Water Treatment Instruction & Service Manual: by Ion Exchange Process

Water treatment-Instruction and maintenance manual
WATER TREATMENT
INSTRUCTION & SERVICE
MANUAL
(BY ION EXCHANGE PROCESS )
Pretreatment
Ion Exchange Process & treatment
Resin Maintenance
Process Problems & Solutions
Equipment Maintenance
1
Objectives and Scope of this Manual
Objectives of the manual
Proper installation, inspection, operation, maintenance, repair and management of water

treatment plants have a significant impact on the operation and maintenance costs and
effectiveness of the plants. The objective of this manual is to provide water treatment
plant operators with the knowledge and skill required to operate and maintain Ion
exchange water treatment plants effectively, thus eliminating or reducing following
problems
1. Wastage of Chemicals because of wrong and inefficient operation.
2. Wastage of treated water because of operators unawareness of what unit produces

what quality of water.
3. Failures because of equipment problem .
Scope of the manual
Section 1 contains information on water impurities
1. The impurities present in water.

2. The various methods of reporting the impurities present.
Section 2 contains information on Pretreatment methods
1. Various pretreatment processes which precedes the ion exchange process

2. Membrane treatment
Section 3 contains information on Ion Exchange resins and Processes
1. What are cations and anions.

2. Various ion exchange resins used in water treatment.
3. Various water treatment processes using ion exchange.
4. Choice of resins for particular application
5. Operation of ion exchange units.
6. Guidelines for Backwashing and Regeneration
7. Quality of water obtained from each ion exchange unit process
Section 4 contains information on plant performance problems and rectification.
1. Troubleshooting ion exchange Resins

2. Troubleshooting ion exchange Vessels and regenerant equipment.
i
3. Maintaining and storing ion exchange resin
Section 5 contains information on equipment troubleshooting
1. RO membrane
2. Pump
3. Ejector
4. Instrumentation & Control
5. Chemical pumps
6. Vessel and Tanks
ii
DISCLAIMER
We believe the information contained herein to be accurate and useful. The information
and data are offered in good faith, but without guarantee, as conditions and method of
use of the products are beyond our control. RCRPMS assumes no liability for results
obtained or damages incurred through the application of the presented data. It is users
responsibility to determine the appropriateness of other suppliers products for the users
specific end uses. Parameters specified for various ion exchange units are the generally
used in the water treatment industry. The Author should not be held liable for any
damage direct, indirect, consequential ,incidental or in any other method not
mentioned here , incurred through the use of data for calculation or any information ,
apparatus , method or process disclosed in this Manual .
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Module Title Page No
SECTION I
Chapter 1 Water and its impurities ----------------------------------------- 1

Chapter 2 The Importance of Water Analysis ----------------------------- 8
SECTION 2
Chapter 3 Pretreatment Process --------------------------------------------- 16

Chapter 4 Membrane Filtration ---------------------------------------------- 21
SECTION 3
Chapter 5 Ion Exchange Water treatment ---------------------------------- 26

Chapter 6 Water Treatment Processes with Ion Exchange -------------- 32
Chapter 7 Sequence of operation &
Regeneration of Ion Exchange Plant -------------------------- 38
Chapter 8 Treated Water Quality -------------------------------------------- 45
SECTION 4
Chapter 9 Ion exchange Problems & Troubleshooting------------------- 52
Chapter 10 Resin Fouling & Degradation ----------------------------------- 72
Chapter 11 Resin Maintenance ------------------------------------------------ 77
SECTION 5
Chapter 12 Maintenance of Reverse Osmosis(RO) Plant ----------------- 81

Chapter 13 Pump Maintenance & Troubleshooting------------------------ 88
Chapter 14 Maintenance of Valves ------------------------------------------- 97
Chapter 15 Ejectors ------------------------------------------------------------- 101
Chapter 16 Instrumentation Control ------------------------------------------ 103
Chapter 17 Maintenance of Chemical Feed pump ------------------------- 107
Chapter 18 Maintenance of Vessels & Pipes-------------------------------- 109
APPENDIX
Appendix A Operation of Pressure filter -------------------------------------- 112
Appendix B Operation of Carbon filter --------------------------------------- 114
Appendix C Some useful Operation ------------------------------------------- 116
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TABLES
Tables 2.1 Format for reporting water analysis 12
Tables 5.1 Affinities of Cation and Anion Resins 29
Tables 9.1 Failure to produce specified quality water 56
Tables 9.2 Troubleshooting guide for Ion Exchange unit 59
Tables 9.3 Troubleshooting Softener 63
Tables 9.4 Troubleshooting Cation exchanger 65
Tables 9.5 Troubleshooting Weak base Anion unit 67
Tables 9.6 Troubleshooting Strong Base Anion Unit 68
Tables 9.7 Troubleshooting Mixed Bed 70
Tables 9.8 Troubleshooting Degasser 71
Tables 12.1 Troubleshooting RO Foulant 84
Tables 13.1 Troubleshooting Pumps 92
Tables 15.1 Troubleshooting Ejectors 102
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SECTION 1
WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER ANALYSIS
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CHAPTER I
Water and Its Impurities
1.0 Water - properties

Pure water consists of two parts of Hydrogen and one part of oxygen. Pure water is
colourless and tasteless. Pure water does not exist in nature. It always contains
impurities in solution or suspension.
1.1 Water supplies
Rainwater is the closest thing to pure water when it starts falling from the cloud. It picks
up gaseous impurities mainly oxygen and carbon-di-oxide from the atmosphere and when
it falls down to earth picks up impurities from ground. The surface water (river, lake,
sea) contains impurities like mud, dirt and turbidity. It also contains dissolved impurities
leached from the earth and rocks. Organic matter and colour are mainly due to sewage,
industrial waste and decaying vegeration.
The under ground water may be free from suspended impurities due to filtering action
during percolation through earth. Under ground water contains more dissolved impurities
- such as calcium and magnesium salts, iron and manganese, leached from the rocks. It
has low organic impurities.
1.2 Harmful effects of water impurities
Water has the ability to dissolve every naturally occurring substance on the earth to
certain degree. Water is therefore known as universal solvent. Water finds universal
application as industrial fluid on account of its abundance in nature. Presence of
impurities limits its application and warrants treatment before water can be used in its
natural state. These impurities if not removed from water can cause.
1) Scales in Boilers and Heat exchangers.
2) Poor quality boiler steam.
3) Corrosion of boilers, heaters and piping.
4) Stains, discolouration, spots.
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5) Off flavour and taste in food and drinks.

6) Destruction and waste of various chemicals such as soaps and alkalies used in
washing and dyeing.
1.3 Water impurities
The impurities present in water can be broadly classified as :-

1) Non ionic impurities. or undissolved impurities
2) Ionic impurities or dissolved impurities.
3) Gaseous impurities.
1.4 Non ionic impurities
Major non ionic impurities are:

1) Turbidity or suspended solids.
2) Colour
3) Taste and odour
4) Organic matter
5) Colloidal silica
6) Oil.
1.4.1 Turbidity
Turbidity is caused by the presence of suspended solids in water. The latter is a measure
of total weight of dry solids present whereas turbidity is an optical effect. The suspended
impurities include clay, sand, algae and precipitated iron.
1.4.2 Colour
Colour is normally expressed in Hazen units and is caused by the presence of colloidal
suspension and aquatic growth. It is also caused by dissolved organic substance due to
decomposition of vegetation. Some water may have colour due to presence of iron.
1.4.3 Taste and odor
Many water have bad taste and odour. Most organics and some inorganic chemicals
contribute taste and odour. These chemicals can originate from municipal or industrial
waste or from natural resources such as decomposition of vegetable matter.
2
1.4.4 Organic impurities

Organic impurities can be due to vegetable decomposition. It is also due to organic
matter which comes from animal and human fecal matter or its degradation products,
industrial waste and agriculture pesticides and herbicides.
1.4.5 Micro organism
Micro Organism are normally not present in deep well water but are quite common in
surface water. Microorganisms are objectionable in water because they are sources of
disease and slime formation.
1.5 Ionic or dissolved impurities
Major ionic impurities can be subdivided as cationic and anionic impurities.

1.5.1 Major cationic impurities
1) Calcium
2) Magnesium
3) Sodium
4) Potassium
5) Iron
6) Mangnese
7) Aluminium
1.5.2 Major anionic impurities
1) Bi carbonates
2) Carbonates
3) Hydroxide
4) Fluorides
5) Chlorides
6) Sulphates
7) Nitrates
8) Phosphates
9) Silica.
3
1.6 Cationic impurities

1.6.1 Calcium and Magnesium
Calcium and magnesium are the most common dissolved impurities found in water.
When calcium and magnesium salts are present in considerable amount it imparts
hardness to water i.e. it does not allow lather to form with soap. The salts of calcium and
magnesium that causes hardness are divided into two types.
a) Carbonate or temporary hardness.
b) Non carbonate or permanent hardness.
1.6.2 Sodium and potassium
Sodium compounds are very soluble and the element is present in most natural waters.
Levels can range from less than 1 ppm to several thousand ppm as in Brine or sea water.
They are harmless in most water supplies as long as they are not present in very high
amount. Being alkaline in nature they can accelerate corrosion.
1.6.3 Iron and Manganese
Iron can be found in water supplies as:
a) Dissolved iron.
b) Precipitated iron - oxidised iron both filterable and colloidal.
c) Organic bound iron.
d) Components of living organism - Iron bacteria.
In ground and surface water supplies iron generally exists as divalent ferrous salts or as
organic complexs. Mangnese with few exception exists as divalent manganous.
Iron can induce corrosion in pipelines. It can also cause staining. Bacterial iron can cause
clogging of pipelines.
1.6. 4 Aluminum
Usually found in water which has undergone coagulation. Can cause deposits in cooling
system and contribute to complex boiler scales.
4
1.7 Anionic impurities

