indigenous communities. One example is The
Assembly of First Nations (AFN) which was established in the early 1980s and is a national
advocacy organization that represents First Nation citizens across Canada (afn.ca). The
organization works with Chiefs of First Nation communities to help in directing the creation of
resolutions to the many problems within indigenous communities. Members of the executive
branch of AFN represent a wide variety of demographics including the National Chief, 10
Regional Chiefs and the chairs of the Elders, Womens and Youth councils (afn.ca). The
organizations practices democratic methods as regional chiefs are elected by the community
every three years.
Resolutions created by AFN are based on implementing the United Nations Declaration
of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as well as the Truth and Reconciliation Commission
(afn.ca). They form resolution to insure youth life promotion, support for indigenous disabled
persons, support for mental and physical health care services, protection of the environment,
water sanitation, secondary and post-secondary education, and providing educational services
that teach youth about Aboriginal cultures. Many of these resolutions objectives are to reverse
the effects of the reserves and polices created during colonization in Canada. AFN conducts
yearly Annual General Assembly meetings were they discuss:
Political strategy and policy issues on key topics such as implementing the United
Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as well as the Truth and
Reconciliation Commissions calls to action, Treaty implementation, equitable fiscal
relations, health and wellness, governance, environment, climate change, economic
development, and safety and security for Indigenous women and girls.
The most recent meeting was held on through December six to eight in 2016. AFN has
accomplished ensuring Aboriginal have the right as these are human rights. Citizens in Canada
are usually guaranteed that their right will not be infringed upon; however this is different for
many indigenous citizens who live on reserves. AFN advocate and promote the rights that are
39
constitutionally entitled to all First Nation people. The federal government and AFN continue to
work together to ensure First Nations receive quality living in Canada because they are native to
Canadian land before any Europeans and other foreigners came.
4.2 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)
Globally, the United Nations has recognized that indigenous communities of countries
across the globe are disenfranchised and among the most disadvantaged groups of people in the
world (globalissue.org). The United Nation Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNFPII) on
October 16, 2006, released a statement about indigenous communities which stated:
Indigenous peoples around the world have sought recognition of their identities, their
ways of life and their right to traditional lands, territories and natural resources; yet
throughout history, their rights have been violated. Indigenous peoples are arguably
among the most disadvantaged and vulnerable groups of people in the world today. The
international community now recognizes that special measures are required to protect the
rights of the worlds indigenous peoples. (UNPFII, October 16, 2006)
Historically, during the European colonial era, the rights of indigenous communities across the
world were violated. The right to own their land, have political independence, practice their
culture and traditions, freedom to practice any religion, and so much more was taken away from
indigenous communities for many years in Africa, North and South America, Asia, and
Australia.
As stated by UNPEII, the international community now recognizes how the colonial
history of indigenous communities still affects their quality of life even in the twenty-first
century and will continue to disadvantage them if the world remains silent about it. So after
twenty years of drafting and agreeing, on June 29, 2006, the United Nations Human Rights
Council adopted the United Nations Draft on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). The
overall purpose is to emphasizes the right of indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen
their own institutions, cultures and traditions and to pursue their development in accordance with
their aspirations and needs (globalissue.org). The UNDRIP promotes self-determination where
indigenous people can control and determine their own government and form their own
allegiances after years of being deprived of their political independence as colonies of colonizing
40
powers. UNDRIP also seeks to promote indigenous communities reclaiming their traditions that
were lost as a result of assimilation while seeking to end discrimination, racism, oppression,
marginalization and the exploitation of indigenous peoples. However, may major countries
including Canada, United States, Australia, and New Zealand opposed the UNDRIP as they did
not agree with many of the major aspects of the declaration including creating self-determination
of indigenous communities and indigenous reclaiming natural resources on their traditional
lands. United States, Australia, and New Zealand declared a joint statement stating, No
government can accept the notion of creating different classes (globalissues.com). Although this
statement is true, it does not take into consideration the history of indigenous peoples and how it
applies to them. Historically, colonial powers treated indigenous people as second class citizens
or did not even recognize them to be citizens at all in their own land. As a result, laws and
policies that were made and some still exist today, were created and implemented without
considering natives as citizens and instead for the advancement of the ruling minority. However,
Canada eventually declared its support of UNDRIP in May 2016. It is essential that every
country supports UNDRIP in order to insure that indigenous communities are no longer
neglected of their human rights and are able to develop and overcome the challenges that are
products of colonialism.
4.3 International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) is an international human

