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V ( ) = Q
i +
i i j
i j
Inspired by special relativity, or simply by
analogy, it is natural to consider the
possibility of spontaneous breaking of time
translation symmetry.
3 4 2
E =
4 2
at energy minimum:
2
=
3
3. What has happened here?
p =
3
= .5
The energy minima occur at the cusps, so
they neednt - and dont! - have horizontal
slopes.
4. When we add a potential, the energy becomes
3 4 2
E = + V ()
4 2
1 2
E + Vmax.
12
7. The connection between breakdown of
the equation of motion and breaking of time
translation symmetry (i.e., motion in the
ground state) is general:
L
E = j L
j
2
E L
= j
k j k
! L ". 2L
= j + ... (eqn. of motion)
k k j
E
So if the energy minimization condition = 0
k
0
does not constrain the component of acceleration j
8. It is understandable that it shouldnt be
too easy to get spontaneous motion.
Fine-tuned.
g
2
0 =
6f
1
H = ( )2
2
1
El = (l )2
2
!l||l" = l
Thus if is not an integer*, the ground
state will support non-zero !l0 ||l0 "
!0||0" = v #= 0
We will also have alternative energetically
degenerate, orthogonal** states with arbitrary values
of the phase
!||" = ve i
The superposition
!2
1
|! = d |!
2
0
!||" = 0
**The different states are orthogonal in
the limit of infinite volume (or, more
generally, an infinite number of correlated
degrees of freedom), because we must
multiply smaller-than-unity overlap factors
infinitely many times.
N
!
(x1 , ..., xN ) (xj )
j=1
N
!
!! | " !! | " = (f! )N 0 ( ! %= )
j=1
The comment (**) is also the key to why we
prefer the states to . No finite product of
local observables connects different states, so
any world of observation will correspond to a
single state:
! |O1 (xa , xb )O2 (xc , xd , xe )...| "
! (f
! )
N finite
0
( %= )
"
Thus the physical criterion that identifies useful
ground states is not simply energy, but also
observability.
l 1
i = (i ) l |l | l
2 2
t 2
with
l (, t) = eil ( + (l + )t, t)
and
1 (l + ) 2
i = (i ) || +
2 2
t 2 2
The minimal energy solution occurs for the
minimum value of (l + ). If that quantity is
not an integer, the solution is a moving lump.
is then broken.
Discussion
Were we literally talking about charged
particles, wed have to worry about coupling
to the (dynamical) electromagnetic field,
leading to radiation.
T 0 in real time?
1 2 2 1 = 2
! 2 "
2 .
1 + 2 = 2
2
1 + 2
2 = 2
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
= -.5
0.05
p
!0.3 !0.2 !0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3
Dynamics (and
Soundness) of the fgh
Model
1. As a sort of existence proof / sanity check, Id like to
demonstrate that the fgh model has sensible dynamics, and
a good initial value problem in general (not just for
f,g,h=const.).
2. The energy is
! g "2
E = f + 2
6f
and so
!
g E
+
2
=
6f f