1.7.1 Alkalinity
Alkalinity in water is due to presence of Bicarbonates, carbonates and hydronyl ions. In
raw water alkalinity is mainly due to bicarbonates. Some times carbonates ions may also
be present. Carbonates and particularly hydronyl ions are rarely encountered in untreated
waters. Hydronyl ions normally gets introduced during treatment of water.
Alkalinity is determined by using standard acid solution using methyl or phenolphthatein
indicator. Alkalinity determined by using methyl orange indicator is termed as M-
Alkalinity or Total Alkalinity. P-Alkalinity is determined by using phenolphthalein as
indicator. The different type of alkalinity present in water supplies can be calculated
from M and P-Alkalinity value determined by titration.
1.7.2 Chlorides
Chlorides are present in nearly all waters. The chloride irons may be in combination with
one or more cations, calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium. Chlorides of these salts are
present in water because of their high solubility in water. Excessive chloride in water
causes corrosion. It also impart taste to water. Chlorides are prominent in crevice
corrosion and pitting.
1.7.3 Sulphate
Most raw water contains sulphates due to leaching and erosion of sulphate minerals and
oxidation of sulphides. They can also be due to industrial waste discharge and farm
drainage. Sulphate also occur due to aerobic oxidation of organic matter. Sulphate in
water causes corrosion and scaling in boiler. Sulphate are normally found as calcium,
magnesium and sodium salt. Sulphate are also aggressive to concretes.
1.7.4 Fluorides
Fluorides are industrially not important but its absence as well as presence in excess is
harmful in Drinking water. Fluoridation and Defluoridation is very important in drinking
water technology.
5
1.7.5 Silica
Most natural water contain silica ranging from 1 ppm to 100 ppm. Silica is an oxide of
silicon which is a major constituents of igneous and meta morphic rocks, of clay minerals
such as kaolin and of fieldspars and quartz. Silica can exist in various form as simple
silicates or as a complex polymeric material. Colloidal silica is rarely present in Bore
well water but is commonly present in surface water. Silica if not removed can cause
deposits on boiler, cooling tower, turbines and other industrial equipments which are
difficult to remove.
1.8 Gaseous impurities
The major gaseous impurities are carbon di-oxide, oxygen, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia
and chlorine.
1.8.1 Carbon di Oxide
Carbon-di-oxide is found in waters coming in contact with decaying organic matter or
carbonaceous material. Surface water contains small amount of free CO2 but well water
may contain more than 100 ppm. Organic decomposition is the major cause for CO2 in
well water. Depending on the pH of water carbon-di-oxide may be present either as free
carbonic acid (dissolved CO2 gas) or in a semi carbide form (as bicarbonates) or in a
combined form (as carbonates), free CO2 depresses the pH and thus accelerates
corrosion.
1.8.2 Oxygen
Oxygen is practically absent in artesian water, but is usually present in surface waters
rather in high concentration. Oxygen is corrosive to metals but its absence in natural
waters could produce other obnoxious gases such as methane H2S etc. Oxygen is also
vital to all living things in natural waters. Dissolved oxygen is highly corrosive and
should be removed either chemically or mechanically especially in Boiler feed water.
1.8.3 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
Hydrogen sulphide is found in some well waters in areas where the soil contains certain
types of organic matter, decomposing under anaerobic conditions. The usual amount of
sulphide is small (less than 10 ppm) although as much as 100 ppm has occasionally
encountered. H2S imparts unpleasant odour to water, promoters metal corrosion, and
can be cause of clogging of pipes owing to growth of sulphur bacteria.
6
1.8.4 Nitrogen
Nitrogen may get into water from atmospheric air, on decomposition of organic rests and
reduction of nitrogen compounds by denitrifying bacteria.
1.8.5 Ammonia
Ammonia is introduced into surface water due to industrial and agricultural pollution. It
is corrosive to copper and brass at pH 9.0. Ammonia can be removed by various
methods-Deaeration, chlorination or by hydrogen cation exchange if in ionic form.
7
CHAPTER 2
Importance of Water Analysis
2.0 Water analysis

The process of determining how much of various substances (impurities) are present in
given sample of water is known as Water Analysis.
2.1 Need for Water Analysis

Water analysis is essential for the following reasons :
a) Raw water source selection.
b) Analysis of raw water determines the type of treatment and unit size.
c) Treated water analysis indicates the efficiencies of various units of water
treatment.
d) Designing of most economical water treatment plant.
To design a water treatment plant knowing the impurities present in the water to be
treated is needed. Complete analysis helps in determining the degree of pretreatment
required in Ion Exchange and other process like reverse osmosis etc. Minor constituent
like silica is very important since it may have influence on the regeneration technique
used and can effect the capacities that can be obtained. Analysis of Iron and chlorine is
important for reverse osmosis design.
2.2 Definition used in water analysis

2.2.1 pH :
It is common practice to express hydrogen ion concentration in terms of pH. By

definition the pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration to the base of
l0.
pH = - log10 (H+) = log (1/H+)
Ionic product of water Kw has a value of 1 x 10 - 14 and in neutral water H + concentration

is equal to OH - concentration.
Kw = H + x OH- = 1 x 10- 14 ----------------- (1)

For neutral water = (H+) = (OH-) = 1x10 - 7
The equilibrium represented by equation (1) occurs universally in aqueous solution

regardless of the equilibrium or the solutes present. Hence equation (1) should always be
satisfied.
8
Thus the terms pH expresses the acidity or basicity of water. Neutral water has a pH of
7. pH lower than 7 indicates acidity and greater than 7 is alkaline.
2.2.2 Alkalinity:
As mentioned earlier alkalinity in water is due to presence of HCO-3. CO-3 and OH- ions.
In raw water alkalinity is mostly due to HCO-3, but in some cases CO-3 ions also may be
present. It is important to note that out of the three ions only two ions can exist in any
system. That is HCO-3, CO-3 or OH- can exist alone or in combination with one more ion.
Any water analysis reporting the presence of all three ions should be discarded.
Alkalinity of water is determined by titration with phenolpthalein and methylk orange
indicator.
The result of titration with methyl orange indicator is called Total Alkalinity or M-
Alkalinity.
M. Alk. = Total Alk = HCO-3 + CO-3 + OH-.
The result of titration with phenolpthalein indicator is called P-Alkalinity.
P. Alk. = OH + 1/2 CO3.
2.2.3 Hardness
Calcium and Magnesium salts impart hardness to water. Hard water is defined as a water
which does not lather or foam with soap easily. The salts of calcium and magnesium
which causes hardness is divided in two parts.
1. Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness.

2. Permanent hardness or non-carbonate hardness.
The sum of temporary and permanent hardness is called Total Hardness.
Total Hardness = Carbonate hardness + Non Carbonate hardness
Carbonate Hardness
It is mainly due to presence of bicarbonates of Calcium and Magnesium.
Alkalinity in raw water is normally due to bicarbonate ions. Therefore, carbonate

hardness (Alkalinity) plus Non Carbonate hardness is equal to total hardness.
1) Carbonate hardness = Alkalinity, when alkalinity is less than total hardness.

2) Carbonate hardness = Total hardness, when alkalinity is greater or equal to total
hardness.
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2.2.4 Conductivity :
The conductivity of water is dependent on the ionic content of water, specifically on the
ability of ionic impurities in the water to conduct electricity. Ionic impurities have the
ability to conduct electric current and thus there is direct linear relationship between ionic
impurities and conductivity which help in determining the ionic impurities in water.
Conductivity is also related to TDS empirically.

Conductivity x 0.65 = TDS.
2.2.5 Total Dissolved Solids
This represents all the soluble inorganic solids in water expressed in ppm.
2.2.6 Total Solids
Total solid is defined as SUM of soluble and insoluble solids.
2.2.7 Electrolytes
This is total ionizable dissolved solids in water. Total electrolyte is numerically equal to
total cation or total anions (not sum of both). Total electrolyte does not include CO2 and
silica.
2.2. 8 Total Cations
Sum of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium all measured in the same unit.
2.3. 9 Total Anions
Sum of alkalinity (HCO-3 + CO-3 + OH-) + Cl + SO4 + NO3 all measured in the same
unit.
Total Cation = Total Anion = Total Electrolyte
2.2.10 Equivalent Mineral Acidity (EMA)
The equivalent mineral acidity, EMA is equal to the sum of equivalent concentration of
sulphate, chloride and nitrate. It is also called sometimes as Total Mineral Acidity.
2.2.11 Free Mineral Acidity (FMA)
Free mineral acidity is equal to (EMA - Sodium leakage).
EMA - Sodium leakage = FMA

EMA - FMA = Sodium leakage.
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2.3 Method of reporting water analysis
There are various ways of reporting water analysis, but in general four methods which are
commonly used are ,
1. As ppm ion or mg/litre.

2. EPM or Meq/litre (Milliequivalent per litre)
3. ppm as CaCo3.
4. Grains per gallon as CaCo3.
2.4 Water analysis Report

Water analysis can be reported in many ways but most laboratories give in the format as
given below.
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TABLE 2.1 Format for Reporting water Analysis
Water Analysis Report
Physical
pH --------------------
Colour -------------------- Hazen Unit
Taste and Odour
Turbidity -------------------- NTU
Conductivity -------------------- mhos or milli mhos
Chemical
Suspended Solids - in ppm

Calcium - as ppm CaCO3.*
Magnesium - as ppm CaCO3.*
Hardness - as ppm CaCO3.*
M.Alkalinity - as ppm CaCO3.*
P.Alkalinity - as ppm CaCO3.*
Chloride - as ppm or mg./litre.
Sulphate - as ppm or mg./litre.
Nitrate - as ppm or mg./litre.
Silica - as ppm or mg./litre.
Iron - as ppm or mg./litre.
TDS - as ppm
CO2 - as ppm
* Sometimes calcium and Magnesium can be reported as in ppm as Ca or Mg.
The parameters reported in the above water analysis tell us lot about the quality of water.
But it is not very convenient from Industrial water treatment point of view. The
preferred method in the field of water treatment is in terms of equivalent calcium
carbonate abbreviated as CaCO3 - in which every ions is calculated as the chemically
equivalent concentration as it it were CaCO3. The use of CaCO3 is due to the fact that its
molecular weight is 100. In this form of analysis total cations always equals total anions.
See Below
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2. 5 Method of reporting water analysis
2.5.1 Method1 as ppm as ions or milligram per litre (mg/l)
A specific chemical test is conducted to know the amount of each ion present in a sample
of water. The result is normally expressed in parts per million or milligram per litre both
are interchangeable. ppm (parts per million) means one part by weight of substance per
million parts by weight of water.
We know that 1 litre of water equals 1000 grams.
1000 grams = 1,000,000 milligrams thus we see that metric expression mg/l is same as
ppm.
Example as ppm as Ion (mg/l).
Cations Anions
Calcium as Ca 50 Bicarbonate as HCO3 183

Magnesium as Mg 25.62 Chloride as Cl 70
Sodium as Na 46. Sulphate as SO4 76.8
121.6 329.8
This method though easy for analyst is not convenient for designing Ion Exchange
system. The reason because in this case we can not add the cations or anions.
2.6.2 Method 2 as Equivalent per million (EPM) or milli equivalent

per litre (Meq/ litre)
We know equivalent means equal valence.
Equivalent Weight = Molecular weight

valence
Valence is chemical term used for charges of ion (positive or negative)
Though this method is not recommended for normal plant control but is useful when ever
extensive calculation must be performed.
Molecular weight of calcium is 40, Magnesium is 25 and sodium 23. Valence of Ca and
Mg is 2 and of sodium 1. Thus equivalent weight of calcium is 40, of magnesium is 25
2 2
and of sodium is 23/1 Similarly equivalent weight for anions can be calculated.
Equivalent weight of bicarbonate is 61, sulphate 40 and chloride 35.5.
The analysis given in ppm as ions or Mg/ltr. can be converted to epm or Meq/ltr. by
dividing the ppm as Ion by its equivalent weight.
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EPM or Meq/ltr. = ppm as ion / Mg/ltr. ppm as ion (or Mg/ltr)

