1. Research the compositions of kidney stones: what are the most common kinds?

What are the

names and formulas of the inorganic salts present in them?

Online research indicates that the most common types of kidney stones seen medically consist of
calcium (calcium stone variations), uric acid, struvite, or cystine; the most common component
among these different types of compounds that form a primary ingredient in kidney stones is
calcium calcium stones are the most common. The inorganic salts present in these common stones
are calcium oxalate (CaC2O4), uric acid (C5H4N4O3), cystine (C6H12N2O4S2), and struvite
(NH4MgPO46H2O). Given the availability of particular compounds, we will be attempting to
synthesize artificial kidney stones (which are not necessarily among the most common medically
catalogued kidney stone ingredients) comprised of calcium phosphate, calcium oxalate, struvite, and
magnesium phosphate (as a mineral often known as newberyite -- Mg(HPO4) 3H2O).

2. Which combination of reagents from the list of available substances will form a precipitate? Plan
a procedure to prepare and mix small amounts of different solutions for a rapid qualitative
analysis. Always remember to write down all your observations. It may be helpful to create a
table to input your data.

Many of the compounds seen in kidney stones appear to be relatively insoluble in comparison to
some of the compounds available in solid or liquid form in the lab. Sodium oxalate and calcium
chloride are both largely soluble in comparison to calcium oxalate and, for a rapid qualitative
analysis, we may mix solutions of sodium oxalate and calcium chloride to see if a precipitate forms
from their combinations and mixing. Any precipitate from this will likely be calcium oxalate. Sodium
chloride, another possible compound resulting from this combination, is significantly more soluble
that calcium oxalate.

Furthermore, sodium phosphate and calcium chloride are much more soluble than calcium
phosphate in water at most temperatures, so we may mix solutions of sodium phosphate and
calcium chloride to see if a precipitate forms. A precipitate from this will likely be calcium phosphate
because of its significant insolubility relative to the other two compounds. Sodium chloride is
significantly more soluble in water than calcium phosphate.

Ammonium nitrate, sodium phosphate, and magnesium nitrate are all much more soluble in water
than struvite, and contain the components (besides water trapped in struvites crystalline structure)
needed to form it. We may mix solutions of these to see if a precipitate forms, which would most
likely be struvite.

Disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4) and magnesium nitrate are both significantly more soluble in water
than magnesium phosphate as seen in newberyite (acid-like magnesium-phosphate compound).
Furthermore, sodium nitrate, which could theoretically form by mixing these, is much more soluble
in water than newberyite. So, we could mix solutions of disodium phosphate and magnesium nitrate
to see if they form a precipitate, which will most likely be newberyite if formed.
With all observed precipitate formations, it would also be best to note whether the precipitates
formed during the rapid qualitative analyses appear to be solidified or likely to form stones either
shortly after formation as a precipitate or with some time.

3. Outline a procedure to synthesize four of the most common types of kidney stones. For each
reaction, write the balanced chemical equations and net ionic equations. Do not forget to
indicate which species are in aqueous solutions and which are solids.

(The following are for the kidney stones we will be synthesizing in the lab (not all of which are
the most common))

a.) Calcium oxalate:

First, we will mix solid calcium chloride into sufficient concentration in water. Then we will mix
this solution with a 1 M sodium oxalate solution available in the lab to produce a precipitate
that may be used to form an artificial calcium oxalate kidney stone.

CaCl2 (aq) + Na2C2O4 (aq) CaC2O4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Ca2+ (aq) + C2O42- (s) CaC2O4 (s)

b.) Calcium phosphate:

First, we will mix solid calcium chloride into a sufficient concentration in water. Then, we will
mix this solution with a 1 M sodium phosphate solution available in the lab to produce a
precipitate that may be used to form an artificial calcium phosphate kidney stone.

3CaCl2 (aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s) + 6NaCl (aq)

3Ca2+ (aq) + 2PO43- (aq) Ca3(PO4)2 (s)

c.) Struvite (NH4MgPO46H2O):

First, we will mix magnesium nitrate and ammonium nitrate into water-solvent solutions to
appropriate concentrations. Then, we will mix them with 1 M sodium phosphate solution
available in the lab in order to produce an artificial struvite kidney stone.

Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + NH4NO3 (aq) + Na3PO4 (aq) + 6H2O (l) NH4MgPO46H2O (s) + 3NaNO3 (aq)

Mg2+ (aq) + NH4+ (aq) + PO43- (aq) + 6H2O (l) NH4MgPO46H2O (s)

d.) Magnesium phosphate (newberyite -- Mg(HPO4) 3H2O)

 First, we will mix magnesium nitrate into a sufficient concentration into a solvent of water.
Then, we will mix this solution with a 1 M disodium phosphate solution available in the lab to
produce an artificial magnesium phosphate kidney stone.

Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2HPO4 (aq) + 3H2O (l) Mg(HPO4) 3H2O (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

Mg2+ (aq) + HPO42- (aq) + 3H2O (l) Mg(HPO4) 3H2O (s)

4. For each reaction show calculations of the amount of reactant required to form at least five
grams of the artificial kidney stones. Indicate which reagent you will use as the limiting reactant.
Always remember to write down all your observations. It may be helpful to create a table to
input your data.

a.) Calcium Oxalate: Per the net ionic equation, 1 mole of calcium reacts with 1 mole of oxalate
to produce 1 mole of calcium oxalate. To yield five grams of calcium oxalate, well need
(molar mass of calcium oxalate = 128.097 g/mole) 5 g/ (128.097 g/mole) = 0.0390 moles of
calcium oxalate, which means well need equal numbers of moles of calcium and oxalate;
calcium will be found in calcium chloride in solution, which well create, while oxalate will be
found in sodium oxalate that will be available in the lab in a 1 molar solution of water and
sodium oxalate. To get 0.0390 moles of sodium oxalate, well need 0.0390 moles / 1 mol/L =
0.039 L of the sodium oxalate solution, or 39 mL of it. Then, to get 0.0390 moles of calcium
chloride, we need (110.98 g/mol=molar mass of calcium chloride) 110.98 g/mol * 0.0390
mol = 4.33 grams of calcium chloride, which well mix with water and then mix with the
other solution to yield a maximum of 5 grams of calcium oxalate precipitate. Since 1 mole of
all our reactants of interest react to produce 1 mole of our product of interest (in the net
ionic equation), there does not appear to be any particular limiting reactant.

b.) Calcium phosphate: Per the net ionic equation, 3 moles of calcium reacts with 2 moles of
phosphate to produce 1 mole of calcium phosphate (molar mass of calcium phosphate =
310.174 g/mol). To get 5 grams of calcium phosphate, well need 5 g/ 310.174 g/mol =
0.01612 moles of calcium phosphate. This means well need 0.04836 moles of calcium,
which will be found in a calcium chloride solution well make from water and its solid form,
and 0.03224 moles of phosphate, which will be found in a 1 M solution of sodium
phosphate. Sodium phosphate in solution has 1 mole of phosphate for every 1 mole of itself,
so well need 0.03224 mol / 1 mol/L = 0.03224 L of the sodium phosphate solution, or
32.24 mL of it. Well then need (molar mass of calcium chloride = 110.98 g/mol) 0.04836
mol * 110.98 g/mol = 5.37 grams of calcium chloride, which well mix into a sufficient
amount of water and mix with the other solution to yield a maximum of 5 grams of calcium
phosphate precipitate. Since we need the fewest moles of phosphate among our reactants,
phosphate and/or sodium phosphate appears to be our limiting reactant.
 c.) Struvite (NH4MgPO46H2O): Per the net ionic equation, 1 mole of ammonium reacts with 1
mole of magnesium, 1 mole of phosphate, and 6 moles of water to produce 1 mole of
struvite (molar mass = 245.41 g/mol). To yield 5 grams of struvite, well need 5 g/
245.41g/mol = 0.0204 moles of struvite. This means we need an equal number of moles of
ammonium, magnesium, and phosphate (the water will be our solvent, so it likely doesnt
need to be explicitly worried about in the formation of struvite, as it will be present in
significantly greater amounts than any other substance). The ammonium will be present in
solid ammonium nitrate (molar mass = 80.043 g/mol). Well need 0.0204 moles of
ammonium nitrate, so well need to mix 0.0204 mol * 80.043 g/mol = 1.63 grams of
ammonium nitrate into a sufficient amount of water. The magnesium will be present in
solid magnesium nitrate (molar mass = 148.3 g/mol). So, well need to mix 0.0204 mol *
148.3 g/mol = 3.025 grams of magnesium nitrate with water. Lastly, well need 0.0204
moles of phosphate, which will be present in 1 M sodium phosphate solution. This means
well need 0.0204 mol/ 1 mol/L = 0.0204 L of the solution, or 20.4 mL of the sodium
phosphate solution. We then mix all these solutions to produce a maximum yield of 5 grams
of struvite.

d.) Magnesium phosphate (newberyite -- Mg(HPO4) 3H2O):

Per the net ionic equation, 1 mole of magnesium reacts with 1 mole of hydrogen phosphate
and 3 moles of water to produce 1 mole of magnesium phosphate (as seen in the
newberyite mineral molar mass = 174.33 g/mol). To produce 5 grams of magnesium
phosphate precipitate, well need 5g / 174.33 g/mol = 0.02868 moles of magnesium
phosphate. This means well need the same number of moles of the other reactants (not
including water, our solvent). Magnesium will be present in solid magnesium nitrate (molar
mass= 148.3 g/mol) in the laboratory, which well mix into water. So, well need to mix
0.02868 mol * 148.3 g/mol = 4.25 g of magnesium nitrate with a sufficient amount of
water. The hydrogen phosphate will be available in a 1 M solution of disodium phosphate in
the laboratory, so well need 0.02868 mol / 1 mol/L = 0.02868 L of the disodium phosphate
solution, or 28.68 mL of the solution. We then mix the two solutions to yield a maximum of
5 grams of the desired product.

5. Because your product may be suspended in solution, describe the set-up on how to separate a
solid from a solution.

Because we will have filter papers available in the lab, any solutions containing a solid, desired
precipitate suspended in solution may be poured over a properly sized beaker or glassware
container with a lid of filter paper oriented above it. The solution, with the precipitate, will be
poured slowly and carefully onto the filter paper, and water will eventually separate from the
precipitate through the filter paper.