rights independent and non-profit organization that is staffed by specialists and advisers on
indigenous affairs (iwagia.com). IWGIA was founded in 1968 and is based in Copenhagen,
Denmark (iwgia.org). IWGIA supports the following: indigenous peoples' struggle for human
rights, self-determination, right to territory, control of land and resources, cultural integrity, and
the right to development (iwgia.org). Similar to UNDRIP, IWGIA recognizes the need to
compensate native people for years of oppression of indigenous communities by allowing them
to have the human rights and access to a better quality of life. This includes access to adequate
education and health care, allowing them to govern themselves, reclaim lost lands, and reconnect
with their cultural identity.
IWGIA recognizes indigenous peoples from Africa, Arctic, Asia, Latin America, Middle
East, North America, and Oceania/Pacific. They provide informative backgrounds on the various
41
indigenous communities in countries in each region and also provide the latest news about what
is occurring in native communities across the world. For example, on March 30, 2017, IWGIA
release an article about how indigenous peoples are getting caught in the crossfire between the
government and rebellions in the Philippines (iwgia.org). The governments army and rebellion
troops risk indigenous peoples as conflicts arise in areas where there are native populations and
villages. In addition, in the mountain region of the Tingguians since March 13, conflicts between
rebellions and the army have risked native populations such as Mabaka, Banao, and Gubang as
aerial bombing land on their land cause dangerous forest fires (iwgia.org). Furthermore, soldiers
will often utilize local educational institutions for military purposes and will set up camp in
indigenous schools which poses a great threat to their community (iwgia.org). As a result,
various indigenous communities that are caught in the militarised conflict zone have appealed to
Cordillera Human Rights Alliance to help lift the food and medicine blockade as they suffer
from shortages. IGWIA who is partners with Cordillera Human Rights Alliance (CHRA)
supports them by sharing the news and promoting people to finically support CHRA as they help
native communities in the mountains of Cordilera.
IGWIA also supports indigenous communities culturally as well. They help in sectors
such as identifying indigenous peoples, informing about isolated indigenous peoples, world
heritage sites, indigenous people and education, and lastly, gender and indigenous women. As
for women, IWGIA states how Indigenous women often face double discrimination: they are
discriminated as indigenous and as women (iwgia.org.). Women within indigenous
communities face discrimination from the surrounding society but also within their own society.
Indigenous women experience a variety of problems including the following:
Lack of participation in decision-making processes, lack of control over income to