Equivalent weight Equivalent Weight
Cations as ppm epm Anions as ppm epm
Ca 50 2.5 HCO3 183 3.0

Mg 25.62 2.1 Cl 70 2.0
Na 46 2.0 SO4 76.8 1.6
6.60 6.6
Thus it can be seen in this case that

Total cations = Total Anions
2.5.3. Method 3 as ppm as CaCO3.
As mentioned earlier this is the most preferred method because it facilitates calculation.
CaCO3 is combination of Ca2+ and CO32- and both being divalent the equivalent weight
can be obtained by dividing the molecular weight which is 100 2 = 50. The epm can be
directly multiplied by 50 to obtain the analysis as CaCo3. If ppm is Ion (or mg/ltr) is to
be converted than ppm is to be multiplied by the ratio of equivalent of CaCO3 to
equivalent weight of the specific ion.
ppm as CaCO3 = ppm as Ion X 50

Eq.wt. of ion.
Cation as ppm epm ppm as CaCO3 Anions as ppm epm ppm as CaCO3
Ca 50 2.5 125 HCO3 183 3 150

Mg 25.62 2.1 105 Cl 70 2 100
Na 46 2 100 SO4 76.8 1.6 80
121.6 6.6 330 330.8 6.6 330
2.5.4 Method 4 as grains per gallon
This method of expression is still used in USA. It is a convenient unit to calculate the
Ion exchange capacity. It is closely related to ppm as CaCO3.
1
1 grain as CaCO3. = ----------------------------------------
7000 grain / pound
= 0.0001428 pounds
1 gallon = 8.33 pounds
1 grain per gallon = 0.0001428 x 1,000,000

8.33
= 17.1ppm as CaCO3.
14
For converting ppm as Ion or epm to grain per gallon it is to be first converted to ppm as
CaCO3.
15
SECTION 2
PRETREATMENT PROCESS
MEMBRANE FILTRATION
16
CHAPTER 3
Pretreatment Processes
Ion Exchange is a process for removal of dissolved ionic impurities. It is used extensively in a
wide variety of industrial and process applications for production of demineralised water.
In addition to dissolved impurities there are other nonionic and some ionic impurities in the feed
water to ion exchange. If these impurities are not removed; these contaminants may have
detrimental effect on the performance as well as on the useful life of resin.
The pretreatment requirement for feed water to ion exchange are determined primarily by two
factors :-
1) Quality of water to be treated by Ion Exchange.

2) The quality of water that must be produced to meet the specification.
The use of proper pretreatment method eliminates or greatly reduces the potential of these
contaminants on Ion Exchange resins.
3.0 Introduction
Ion Exchange is a process for removal of dissolved ionic impurities. In addition there are
nonionic impurities in natural water which if not removed could be harmful to industrial
application. The removal of these impurities is essential in Ion Exchange process because if not
removed they can foul and oxidize the ion exchange resin. The influent to ion exchange unit
should be free from foulants and for this, prior treatment of water is provided. This is known as
pretreatment or primary treatment. Hence a brief understanding of pretreatment process is
necessary for trouble shooting of Ion Exchange systems.
Basic pretreatment process used in conjunction with Ion Exchange processes are :-
1) Filtration
2) Activated carbon filtration
3) Coagulation and Flocculation
4) Lime - Soda Process (Hot/cold)
5) Reverse Osmosis
6) Electrodyalsis
7) Ultra filtration
8) Chlorination etc.
3.1 Filtration
Filtration is a separation process that consists in passing a solid liquid mixture through a porous
material (filter) which retains the solid and allows the liquid (Filtrate) to pass through (Degremont
Hand book).
Filtration is a process of removing suspended impurities and turbidity from water. It is used to
remove suspended impurities which may be present initially or as a result of coagulation or
17
precipitation process. There are various type of filters but one most used in conjunction with ion
Exchange treatment is Pressure Sand Filter.
3.1.1 Pressure sand filter
Pressure Filters are closed cylindrical vessel either vertical or horizontal (mostly vertical)
containing the filter media over a collector system. Water flows from top downwards percolating
through the media and is drawn off through the collector system at the bottom. Cycle of
operation are service, back wash with or without air scouring, short rinse to waste and return to
service. Increase in pressure drop indicates that filter media is fouled and requires backwashing.
The following materials are normally used as filter media - Quartz sand, silica sand, anthracite,
coal, garnet etc.
Filter which uses only sand is called sand filter. Filter which use two media (normally sand and
anthracite) is called dual media filter. Multi media filter uses more than three or more filter
media. Dual media and multi media filter operate at higher velocity and require less backwash
water. Back wash water for filters should always be filtrate water.
3.2 Activated carbon filter

Activated Carbon is an effective method for adsorbing organics and removal of chlorine.
Activated carbon can be used either as powdered activated carbon or as granular activated carbon.
In demineralization plant, activated carbon is normally used in Granular form. It normally
precedes the Ion exchange unit. Activated carbon is used for removal of organics and
dechlorination to protect the ion exchange resin from fouling and oxidation.
The carbon granules are placed in a filter which is similar in construction to pressure filter and is
normally placed after the pressure filter unit. The area and depth of carbon filter depends upon
the amount of organics present.
3.2.1 Treatment mechanism of activated carbon
Adsorption process is the dominant action on activated carbon for removal of organics.
Dechlorination is a result of chemical reaction occurring on the carbon surface. Activated carbon
can also remove chloramine a by product due to Chlorination. Biological degradation processes
which generally becomes established on activated carbon surfaces are capable of controlling
many taste and odor problems.
3. 2. 2 Limitation of activated carbon
Activated carbon has a short life as they get fouled and also their adsorptive capacity very
rapidly. Calgon a leading manufacture of activated carbon say that Activated Carbon can
remove 30% of organics of its own weight. Recently copper zinc media is used prior to
activated carbon filter which is claimed to remove 95% of chlorine. It will increase the life of
Activated Carbon.
3. 2. 3 Regeneration or Reactivation
On site regeneration of Activated Carbon is normally not a rule due to economical consideration.
The usual practice is to purchase new carbon to replace the old exhausted carbon. Though there
18
are various method for regeneration of Activated Carbon, the most widely used method is by
Thermal regeneration.
3. 3 Coagulation & Flocculation
Colour compounds, clay particles, microscopic organism and organic matter from decaying
vegetation are very finely divided or even in colloidal form so that they do not settle easily. The
process of adding a chemical (coagulant) to water which agglomerates the finely divided solids
into masses which settles more readily.
Settling by coagulation happen in the following ways :-
1) Neutralization of repulsive forces around the suspended solids. This enables the vander
val force to hold the particle together once they collide.
2) Coagulants reacts with alkalinity of water to form sticky precipitates called Floc which
entangles the fine suspended particles.
3) It is also effected by the use of water soluble organic polymers by neutralizing the
charges on particles.
3. 3. 1 Flocculents & flocculation
Materials which enhance agglomeration of finer particles into large particles i.e. of bringing many
floc together is called Flocculent and the process is known Flocculation. The materials used as
Flocculates are usually high molecular weight organic polymers.
3. 3. 2 Coagulant chemicals
The most commonly used coagulants are Aluminum sulphate (Filter alum), Ferrous sulphate
(copperas) and Ferric sulphate (Ferrisul). These coagulants are acidic in nature and reacts with
the natural or added alkalinity of water to form gelatinous precipitate.
The optimal pH range for Aluminum sulphate is 5.5 to 7.5.

The optimal pH range for Ferrous sulphate is 8.0 to 11.0.
The optimal pH range for Ferric sulphate is 8.0 to 11.0 but for colour removal it is 5.0 - 6.0.
Further detail on this can be had from any book on water treatment.
3. 4 Precipitation softening
Precipitation Softening also known as Lime Soda softening is the process by which raw water
hardness, alkalinity, silica and other constituent are reduced by precipitation and followed by
filtration. The process may be varied according to the composition of the raw water and the end
use requirements. The water is treated with lime or combination of lime and Soda ash.
Basic chemistry involved is shown below,
Reaction with Lime
CO2 + Ca (OH) 2 CaCO3 + H2O
19
Ca (HCO3) 2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCo3 + 2 H2O
Mg(HCO3) 2 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH) 2 + CaCo3
MgSO4 +Ca(OH) 2 Mg (OH) 2 + CaSo4
MgCl2 + Ca(OH) 2 Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
Reaction with Soda Ash,
CaSO4 + Na2 CO3 CaCO3 + Na2 SO4
CaCl2 + Na2 CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
Practical result show that Ca hardness can be reduced up to 35 ppm. Magnesium reduction is a
function of the amount of hydroxyl (OH-) alkalinity maintained.
Precipitation softening accomplished at ambient temperature is referred to as Cold-Lime

Softening.
The warm lime softening is a modification of basic cold lime process. The process operates in
the temperature range of 50-60 Deg.C. The solubility of Calcium, Magnesium and Silica are
reduced by increased temperature and hence removed more effectively than cold process.
Hot process softening is usually carried out at a temperature of 108-110oC. The reaction is same
as for cold process but goes to completion at the operating temperature. CO2 is not precipitated in
this case but vented out. Hot process is very effective for silica reduction.
In many instances this process is followed by Ion Exchange softening for complete removal of
hardness. Ion Exchange is preceded by filtration to remove the precipitate carried over by
precipitate softening. Improper functioning of any of the units can lead to deterioration of ion
exchange unit. Further detail is beyond the scope of this manual and is not required.
20
CHAPTER 4
Membrane filtration
4.0 Introduction
Water is an important resource for Industrial development. With increased automation and
technological development, more stringent quality of water is specified and required. This has
led to new process technology in water treatment. Membrane technology has developed
considerably and is being used for both domestic and industrial water treatment. Membrane
process are being used in conjunction with Ion Exchange process and hence some basic
understanding of these process is essential for any one servicing or operating an Ion Exchange
plant. The benefit of membrane processes are :-
1) Reduction in cost achieved by savings on chemicals, operation and maintenance

requirements.
2) Reduction in waste treatment.
3) Reduction in man power requirements in monitoring regeneration etc.
Common membrane processes are :-
1) REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO)

2) NANO FILTERATION
3) ELECTRODIALYSIS
4) ULTRA FILTERATION
4. 1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Basic principle of Reverse Osmosis :
The flow of solvent from dilute solution to a concentrated solution which is separated by a semi
permeable membrane is known as OSMOSIS. Imagine a container which is installed with a semi
peramble membrane and containing solution of unequal concentration. The dilute solution flows
through the semiperamble membrane due to the difference in pressure in two solution. The flow
stops when equilibrium established. Osmosis pressure is that pressure which establishes
equilibrium between two solution and stops the solvent flow through the membrane.
Reverse Osmosis acts exactly in the opposite direction. Pressure is applied on the concentration
solution to force water through membrane to dilute solution to produce pure water. The pressure
applied to overcome the osmotic pressure is known as Reverse Osmosis. The pure water
produced is known as Pure water or permeate and the concentrated water solution is known as
reject or brine water.
4. 2 RO Membranes
Increased use of Reverse Osmosis process and other membrane process has led to development of
variety of membranes. Membranes most widely used in water treatment are :-
21
a) Cellulose Acetate or CA membrane

b) Polyamide membrane or PA membrane
c) Thin film composite membrane or TFC membrane.
4.2.1 Cellulose Acetate Membrane (CA)
CA membranes are constructed of cellulose acetate or cellulose triacetate or blend. Though these
membranes achieved acceptable results with brackish water but not with sea water due to
compressibility of Membrane at high pressure.
Its use is also limited for the following reason :-
a) Works under a narrow pH range.

b) Is temperature sensitive
c) Performance limitation
4.2.2 Polyamide Membrane (PA)
Polyamide membranes are made of aromatic polyamides, PA membranes works in a broader pH

range and hence it is more resistant to hydrolysis has better salt rejection and organic rejection
and they are non biodegradable. The feed water to PA membrane should be free from chlorine as
they are subject to attack by Chlorine.
4.2.3 Thin film Composite Membrane
The above two membranes are of asymmetric structure are dense, thin layer (salt rejecting layer)
supported by a thick, porous layer. They are both composed of the same polymer.
TFC membrane consists of three layers are based on polyamide membrane and consists of poly
sulfone membrane as a support for very thin polyamide layer.
Advantage of TFC membrane are :-
1) High flux rate

2) Wider pH range
3) More resistant to chlorine than PA
4) High silica rejection.
4.3 Configuration of membrane

Major configuration of membranes are :-
1) Spiral wound
2) Hollow fiber
3) Tubular frame
4.3.1 Spiral Wound
In spiral wound configuration are assembled from flat sheet polymer Membrane and spacers are
wound around the permeate collection tube to produce flow channels for permeate and feed
22
water. These are the most commonly used in Industrial application. The advantage of this
configuration are :-
1) Simpler plumbing system

2) Easier maintenance
3) Greater design freedom
4) Less prone to fouling
5) Can withstand higher level of pre-treatment upsets.
4.3.2 Hollow Fibre
Hollow fiber contain a bundle of extremely small diameter Membrane tubes which creates a
tremendous membrane area in a small volume. Feed water is fed to the center of vessel through
a porous pipe. The ions get rejected through these hollow fibres when water permeates the wall
and is discharged as product water. Concentrated reject is collected at the opposite end of the
vessel.
One major advantage of CA membranes are that they are more resistant to chlorine and foulants
and is still considered as a first choice for many application.
4.3.3 Tubular Membrane
Tubular membranes are inserted into or coated onto the inside surface of a porous tube and are
designed to withstand the operating pressure. Feed water enters the end of the tube permeates
through the membrane and is collected and discharged through a concentrator concentrated reject
water leaves through the end of porous tube.
RO membranes are assembled within a pressure vessel. Pressure vessel can be assembled in
various ways and with other equipment like pump etc comprises a R.O system.
The important points to be taken care in R.O systems are :-
1) Pretreatment of feed water to avoid fouling, scaling and degradation.

2) pH control (very important in CA membrane)
3) Chlorine removal especially for PA and TFC membrane. CA membrane can withstand
slightly higher amount of chlorine.
4) Periodic cleaning of R.O. membrane as per manufactures instruction.
4. 3 Electrlodialysis
The process of water desalination by electrodialysis is simple. Ion are removed from water when
it passes through selective cation and anion exchange membrane under direct current electric
field. Alternating cation and anion membranes are arranged in series and separated by a gasket
and series of narrow compartment are formed. This is arranged between two electrodes and
comprises a cell pack. Cation membrane allows cation and anion membrane allows anions to
pass through. This leads to ion depletion and ion concentration in alternate cells. Pure water
emerges from Ion depleted cell and brine or reject from the ion concentrated cell. Normal
rejection is 40 to 60%. There is no removal of silica and other weak ionized contaminants. The
cost of electrodialysis plant is in direct proportion to TDS and is not very economical at TDS
higher than 5000 ppm. It is of more advantage in potable water treatment than Industrial water
treatment.
23
An extension of this process which is known as ELECTRODIALYSIS REVERSAL PROCESS

(EDR) uses the same principle but the direction of ionic movements through membranes are
reversed periodically. This reversal also reverses the function of dilute (Ion depletion) and
concentrated (ion concentrate) cell. This stops the build up of concentrated solution and keeps
the membrane cleaner for longer time. Purity of water obtained is same as for ED plants. The
advantage here is not better quality of water but enhanced life of membrane. ED also required
pretreatment but not as extensive as R.O.
4. 4 Ultra filtration
Ultra filtration is a membrane process in which there is efficient separation of macro organic
molecules and colloids from water. The membrane configuration for ultra filtration is similar to
single stage R.O. System. It can be used as a pre treatment to R.O. and Ion Exchange. It can also
be used as a post treatment to Ion Exchange process for removal of colloidal silica and bacteria.
It requires less pressure than Reverse Osmosis system.
Ultra Filtration is used for :-
1) Pre treatment to R.O and Ion Exchange

2) Post treatment to Ion Exchange for removal of colloidal silica and bacteria
3) Recovery of valuable contaminants.
4.5 Nano filtration

Nano filtration membranes are also becoming popular. Its membrane are similar to R.O. It has
one major difference that is it allows sodium to permeate (monovalent ions) but not multivalent
ions. In filtration / separation it falls in between R.O and UF. It requires less operating pressure
than R.O. It is used more in potable water treatment. It produces more product water than RO
but is not as good as RO in rejecting feed water dissolved substance. It can also be used as a
substitute to softener in many industrial application.
24
SECTION 3
ION EXCHANGE WATER TREATMENT

WATERTREATMENT PROCESS WITH
ION EXCHANGE
SEQUENCE OF OPERATION & REGENERATION
OF ION EXCHANGE PLANT
TREATED WATER QUALITY
25
CHAPTER 5
Ion Exchange Resins
5.0 Introduction
Industrial plants use water for variety of application which include Boiler Feed,
cooling purpose, processing etc. and for general service like drinking and flushing. The
criteria for allowable impurities in water depend upon the type of application. Today with
development in new product and process, water of more stringent quality is
specified.
One of the method which has been accepted in industries worldwide for producing
quality water is by ION EXCHANGE. It has become essential to understand treatment
techniques and the ion exchange resins incorporated to derive the maximum benefits and
full utilization of water treatment systems.
All naturally occurring water contains dissolved salts to form charged particles called
IONS. Positively charged ions are called CATIONS and negatively charged ions are
called ANIONS. These ions can be detrimental to process and also effect utility
equipments. Ion exchange is the most widely used method for removal of these ions
and is considered more economical than any other process at low TDS.
5.1 Properties of Ion Exchange

Ion exchangers by common definition are insoluble solid materials which carry
exchangeable cation or Anions. These ions can be exchanged for stoichimetrically
equivalent amount of other ions of the same sign (cation for cation), when the ion
exchanger is in contact with an electrolyte solution. Carriers of exchangeable
ANIONS are called ANION EXCHANGERS (ANION RESINS) and carriers of
exchangeable CATIONS are called CATION EXCHANGERS (CATION RESINS).
As mentioned above Ion exchange resins which are insoluble in water carry exchangeable
ions.
Z- A+ + B+ Z- B+ + A+
(Resin) (Ion in (Resin) (Ion in
Solution) Solution)
The above reaction shows that ion exchange resin consists of both positively charged
cation and negatively charged anions. In the above Z- is the fixed or co ion and A+ is the
exchangeable ion with the ions of same specification. Similarly anions can be
exchanged if anion receptive medium is used.
26
Z+ A- + B- Z+ B- + A-
All Ion exchange reactions are reversible and once exhausted it can be brought back to its
original form. Functional ability of resin is determined by the exchangeable ions
attached to the resin beads Industrial Water Treatment are classified into four basic
categories.
5.2 Strong acid cation resin (SAC RESIN)
Strong acid cation resins which is commonly known as SAC resin derive their
functionality from sulphuric acid group (HSO3-) SAC resins operate at any pH, split all
salts and can neutralize strong bases. It requires excessive amount of regenerant and
limit leakage. In demineralization SAC resin used is in Hydrogen form that is H+ cation
is attached as exchangeable ion. For softening sodium form of SAC resin is used (i.e. -
Na+) exchangeable ion is attached to the resin bead.
5.3 Weak acid cation resin (WAC RESIN)

Weak acid cation resins have (-CO OH) as their functional group and are capable of
removing cation associated with alkalinity when operated in hydrogen form. WAC resins
being highly efficient can be regenerated with stoichiometric amount of acid. These
resins have high exchange capacity and is used for dealkalization and is also used in
demineralization in conjunction with SAC resin when hardness to alkalinity ratio is
greater than one for economical advantages.
WAC resins have following limitation:
1) Increasing Flow Rates

2) Low temperatures
3) Hardness to alkalinity ratio below 1.0
5.4 Strong base Anion resin (SBA RESIN)

Strong base Anion resins are usually known as SBA resin. These resin derive their
functionality from quaternary ammonia group. Two kinds of strong base anion resins
exist. Type - I and Type - II.
Type - I: Type-I SBA resins has three Methyl group. Type-I resins are more stable and
has some what less exchange capacity than type-II. Type-I resin are suitable for total
Anion removal on all kinds of water . Type-I SBA are more resistant to high temperature
and commonly employed for high alkalinity, high silica water.
Type - II : In Type-II one of the methyl group is replaced by ethanol group. Type-II has
some what greater exchange capacity than Type-I but is less efficient in removing weak
acids like silica and carbon dioxide from waters whereas these weak acid constitute more
than 30% of total anions. Type-II give better results with water high in chloride and
sulphate.
27
5.5 Weak base Anion resin (WBA RESIN)