sustain themselves and their families, lack of land rights, lack of access to education,
harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, domestic violence and
gender based violence in situations of armed conflicts and militarization. (iwgia.org)
Many of these problems occur within indigenous communities. IGWIA seeks to promote gender
equity and for women to gain mutual respect in all sectors of the community. IGWIA recognizes
that women should have the right to make decisions in land and resources and
infrastructure/building projects. Although traditions of particular indigenous communities may
42
infringe on women rights due to their values and beliefs, IGWIA advocates for womens rights
by promoting discussions and gradual change of aspects of their traditions that appear to violate
womens rights (iwgia.org). IGWIA also acknowledges the education gap between indigenous
communities and the conventional population. The organization demonstrates that there are
problems within the school systems including the curriculum ignoring indigenous history and
cultures, not providing education in indigenous languages, poor infrastructure of schools, many
non-indigenous teacher lack cultural training to understand indigenous values, and elders are not
included in the direction of educational objectives. IGWIA supports UNDRIP in particular in
relations to education in articles 11, 14, and 15 which generally discuss indigenous peoples right
to access high-quality education and promote the empowerment of indigenous youth (iwgia.org).
43
5 Solutions
Resolving issues that have been created as a result of years and years of oppression and
exploitation will extensively take time to fully reverse. Issues indigenous people experience
differ from country to country and region to region. There is no one simple answer that will
speedily resolve the many developmental issues within their communities. Indigenous people
face numerous interrelated issues including: foremost dealing with the legacies of their countrys
colonial history, second, placing emphasis on working towards the decolonization on legislation
and relations with indigenous communities, and thirdly, decolonizing the mindset, education
system, and the indigenous peoples identities (ideas-idees.ca). There must be methods initiated
by governments and citizens to resolve these issues. These methods include educating native and
non-native people about native history and culture from an indigenous perspective, and including
how many of the issues they currently experience are related to their colonial history. This form
of education should be made mandatory and should be incorporated in both mainstream and
indigenous school curriculums. More emphasis should be put onto colonialism because it is a
major cause for the many challenges indigenous people undergo. Populations will be able to take
action when they are informed and educated about these issues. Not only do the history and
present issues need to be taught, but also the culture and various types of achievements within
the indigenous communities. Educating indigenous and non-indigenous populations about the
culture and the intellectual success that has been achieved in native communities will allow
students to see that they are a group who have developmental potential and are not helpless.
The decolonization process should be implemented to decolonize legislation, mindsets of