Usually known as a WBA resin, these resins acts as an acid absorber, WBA resins have
polyamine functional groups containing primary amine, Secondary amine and a tertiary
amine, (some resins are known as intermediate anion resin containing both weak and
strong base) WBA resin can remove strong acids and works when pH of water is below 7.
It dowse not have any salt splitting capacity. WBA resins are incapable of removing
weak acids like silica and carbonic acids. WBA resins have higher capacity than SBA
and can be regenerated with stoichiometric amount of caustic soda which restores the
exchange sites to free base form, WBA resin is used alone in High EMA water when
silica removal is not essential. It is also used in conjunction with SBA resins when water
is both high in EMA and as well as in alkalinity.
5.6 Ionic form

Ion exchange can be converted to any counter ion form but commercially available for
water treatment use are the following:-
1) Strong acid cation in Hydrogen or sodium form

Hydrogen form ( SO3 H+)
Sodium form ( SO3 Na+)
2) Weak acid Cation
Hydrogen form (COOH)
3) Strong Base in Chloride form
Type-1 CH2 N (CH3)+ Cl-

Type-II (CH2 N (CH3)2 (CH2 CH2 OH) + Cl-
4) Weak Base anion in free base and Chloride form
Free base CH2N (CH3)2

Chloride form CH2N (CH3)2 + Cl-
28
5.7 Gel, Isoporous & Macroporous resin

Resins are also classified as Gel, Isoporous and Macoporos based on the method of
manufacture and its structure. Gel and isoporous resins have better ion exchange
capacities, macroporous resins are more resistant to organic fouling. It is physically and
chemically also more resistant. Gel resins have higher capacity and is less costly and
hence more widely used. Gel resins have better kinetics.
TABLE 2 Affinities of Cation & Anion resin
CATION AFFINITIES ANION AFFINITIES
SAC RESIN WAC RESIN " SBA RESIN WBA RESIN
Aluminum+++ Hydrogen+ Sulphate-- Hydroxide-

Barium++ Aluminum Carbonate --
Sulphate--
Calcium++ Barium++ Nitrate- Nitrate-
Magnesium++ Calcium++ Bisulphate -
Chloride-
Sodium + Magnesium Chloride -
Hydrogen+ Sodium+ Bicarbonate-

Silica-
Hydroxide-
It is clear from the above table that Ion exchange Resin has greater affinity for higher
valet ion than to lower valet ion in dilute solution. Between the same valence ions it
prefers ions with higher molecular weight. (E.g. pref. of Ca over Mg.) WAC has very
high affinity for H+ ions and WBA for OH- ions, which makes these resins highly
efficient (Reasons for its preference for H+ ion by WAC and OH- ions by WBA can be
had from any good book on Ion exchange).
29
5.8 Properties of ion exchange resins

Sr. Properties Remarks
01. Particle For conventional resin 0.3 mm to 1.2mm (300mm to 1200mm).

size Hydraulic and Kinetic influence on Ion exchange process.
02. Moisture Moisture content also called Bound Water some times, is normally
content around 45-55% depending upon the type of resin. Determination
helpful in running a plant. Example increase in moisture content
of cation resin in hydrogen form indicates oxidation of resin and
subsequent decrosslinking of resin matrix.
03. Cross Cross linking influences capacity resin, moisture uptake, swelling,
Linking mechanical stability, selectivity, chemical anodisation resistance
of the resin. Cross linking provides the fundamental chemical
bonding between adjacent polymer chains this giving the resin its
inherent physical strength 8% DVB crossing linking is the most
common.
04. Density Ion exchange resins are sold on volume basis and also plants
designing is done on volumetric basis. Hence it is necessary to
measure the apparent or bulk density.
05. Porosity Ion exchange porosity is related to degree of cross linking pores
could be micro or macro in size.
06. Swelling Ion exchange resins swell when converted from one form to
another. For e.g. H+ for to Na+ or from CI- to OH- form. This
swelling depends on Factors like (1) surrounding modicum, resin
matrix, ionic group and type of counter ion. This is known
as reversible swelling since reversible volume changes occur.
Irreversible swelling is also observed especially in SBA resin.
This can be 7 - 10% above reversible swelling knowledge is
helpful in designing the Ion exchange vessel.
07. Capacity Capacity is most important parameter in resin use since it is a

measure of its capability to do useful work.
Total Capacity is obtained from total quantity of counter ions that

is exchangeable per unit weight or volume of either dry or swollen
resin of particular species.
30
Operating Capacity also called effective capacity is the one that

can be realized in column under set of a selected condition.
For designing purpose operating capacity is the one which is used.
Properties Remarks
Selectivity See selectivity chart.
Stability Physical and chemical stability of Ion exchange resin is

very important since the operation of Ion exchange plant is
cyclic in Industries. It influences the entire resin life and
economic of operation of the system.
Resin should have sufficient resistance to attrition, osmotic

shock and temperature variation. Chemical it may break
down by oxidants like chlorine or by fouling with organic
ions.
pH Range Based on the functional group, Ion exchange resin work at

certain range of pH.
SAC resin : any pH

WAC resin : pH greater than 4
SBA resin : any pH
WBA resin : pH less than 9
31
CHAPTER 6
Water treatment Process with Ion exchange

6.0 Introduction
In view of the different requirements of water quality for industries several treatment processes
using Ion Exchange has been developed. The selection of the most suitable process and Ion
Exchange resin is based on water analysis and the intended application. The processes are
generally classified as :-
1. Softening
2. Partial Demineralization or Dealkalization
3. Demineralization with or without Silica removal
4. Mixed bed polisher
6.1 Softening
Softening is a process of removing Calcium and Magnesium ions from water. Calcium and
Magnesium are the hardness forming constituent of water. This process is also known as base
exchange softening. When hard water is passed through SAC resin in Sodium form, Ca and Mg
ions are exchanged for equivalent Na ions. The water which now contains only Sodium ions is
called soft water. Ion Exchange softening is a most widely used process in Industry. The soft
water is then used as a feed water to low and medium pressure boiler, RO systems and also for
Laundries and other application.
CaSO4 Ca Na2 SO4

Na2 R + CaCl2 R 2NaCl
MgCl2 mg 2 Na HCO3
Mg (HCO3)2
`R represents the Ion Exchange Resin. Shows the reaction is reversible.
Hard water will continue to get softened till the resin gets exhausted. The resin has certain
capacity i.e. it loses its ability to exchange ions and has to be restored back to its original form.
This can be done by using 10-15% Brine solution (common salt NaCl)). The process of
converting the resin back to its original form by the use of a chemical is known as regeneration.
Regeneration equation for softener can be shown as :-
Ca CaCl2
R + 2 NaCl Na2R +
Mg MgCl2
6.2 Partial demineralization or dealkalization

Removal of alkalinity from water is known as Dealkalization. When dealkalization is done by
WAC resin or split stream (explained later) Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is reduced by the
32
amount of alkalinity removed. Hence at times it is also known as partial demineralization.
Dealkalization by Ion Exchange is done in following ways :-
a) By use of weak acid cation resins.

b) By split stream process i.e. using SAC resins both in H+ and Na+ form.
c) By chloride anion exchange.
6.2.1 Alkalinity Removal by WAC Resin
The system uses carboxylic cation resin in H+ form. Cations associated with alkalinity are
exchanged for H+ ions as shown in the equation :-
Ca (HCO3)2 Ca
Mg (HCO3) + 2 RH R Mg + H2CO3
2Na HCO3 Na
The carbonic acid so formed is unstable in water and is removed by passing it through a degasser.
The resin is regenerated by acid once the resin in exhausted.
The regeneration is done with 1 to 4% of mineral acid like HCl or H2SO4.
Ca CaCl2
Mg R + HCl 2 RH + MgCl2
Na 2NaCl
In this system TDS is reduced equal to the amount of alkalinity removed.
The feed water to WAC should ideally have hardness equal to alkalinity level. In feed water with
Alkalinity to Hardness ration > 1, the alkalinity removal will not be to its lowest level. Water
with hardness to Alkalinity ratio greater than 1, there will be some hardness. This is passed
through SAC resin in Na+ form.
The advantage of using WAC resin is high regeneration efficiency with reduced acid usage and
reduced equipment size due to resins high capacity. The disadvantage is that its efficiency is
limited by Raw Water Chemistry and is costly.
6.2.2 Split Stream Dealkalization
This system uses SAC resins in both form i.e. in H+ form as well as Na+ form. This system is
used when alkalinity in raw water is high and partial demineralization and softening is necessary
to remove hardness forming cation and alkalinity. Depending on the design, this system can
totally or partially soften the water and remove a pre-determined amount of a carbonate
alkalinity.
The system consists of :-
1) Hydrogen cation exchange column.

2) Sodium cation exchange column.
3) Degasser.
33
Part of the raw water is flows through H+ cation column and the remaining through the softener
(Sodium Cation Resin). The outlet of these column are blended and passed through degasser
where CO2 is stripped by counter current flow of air.
Ca (HCO3) Ca
Mg (HCO3) + 2 HR Mg R + H2CO3.
Na (HCO3) Na
The following reaction also occurs in H+ cation column.
CaCl2
CaSO4 Ca 2HCl
MgCl2 + 2 HR 2 R Mg +
MgSO4 Na H2SO4
The reaction in sodium exchanger column is as follows :-
Ca HCO3 2 NaCl
CI + 2 R Na + 2 H2CO3
Mg SO4 Na2 SO4
The exchanged cation resin in H+ form is regenerated by either HCl or H2SO4 of 1 - 5%

concentration. The sodium form resin is regenerated by brine solution of 10-15% concentration.
For H+ resin
Ca R + HCl RH + CaCl2
Mg MgCl2
For Na + resin
Ca R + NaCl R Na + CaCl2
Mg MgCl2
In this process also the TDS is reduced equal to the amount of alkalinity removed. This system
is preferred when alkalinity in raw water is high and also permanent hardness is present.
6.2.3 Chloride Anion Dealkalization
As mentioned earlier, strong base anion resin can split salts and absorb acid. This property of
anion resin is used for Dealkalizing by chloride anion process. In this case alkalinity is exchanged
by chloride ions.
If alkaline raw water is passed through the chloride anion resin, the following reaction occurs :-
HCO3 + R4NCl R4 NHCO3 + Cl
Except for chloride, other ions like Sulphates and Nitrates also gets exchanged.
SO4 + 2 R4 NCl R4 (N)2 SO4 + Cl
34
If hard water is passed through anion unit, there is a possibility of CaCO3 or Mg (OH)2
precipitation. Hence raw water is first softened in a sodium softener before it is passed through
an anion exchanger.
The softener and anion unit both are regenerated with brine (NaCl solution).
The softener regeneration has already been mentioned.
Regeneration reaction of anion unit.
R4 NHCO3 + NaCl R4 NCl + Na HCO3