indigenous people and their identity. Laws and policies that were established during colonialism
to exploit and oppress indigenous communities need to be completely abolished and financial
compensations should be given to natives as repercussion for those particular laws. Additionally,
it is vital to allow indigenous communities to take their own approach of how they believe their
issues should be resolved:
First Nation communities and individuals can resolve their own issues by focusing on
community development, and by strengthening processes of decolonization, self-
determination and citizenship...The development of Canada was, and must continue to be,
a partnership with First Nations. Equitable sharing of resources and economic
44
development, education, health and well-being are what the elders and Indigenous
leadership understand as integral to these agreements. (ideas-idees.ca)
Although this statement refers to the resolutions for Canadian indigenous communities issues,
these approaches universally apply to indigenous communities globally. Essentially, the
government and indigenous communities should work in cooperation to ensure fair governance
which was deprived of during colonization. For indigenous people to progress politically, self
determination is an important aspect for their communities to freely exercise. As stated in the
Charter of the United Nations and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, All
peoples have the rights of self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their
political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development (iwgia.org).
Self-determination allows indigenous people to gain their independence and own governance
that was taken from them by colonial powers by denying their right to vote and partake in any
governmental positions. Issues such as insufficient water supply and quality, housing and income
gaps between the general population and indigenous people should mainly be resolved by the
indigenous population of informed elders and the educated. As a result of many indigenous
people being geographically isolated, the government should prioritize and increase funding
money in order to supply the required services for important sectors such as health care
(including mental health) and education. The government should also aid in allowing indigenous
people to own lands that legally belong to them, without intervention by larger corporations and
projects.
Additionally, the non-indigenous population can also contribute to the development and
decolonization process of indigenous communities. The general population can support natives
in the healing process by continuing to learn about the experience of Aboriginal people in order
to promote mutual understanding and respect (socialjustice.org). It is vital for non-indigenous
people to be educated in the history of indigenous people. This education should include the rich
cultures that existed within indigenous populations, the influence and eradication of traditions
during colonialism, and how their cultures have changed presently including the identity natives
now have as a product of colonial influence. As the non-indigenous community becomes
informed on this subject, their ability to empathize and identify with indigenous populations will
improve. Furthermore, allowing non-indigenous people to be educated on indigenous issues
45
increases the amount of activists that willingly want to use their skills and educational abilities to
cause social and political change in native communities. Expert Jeffrey Cyr, discussed initiatives
non-indigenous people can take in order to support indigenous communities:
Build healthy communities and relationships that foster reconciliation. Recognize the
contributions of your Aboriginal neighbours, get involved in aboriginal community
events, and ensure that aboriginal peoples are included in broader community
conversations and events. (theglobeandmail.com)
Cyr emphasises how inclusiveness is important in reconciling the relationship between these two
communities which was broken for numerous years. Issues that are predominant in indigenous
populations are issues of the entire country as every indigenous individual is an important citizen
to the general population. Therefore, indigenous people should be included and encouraged to be
a part of large conversations and events on issues that not only pertain to indigenous people, but
other people from different cultures and countries. Cyr also recognizes the significance of
becoming acquainted with the various contributions indigenous people have made throughout
history to present day. Non-indigenous people should become aware of these many achievements
natives have contributed for the political, economical, and social well-being of the nation in the
general and indigenous population. Another expert, Sean McCormick, CEO and founder of
Manitobah Mukluks, offers a different approach on ways non-indigenous can support indigenous
communities through financially supporting indigenous businesses:
Buying aboriginal is a great way for Canadians to help correct the course of history and
the future. For instance, instead of buying from companies that appropriate aboriginal
designs, vote with your dollars to support aboriginal-owned businesses that share their
success and build capacity in the aboriginal community, while creating a new class of
entrepreneurs who provide aboriginal youth with new visions for the future.
(theglobeandmail.com)
McCormick suggests that supporting aboriginal base businesses and companies will sufficiently
help in the progression of indigenous communities along with mending the relationships between
non-indigenous and indigenous populations. Supporting native owned businesses such as First
Nations Bank and Manitobah Mukluks, are effective ways of encouraging youth in
46
entrepreneurship which in return, provide youth with aspiration that can decrease the suicidal
rates within the native population. Many indigenous people have skills that can be used to benefit
other non-indigenous consumers; however, they need the financial support from the general
population and the government. As non-indigenous people choose to put their money towards
buying from native businesses, these native businesses will be able to employ more indigenous
people and also become franchised to other areas off of reserves and indigenous populations.
Ultimately, as the development of indigenous communitys progress with increased employment,
and accessibility to adequate healthcare and education services, the mental health of the
community will correspondingly improve with lower rates of suicides and depression.
47
6 Conclusion
Colonialism throughout history has influenced numerous countries around the world in
South and North America, Asia, Africa and more. Colonial powers sought to exploit the lands
and labour of natives to expand their own empire and support their own financial needs.
However, religion and spreading Christianity to uncivilized nations was often used as a means
of justifying their underlying reasons to want to overuse indigenous resources. Unfortunately in
colonialism, despite colonial powers such as Britain, France, and America benefiting from
colonization, indigenous people were the ones who were displaced, oppressed, and essentially
ignored by the general population. Indigenous traditions and spirituality was trivialized and
destroyed, and assimilation to become more Eurocentric was initiated. Natives were forcibly
displaced from their lands onto reserves and designated areas where the land was barren.
Subsequently, they were forced to leave their families to work in the cities for colonial settlers
who paid minuscule amounts of wages. As a result, indigenous population became poverty
stricken in overcrowded reserves, enduring housing and employment discrimination, while
attempting to maintain their traditions that were minimized by colonial powers. Indigenous
people were suppressed of their right to vote and partake in any political decisions that affected
their own community. It is evident that numerous years of exploitation and oppression caused
detrimental effects on indigenous communities that remain presently.
Many indigenous communities remain on these designated lands and reserves that are
often isolated from the general population. Governments fail to provide means of transportation
and professionals to provide integral services such as health care and education. Consequently,
indigenous people currently suffer from various mental health diseases and do not pursue post-
secondary education. This contributes to the high unemployment rate in indigenous communities
as well. Also, there are large gaps between indigenous and non-indigenous people in terms of
income and housing. This is exemplified in South Africa where more black South Africans are
earning exceptionally less than white South Africans. Additionally, infrastructure and water
quality are in extreme poor conditions on reserves where indigenous communities were placed
during colonization. For instance, in Canada First Nation communities are constantly under
water quality watches and live in houses that are not maintained and dangerous to live in. Apart
from economic and political effects, indigenous communities also face social impacts as well.
48
Many natives consciously and subconsciously remain to believe in the false idea of white
supremacy that was instilled during colonization. This is apparent in racial discrimination that is
evident in employment, entertainment, child care systems and more. Also, indigenous people
struggle with their identity as a direct result of the assimilation they underwent during
colonization. Colonization made countless impacts on indigenous societies that were more
detrimental than beneficial. However, there remains to be potential for indigenous people to
further develop their communities. Through decolonization and support from the government
and general population, indigenous communities can reverse the economic and political effects
of colonization. However, this process will not be achieved effortlessly, and will take numerous
years and money to begin. With effort of the government, general population, and most
importantly indigenous communities, the impacts colonization made will become less apparent
in native populations. As more people become more informed on natives history and present
issues, the healing process of indigenous communities can truly begin.
49
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59
Appendix
1. Proportions of households below the poverty line:
African Coloured Indian White
1989 51% 29% 6% 3%
1993 50% 26% 8% 3%
1996 57% 22% 9% 3%
1997 55% 21% 6% 4%
2001 62% 29% 11% 4%
2. First Nations Suicide Rate Versus the Non-Aboriginal Population
60
61
3. Email from Regional Director General of Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada,
Anne Scotton.
62