R4 N2 SO4 + NaCl R4 NCl + Na2 SO4
The advantage of this system is that it uses no acid makes it attractive for residential and
commercial (like Hotel). It also eliminates the use of degasser since not CO2 is formed. The
disadvantage is that Anion has lower capacity for Alkalinity removal and there is no TDS
reduction. It is also not as economical as the other two method mentioned earlier.
6.3 Demineralization
Removal of both cations as well as anion by the use of combination of cation as well as Anion
Resin is called deionization or demineralization. The simplest way of achieving this is a two
column exchanger unit - one comprising of SAC column and the other of SBA column.
Raw water is first passed through a cation exchanger column which contains H+ form cation
resin.
Ca (HCO3) Ca H2CO3
Mg SO4 + 2 RH R Mg + H2SO4
2 Na Cl Na 2 HCl
The cation effluent i.e. water leaving the cation is then passed through an anion exchange
containing Anion resin in Hydroxide form.
H2 CO3 H2CO3
2 HCl + 2 R OH R Cl + H2O
H2SO4 SO4
The carbon dioxide released when water is passed through cation exchange column is removed
either by degasser ( a mechanical process) or by adsorption on Anion Resin.
Broadly speaking demineralization can be classified as :-
a) Demineralization without removal of Silica.

b) Demineralization with silica removal.
6.3.1 Demineralization without removal of Silica
The anion column in this case uses WBA resin. The cation column uses H+ cation resin. Raw
water passes through cation column and the exchange takes place as shown earlier. The outlet
from cation i.e. cation effluent is then passed through WBA column. The strong mineral acids
35
are taken up by anion resin. Weakly acid like CO2 and Silica pass through the resin unaffected.
The carbonic acid (CO2) is removed by Degasser placed after WBA column.
The reaction of acid absorption by WBA resin can be shown as :-
H2SO4
2 HCl Cl
H2CO3 + R.OH R SO4 + CO2 + H2O + SiO2
SiO2
The weak base anion exchanger is regenerated after exhaustion by 1-4% NaOH. (Na2 Co3 or
NH4OH also can be used).
Cl
R SO4 + NaOH ROH + NaCl.
In this process chloride and sulphate get removed but not silica and carbon dioxide.
6.3.2 Demineralization with Silica removal
It is essential to remove Silica in many of the processes. Silica in High pressure boiler or in
ultrapure water required in electronic industries is considered to be harmful.
This is done by passing the cation effluent through a strong base anion exchanger Resin, which
has the capability of removing both carbon dioxide as well as SiO2 which are weak acids. SBA
resins also remove strong mineral acids like H2SO4 and HCl. In many instances removal of CO2
is done by mechanical. Means to reduce the load on anion resin. Removal of CO2 through
degasser reduces the operation cost of demineralising plant by saving on regenerant with little
addition on capital cost.
The reaction during service cycle in SBA resin is
H2SO4 Cl
H2SiO2 SO4
HCl + R OH R HCO3 + H2O
H2CO3 SiO2
For moderate removal of silica, Type II SBA resin is used. Where silica removal is critical Type
I SBA resin should be used.
In this process the treated water quality achievable is conductivity of 30 micro Siemens (30 micro
mhos) and SiO2 < 0.5 ppm and pH approximately 8.5 - 9. In counter current regeneration unit
conductivity less than 20 and pH around 7.5 - 8.5 is obtained.
6.4 Mixed Bed polisher

Industry requires more stringent quality of water than produced by two bed demineralising plant.
This can be achieved by using multiple of cation and anion pair in series. This can also be done
by using a mixture of strong acid cation resin and strong base anion resin in a single vessel. This
gives the effect of very large number of cation and anion pair in series. Consequently better
deionization is achieved than with alternating sequence of cation and anion exchanger units.
36
The quality of water obtained after mixed bed is highly pure. Conductivity of water is around 0.5
to 0.6 micro mhos and pH 6.8 - 7.2. Silica is less than 0.002 ppm.
The mixed bed process gives high purity of water obtained by Ion Exchange unit, particularly
when used after two bed convential system.
The mixed bed is regenerated after exhaustion by back washing to separate the two resin. The
cation and anion are separately regenerated by using acid and alkali respectively and rinsed in the
same unit. After regeneration the resin is remixed by oil free air. Details of regeneration
sequence is given later.
6.5 Degasser
A degasser also sometimes called decarbonator is used in conjunction with Ion Exchange units
for removal of CO2. Water flows downward from the degasser.
37
CHAPTER 7
Sequence of operation & regeneration of Ion Exchange

units
7.0 SEQUENCE OF OPERATION
The sequence of operation of all fixed bed ion exchange units are same except for mixed bed unit
which is dealt separately.
Sequence of operation is :-
1) Service
2) Regeneration
7.1 Service
Raw Water is passed through ion exchange unit till the required quality of water is being
produced. This is known as service cycle, when the resin gets exhausted, it will stop producing
the desired quality and will have to regenerated. Service flow can be down flow (top to bottom)
or upflow (bottom to top).
7.2 Regeneration
The restoration of resin back to its original form is called Regeneration. Depending upon the
resin, regeneration is usually done by using acid, alkali or common salt. These chemicals are
known as Regenerant.
Sequence of Regeneration for down flow unit is :-
1) Backwash
2) Chemical injection
3) Displacement (slow rinse)
4) Fast rinse or Final rinse
In the upflow unit upward wash is only done for a minute or so.
7.2.1 Backwash
This operation is done for Down flow unit. Backwash is done in opposite direction to the service
flow. The water flows from bottom to top through the resin removing the suspended matters and
resin fines. It also reclassifies the bed to prevent channeling. Backwash duration is usually 10-15
minutes but could be of more duration in case of fouled resin or older resin.
38
7.2.2 Regenerant Introduction
The regenerant can be acid, alkali or common salt depending upon the type of resin which has to
be regenerated. HCl or H2SO4 for cation exchanger, NaOH for anion exchanger can NaCl for
softening resin.
As defined earlier that regeneration is a process of restoring the resin back to its original form.
The is done by introducing predetermined amount of regenerant (chemical) solution of required
concentration in a given time with the help of a pump or an injector. Some contact time (20-45
minutes) is essential for regenerant introduction so as to have proper reaction.
The following care should be taken during regeneration :-
a) Quality of Regenerant
b) Concentration of regenerant
c) Regenerant injection time
d) Treated dilution water.
7.2.3 Displacement or Slow Rinse
Water is passed in the same direction in which regenerant was introduced. In other words it can
be considered as an extension of regenerant since final contact of regeneration is provided during
this operation. In the operation the salt formed during regeneration and also the excess regenerant
solution is flushed out.
Raw water is used for cation units and decationised water for anion units. For counter current
regenerated unit degassed water is used for both the units.
7.2.4 Fast or Final Rinse
Water is passed in the same direction as service flow to remove the salts and all traces of
regenerant chemicals. Fast rinse rate is same as service flow rate and is carried out till the desired
quality of water is obtained.
7.3 Upflow / Downflow units

The sequence of operation of Ion Exchange unit is same in both except that the service flow is
upwards i.e. water is introduced from bottom and treated water is collected from top, down flow
unit are in which the service water flows downward i.e. raw water is introduced from top and
treated water is collected from bottom.
39
7.4 Operation sequence of Mixed bed

Operation of a mixed bed is complicated and its regeneration is different from one which is
practiced for individual cation or anion exchange unit. The sequence of operation is as follows :-
1) Service
2) Regeneration
7.5 Service
Service cycle is similar to other ion exchange unit - the unit is run till the production of water of
desired quality stops.
7.6 Sequence of regeneration :-

1) Backwash
2) Settling
3) Acid injection
4) Acid Rinse
5) Caustic Injection
6) Caustic Rinse
7) Drain Down
8) Air mix
9) Final Rinse
7.6.1 Backwash
In mixed bed regeneration this step is very important, since two resins can be separated
and regenerated individually backwashing helps in separating the two resins because
anion resin is higher than the cation resin. The cation resin settles at the bottom.
7.6.2 Settling
After backwashing the resins are allowed to settle and classify before regenerant
are introduced.
7.6.3 Caustic Injection
The strongly basic anion resin is regenerated by passing 4-5% solution of NaOH
downwards through the resin bed and the spent regenerant is drained down by a lateral
system located at or near the separated resin interface. Upflow of the water is also
maintained so that caustic do not contaminate the cation resin.
7.6.4 Caustic Rinse
This is same as the displacement rinse of an individual ion exchange bed. The excess
caustic rinsed out in the same direction as the caustic injection.
40
7.6.5 Acid Injection
Acid can be injected upward or downwards. In majority of cases it is downwards, but

when acid and caustic are introduced simultaneously then acid injection is normally
upwards, in downward injection acid is introduced from middle collector lateral (lateral
at the resin interface) and the spent acid is drained down from the bottom. In upward
introduction of acid the acid is introduced from bottom and spent acid is collected at
middle collector.
7.6.6 Acid Rinse
The acid rinse is carried out in the same direction as acid flow to flush out the excess
regenerant.
7.6.7. Drain down
After regenerating both resins the excess water above the bed is drained down to
the surface of the bed.
7.6.8 Air Mix
Once both the resins are regenerated air is blown through the bottom distributor and
vented out of the air release pipe at the top of the vessel. The mechanical agitator
causes the resin to remix.
7.6.9 Refill
After remixing, the space above the resin bed is filled from the top to avoid disturbing
the bed.
7. 6. 10.Final Rinse
The final rinse is given by operating inlet and Rinse outlet valve. The final rinse is
downwards. The unit is taken into service once the specified conductivity is achieved.
Note : Down flow of water during acid injection and up flow during
caustic injection is generally maintained to prevent the diffusion of acid
to anion exchanger and caustic to cation exchanger. This is maintained
during the rinsing stage also.
41
7.7 Backwashing
Backwashing is the first step in the sequence of regeneration process. It is of considerable
importance in the regeneration sequence and serves to effect the following requirements.
1. Suspended impurities and particulate matters which escapes the primary filtration
accumulates on the resin bed because ion exchange resin are excellent filter
media. Resins are not used for conventional filtration and suspended solids are
limited to less than 2 ppm. Higher suspended solids can plug the resin beds which
can create high differential pressure across the resin bed. This differential pressure
apart from restricting the flow can also generate a net compressive force to break the
bends. Thus it is necessary to remove this dirt and accumulated matters and is achieved
by passing the water upflow to give typically 30-40% bed expansion.
2. Resin fines and fragmented resins are removed during backwashing.
3. Backwashing removes resin fines thus maintaining good hydraulic conditions of the
bed and also to prevent channeling and high pressure drop.
4. The upward flow lifts and expands the resin to remove the suspended impurities and
resin fines and resin grading. Resin grading or classification brings the coarser broken
resin to top and gets accumulated on the bed surface. This is removed by scrapping.
Periodical removal of these broken resin is very important otherwise it leads to
increased pressure drop and further breakage.
5. Backwashing also help in relieving bed compaction. This help in reducing the
pressure drop and also prevents channeling.
6. Backwashing classifies the resin bed and provides optimum condition for uniform flow
of regenerant, and service flow.
7. In Mixed Bed regeneration Back Wash is very essential since this is done to separate
the cation and anion resin before introducing the regenerant.
7.7.1 Important Guidelines to Backwashing
1. Back Wash should be carried out at specified rate. Low flow rates will not lift the bed
and properly expand. If expansion is not there the resin bed will also neither get cleaned
nor classify properly.
2. Higher than specified flow rates can cause of loss of good resin.
3. Back Wash flow is related to temperature. Resin manufacturers data sheets gives
flow rate to maintained at different temperature. The adjustment of backwash flow
rate in relation to temperature helps in maintaining a uniform backwash expansion
percentage.
42
4. Prolonged backwashing period than specified is an indication of pre-treatment

failure. Another possibility of longer backwash period is that impurities maybe coming
through the regenerant solution.
5. As already mentioned earlier periodical scrapping of fines resin is essential. This can
be done by giving extended backwash also known as open manhole backwash once in
three months or as per recommendation.
6. An air scour is aid to backwash. It is very helpful when the resin is Mud Fouled.
Air scour in pressure sand filters helps in reducing the backwash flow velocity.
7. The outlet distributor for backwash should be placed six inches above the
recommended resin expansion point to allow exit of fluidized particles.
8. Counter current regenerated ion exchange units are not backwashed during
every regeneration. It should be done once after 10-15 regeneration or as
recommended by supplier.
7.7. 2 Effects of improper Backwash
1. Non uniform flow will not allow the bed to settle properly and lead to channeling.
2. Low backwash flow rate will not allow sufficient backwashing. Suspended
impurities accumulated on the top of bed will not get removed thus causing high p and
channeling in the bed.
3. Backwash outlet if positioned too high will not allow the accumulated matter to
escape leading to high pressure drop and channeling.
4. Higher than specified backwash flow rate can result in loss of resin.
5. Fluctuating flow rates will not allow the bed to classify and cleaning will not be effective.
6. Backwash flow rates should be adjusted according to temperature. More flow is

required at higher temperature than colder temperature.
7. There are at times possible of gas release from BW water which can lead to resin loss.
43
7.8 Regeneration
Regeneration is a process of Restoring the exhausted resin back to its original form. This is done
by feeding respective regenerants (chemical like Acid, Alkali or Brine) to the resin for certain
duration. This duration is known as CONTACT TIME and is essential to maintain to have proper
reaction.
The quality and quantity by water produced is directly proportional to the Regenerant level and
methods of applying the regenerant chemical.
7.8.1 Regenerant Level
The amount of chemicals used to give the minimum leakage through the ion exchange bed is
known as Regenerant level.
There are two major methods of introducing chemical (regenerant) to an ion exchange unit. They
are Coflow or Cocurrent and Counterflow or Counter current
7.8.2 Co Flow Or Co current Regeneration
Co flow or cocurrent regeneration means that the regenerant is being introduced in the same
direction as the service flow.
Co flow regeneration is more common in downflow unit.
The regenerant solution when flows down ward, regenerates the resin bed. Its concentration
goes on reducing as it passes each layer of resin. Thus the bottom of bed is not properly
regenerated as it comes into contact with relatively weak regenerant solution compared to the top
of bed which receives the full concentration of the regenerant solution.
Treated water quality is dependent upon the chemical condition at the bottom of bed from where
the water flows out. There is leakage (slippage) of some unwanted ions since the bottom of bed
is not fully regenerated. Huge amount of chemical i.e. high regenerant level would be required to
regenerate this lower portion of the bed and make the system uneconomical. Keeping the
economical consideration in view some amount of slip is fixed and allowed in co-flow
regenerated unit.
7.8.2 Counter Current or counter flow Regeneration
The problem of leakage which we mentioned in co-current regeneration can be minimized to

considerable extent by counter current regeneration. The flow of regenerant solution in the
opposite direction to service flow is know as counter current regeneration. Counter flow in
chemical engineering means that the two flows should be simultaneous and opposite- For e.g. in a
degasser unit where water and air flow are simultaneous but in opposite direction. The
regeneration flow is not simultaneous with service flow but only in opposite direction but this
terminology has been accepted by all water treatment engineer.
The advantage in counter current unit is that the resin bed nearest to the outlet will receive the
most concentrated regenerant and would consequently be in the best possible condition to
44
minimize leakage. The overall effect is that there is a polishing layer of resin at the bed outlet
which ensures that ion exchange reaction is as complete as possible before the water leaves the
bed. Though this technique of regeneration is applicable to all ion exchange units, its major
advantage is in Demineralization process. The last portion of the resin bed nearest to the outlet
should never be disturbed. This is the reason for not backwashing the counter current
regenerated unit during every regeneration. Back wash is usually carried once after 10-15
regeneration cycle is over.
Proper regeneration of resin demands a compact bed. Fluidization of resin bed will not allow
good and efficient regeneration. The bed can be kept compact by any one of the methods :-
1. Water Hold down

2. Air Hold down
3. Split stream method.
In all three cases the flow of water, air or a portion of regenerant entering from the top exerts a
force on the resin thus keeping the bed compact. Both flow out through a buried collector in the
resin. This burried collector is known as Middle Collector.
Normal recommended regenerant concentration.
1. BRINE (NaCl solution) - 10 - 15%
2. HCl - 4 - 10%
for SACH + resin.
- 1-4%
for WAC resin
3. H2SO4 - 1.5 - 2% then

3.5 - 5%
4. NaOH - 5 + 1% for
SBA resin
1- 5 % for
WBA resin
7.8.3 Guidelines to regeneration
1. Regeneration should be injected at a specific concentration as specified by the

plant supplier. Higher concentration leads to osmotic shock to resin and very low
concentration leads to inefficient regeneration of Ion exchange resin.
2. It should be injected at specific flow rate to give required time of contact for chemical
with resin. A minimum of 20-30 minutes of contact time is necessary. Higher flow
rate will reduce this contact time and result in unsatisfactory regeneration.
3. One should be very careful when regenerating with sulphuric acid. Injection is
normally carried out in two stages, First with lower concentration ( 1-1.5%) and then
with higher concentration. A higher concentration than specified will lead to
calcium sulphate precipitation. This can further lead to resin damage.
45
CHAPTER 8
Treated water Quality
8.0 Introduction
Ion Exchange is an accepted method of producing treated water for industries variety of resins
are being used for the purpose about which we have already explained earlier. We are
summarizing the use of various resin in brief here so as to know the quality of treated water
achievable from each of them.
8.1 Weak acid cation resin

1) Dealkalization
2) Softening of High TDS water.
3) In Demineralization in conjunction with SAC where water has high alkalinity and
high hardness.
8.2 Strong acid cation resin

1) Softening
2) Demineralization
3) Partial demineralization or Dealkalization.
8.3 Weak base anion resin

1) Demineralization when removal of SiO2 and CO2 is not required.
2) Demineralization in conjunction with SBA in high EMA water.
8.4 Strong base anion resin

1) Demineralization for removal of SiO2 and CO2.
2) Dealkalization
8.5 Mixed bed resin

(Mixture of Cation / Anion)
1) For Producing Ultrapure water.
Ion Exchange operation is carried in a pressure vessel by passing feed water either uplfow or
down flow. The height and diameter of the vessel containing the ion exchange resin depends upon
the following factors :- 1) Method of operation 2) Volume of Resin 3) Flow rate.
It is essential for any person working on Ion Exchange plant to know the quality of treated water
obtainable from each unit. This knowledge is essential for smooth and successful operation of
DM plant. Deviation from specification can lead to process problems and also stoppage of water
treatment plant and in turn down the line equipments.
46
8.6 Product water from WAC

Weak acid cation resin remove hardness associated with alkalinity.
The service cycle starts with residual alkalinity in treated water ranging from near zero - i.e.
acidity leakage directly dependent on the mineral acidity present to about 10% of the influent
alkalinity at the end of service cycle. The pH at the start of run is 3.5 - 4.0 and around 5.5 - 6.0 at
the end of run.
8.7 Product water from SAC

8.7.1 Softening (SAC Resin in Na+ Form )
Softening is the process used for removal of hardness. The feed water containing hardness is
passed through the sodium form cation resin. Calcium and magnesium both being divalent
displace the monovalent sodium and gets attached to the resin. The treated water coming out of
the unit contains the Na ions which has been displaced by Ca and Mg.
As more and more untreated water passes the unit the resin goes on getting converted to Ca and
Mg form. The selectivity of resin for divalent compound is more than that for monovalent
ion. Higher molecular weight ion is preferred if both ions are of same valence. Ca ions having
higher molecular weight is preferred over Mg ions and thus displaces the Mg ions further down
the resin bed. Thus the top of the resin is enriched with Ca ion. Ca ions pushes the Mg ions
down the column which in turn pushes the Na ions. This cycle continues till the hardness
starts leaching out of the unit. This is known as Exhaustion. The ions which appears first
at the end of service cycle is predominantly is Mg ions. Being dependent on flow rate and
uniformity of flow distribution the band may not be totally distinct.
The effluent hardness is less than 5 ppm for low TDS water but is about 1% of the total
influent hardness in a co-flow regenerated unit depending upon the regenerant level.
8.7.2 Demineralizing (SAC Resin in H+ Form )
In SAC Resin in Na+ form only hardness is removed. In SAC Resin in Hydrogen form, all the
cations including sodium ions are exchanged for H+ ions.
The effluent from a regenerated cation unit will be acidic, It will contain free mineral acidity
(FMA) nearly equal to equivalent mineral acidity (EMA) in the feed and free Co2 generated by
decationization of alkaline salts in the raw water. There will be no hardness. The only cation
from the feed that is present in the effluent is the sodium ion that has slipped through the column.
The difference between the EMA at times also referred as Theoretical Mineral Acidity (TMA)
and the FMA in the cation effluent is cation leakage which is sodium ions that has slipped
through the column.
The amount of sodium slip is influenced by following factors :-
1) Regeneration level
2) Sodium content of Raw water
3) EMA of raw water.
47
The sodium slip is thus fixed for a given water and regeneration level.
In co-flow regenerated unit the actual slip characteristics shows high leakage (slip) at the start of
service cycle and drops to constant value for a major portion of the run and then rises again near
exhaustion. For counter flow regenerated unit the slip is constant through out the cycle and is
independent of other factors mentioned above.
To check the exhaustion point of a cation unit the following parameters are determined.
FMA : The FMA is nearly constant during run. At exhaustion the FMA value will drop
and the pH of the effluent will rise.
Hardness : It should be nil at the point of exhaustion.
pH : pH should be nearly constant during the run and will start rising when the resin
is nearing exhaustion. If EMA varies during the run, as it happens in some
surface supplies or mixture of water, the FMA and pH also may vary.
8.8 Product water from Degasser