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Colonialism

The Contemporary Impacts of Indigenous People

There is a unique distinction between colonialism and imperialism. Imperialism is the

The extermination of entire native communities is one of the colonial impacts on

1.1 The Significance of Colonizations Impact on Indigenous Peoples

Colonization has orchestrated long lasting effects on colonized indigenous communities.

The postcolonial conditions of ex-colonies often include impoverishment, minimal access to

1.3 Renown Expert: Cyndy Baskin

Baskins research mainly focuses on the importance on incorporating indigenous views

2 The Logistics Behind Colonization

2.1 Role of Control

2.2 Logic of Evil

To investigate the impacts of colonialism, the concept of Logic of Evil needs to be

2.2.1. The Role of Politics

As a result of many developing countries adopting this centralized government system

Social impacts of colonialism in Ireland included forms of foster care abuse,

3.3 South Africa

Underpinning this inequality is a racially skewed distribution of land. Land policy in

eliminating independent African production and restricting access to land in small

One impact of colonialism and apartheid on indigenous South Africans is income

Internalized racism demonstrates itself as the absence of attacks against White

reserves is that of simplicity; it could be alleviated by one simple promise...provide everyone a

The effects of residential schools are intergenerational and apparent in contemporary

This renewal must be a relationship based on recognition of rights, respect, co-operation

4.1 Assembly of First Nations (AFN)

Various professionals have created organizations, founded associations, initiated

4.2 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)

4.3 International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)

International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA) is an international human

Lack of participation in decision-making processes, lack of control over income to

The decolonization process should be implemented to decolonize legislation, mindsets of

7.1 Works Cited

Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 May 2017.

05 Apr. 2015. Web. 13 May 2017.

Aug. 2012. Web. 05 Apr. 2017. <https://www.rt.com/news/india-independence-britain-

Identity: Repression, Reemergence, and Divergence." tudes Irlandaises. Presses

African Coloured Indian White

1989 51% 29% 6% 3%

1993 50% 26% 8% 3%

1996 57% 22% 9% 3%

1997 55% 21% 6% 4%

2001 62% 29% 11% 4%

2. First Nations Suicide Rate Versus the Non-Aboriginal Population

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