Degasser is used in conjunction with Ion Exchange resin for removal of CO2 by mechanical
means. The analysis of Degasser effluent will remain same as cation effluent with the value of
CO2 being approximately 5 ppm, depending upon the actual ambient temperature.
Same test should be done for degassed effluent as done for cation effluent through they are likely
and should have the same analysis. This will help in trouble shooting a degasser.
8.9 Product water from WBA
WBA resins are used in Demineralization system when weak acids (Silica and CO2, removal is
not necessary. There are some application where removal of only strong anions are sufficient. For
eg :-
1) Mirror silvering
2) Ceramic processing
3) Rinse water in plating and glass manufacture
The effluent from the weak base anion exchanger will contain same amount of silica as in the
feed water. The CO2 content of the effluent will be equal to free CO2 content of raw water plus
the CO2 formed during passing through cation exchanger. The CO2 is removed in a Degasser.
This happens when the unit is placed before the degasser.
WBA resin hold divalent sulphate ions more tightly than the monovalent bicarbonate and chloride
ion, the leakage of anions in the effluent consists mainly of these ions. The service cycle starts
with alkaline pH and at the end of run the acidity break through. Chlorides will be the first to
appear in the effluent at the point of exhaustion and is measured for terminating velocity, pH at
the start of run is around 9 and goes on gradually falling and is near 5 during exhaustion. The
conductivity of less than 40 - 50 mhos is considered normal for co-flow regenerated cation
water and less than 20 mhos for counter current regenerated cation unit.
48
8.10 Product water from SBA

The treated effluent coming out of SBA (Strong Base Anion) column is free from all anions
including silica and carbon-di-oxide which are absorbed by SBA resin. Thus this effluent is
practically demineralised. The effluent will have no chloride or sulphate, is low in silica content.
It was already mentioned earlier that cation effluent contain some sodium leakage. This sodium
leakage is thus converted to sodium hydroxide. Hence the effluent pH of two bed column using
SAC and SBA resin will be alkaline. There will be some P-Alkalinity which is direct proportion
to the sodium slip from cation unit. Conductivity and pH is also dependent on sodium slip. The
following parameters are monitored for smooth functioning of the unit.
Conductivity < 30 mhos
Rise in conductivity indicates an exhaustion of either a cation or anion unit.
pH -- 8 - 9.5
Silica < 0.5 ppm
8.11 Product water from Mixed bed

The stringent water quality criteria required in many process cannot be achieved by two bed ion-
exchange system. For eg. water for injection, water for high pressure boiler, water for electronic
industries specify water conductivity to be less than 1 mhos and pH to be near neutral. This is
achieved by installing a mixed bed column and is called polishing unit. The basic working
principle as already been explained earlier.
The effluent from a mixed bed is extremely pure demineralised water. The pH of the water is
around 7 (approximately between 6.5 - 7.5) conductivity is less than 1 mhos and silica is less
than 0.002 ppm. Total electrolyte is less than 1 ppm. Silica value in the treated water is
dependent on silica in effluent, regenerant level employed and the temperature of regenerant
solution.
Mixed bed treated water are extremely pure and hence an excellent solvent. The sampling and
estimation must be done carefully to avoid errors. Inspite of extreme care taken there is still
possibility of CO2 from air getting dissolved in the sample during analysis, thus showing acidic
pH in the effluent. It can go as low as 5.5 pH and conductivity be temperature dependent,
correction should be made accordingly. This is the reason that on-line measurement of pH and
conductivity is very important.
The exhaustion of mixed bed is sharp. Conductivity and silica will be constant through out the
run, sharp rise in conductivity or silica or both is observed with the exhaustion of mixed.
Intermediate rise in conductivity or silica could mean that the preceding Anion or Cation unit is
not functioning as per specification.
8.12 Important points to observe in treated Water Quality

The important points mentioned below helps in ensuring the smooth operation and rectification if
deviating from specification of Ion exchange columns.
49
1. WAC, when used in conjunction with SAC H+ unit, the service cycle is extended
till hardness breaks through.
2. In counter current regenerated cation unit the sodium slip should be constant through
out the service cycle.
3. The P-Alkalinity directly reflects the sodium slip from the cation unit. A slip of 1
ppm sodium gives a P-value of 1 ppm.
4. A conductivity of or upto 30 mhos anf pH of 8-9.5 is considered satisfactory for a Co-

flow regenerated two bed demineralization unit.
5. A conductivity of or upto 15 mhos and pH of 7 - 8.5 is considered satisfactory

for counter flow regenerated two bed demineralization unit.
6. A rise in conductivity and a drop in pH indicates exhaustion of ANION unit.
7. A rise in conductivity as well in pH indicates exhaustion of CATION unit.
8. Chloride test will confirm the exhaustion of ANION unit.
9. When Silica is taken to determine the break through point, it must be determined
at periodic intervals or better monitored with an on line silica analyzer.
10. Rule of thumb can be used to check the SiO2 break through with a conductivity meter.
When silica break through, there is dip in conductivity from constant value
and then gradually rises. This dip corresponds to silica break through. A conductivity
recorder at an Anion outlet will therefore be advisable.
11. Treated water from MB outlet will be pure and will have pH around 6.8 to 7.2 and
conductivity less than 1 mhos. In laboratory measurement there are chances of
samples getting contaminated with atmospheric CO2 and the pH of MB water will be
acidic. The pH can will be around 5.5
12. Ultra pure water has conductivity almost near zero, which is very difficult to measure
and hence normally for this water the resistivity is measured. The resistivity for ultra
pure water is about 15-18 mega ohm.
50
SECTION 4
ION EXCHANGE PROBLEMS & TROUBLE SHOOTING
RESIN FOULING AND REGRADATION
RESIN MAINTENANCE
51
CHAPTER 9
Ion exchange Problems & Troubleshooting

I
9.0 Introduction
The physical and chemical complexities of the Ion Exchange process and the number of variables
involved are so high that smooth operation is not always a rule. Changes in any one variable for
example say Raw Water composition can result in poor quality and as well as quantity of treated
water from the best designed plant. Most of the time it is not one but interrelated occurrence that
cause the trouble.
As explained earlier the quality and quantity of treated water from Ion Exchange system depends
upon the following factors :-
1) Type and make of Resin

2) Resin Quantity
3) Influent water quality
4) Regenerant level
5) Method of Regeneration
6) Temperature
7) Degree of pre treatment
8) Intervals
9) Quality of regeneration
10) Operation of the Plant
Understanding the kinds of problems that can occur with Ion exchange systems will help one to
avoid them most of the time and cure them when they do come about.
9.1 Problem sources

1) Changes in influent water quality composition, suspended and colloidal impurities,
organic slippage.
2) Physical and chemical deterioration of Resin like formation of Resin fines, Resin loss
due backwash, pressure drop, oxidation of resin by chlorine and other oxidants, Resin
fouling etc.
3) Equipment and instrument problems like Breaking of distributor laterals strainers,

plugged distributor, Broken or plugged regenerant distributor. Faulty ejector or
pump. Improperly calibrated instruments, valves.
4) Operation problems like wrong opening of valves, improper regeneration, improper

concentration of chemicals, degasser blower not switched on.
52
9.1.1 Performance and operation problems in Ion Exchange Plant
Whenever the operating parameter differs from the design parameter, performance problems are
encountered. Improper operation and in adequate maintenance can lead to equipment problems.
Quality and quantity of treated water is effected both by wrong operation as well as by equipment
problems.
Major performance problems can be :
1) Loss of output between regeneration
2) Failure to produce treated water of specified quality from individual unit.
3) Excessive pressure drop across the unit
Major equipment problems can be classified as :-
1) Flow instruments
2) Broken regenerant distributor
3) Damaged under drain
4) Damaged inlet distributor
5) Leaking or passing valves
6) Pumps & Blowers
7) Vessels and piping
8) Instrumentation
9.2 Loss of output

If specified quantity of treated water cannot be obtained from the Ion Exchange unit. The
possible causes could be due to the following :-
1) Changes in Raw water composition compared to design figure.
2) Loss of resin
3) Improper regeneration procedure
4) Regenerant concentration.
9.2.1 Changes in Raw Water Composition
If there is loss of output from Ion Exchange unit, the present raw water analysis should be
compared with design value. If there is increase in Ionic load in the present influent water in
comparison to the design value there will be loss in output and this loss of output will be
proportional to increase in ionic load. The output will increase correspondingly if ionic load
decreases.
53
9.2.2 Resin Loss
The output is directly proportional to the amount of resin quantity. Hence any loss in resin will
result in capacity. This can be found out by comparing the present bed depth to the bed depth
measured during initial resin charging. How to measure bed depth is given in :-
9.2.3 Improper regeneration
In case there is no significant loss in feed water composition or resin loss, then the problem could
be due to improper regeneration. Improper regeneration could be due to one of the following
reasons :-
1) Amount of regenerant chemical

2) Regenerant flow rate
If the amount of regenerant chemical is less, the resin will not get charged properly and this will
lead to loss in output.
The regenerant should have sufficient contact time. Less or more contact time, both can lead to
loss of output.
9.2.4 Regeneration flow rate
Regeneratio flow rate recommended by Resin manufacture for water treatment operation are :-
For HCl - 4 - 8 M3/hr./M3

For NaOH - 2 - 4 M3/hr./M3
For H2SO4 - 4 - 12 M3/hr./M3
9.2..5 Regenerant Concentration
The concentration of regenerant chemical should be checked. Low or high concentration of

regenerant chemical can both lead to loss in output. If concentration is low, inefficient
regeneration will take place. If high for example in H2 So4 regeneration calcium sulphate
precipitation can take place.
These should be in the following ranges :-
HCl - 4% - 10%
NaOH - 4 % - 7%
Cocurrent H2SO4 - 2% upwards staged regeneration with strong acid cation resin with weak acid
cation resins 0.7% at 8 M3/hr./M3. Counter current H2SO4 4%.
9.2.6 Flow integrator
The flow integrator establishes the accurate measurement of output. Faulty instrument can lead
to premature cut off of the unit.
54
9.3 End points

Hardness, conductivity, silica are usually measured to determine the end point (exhaustion).
When the unit is reaching exhaustion, end points should be determined very accurately.
9.4 Resin analysis

If all the points listed above are as per specifications, resin sample should be taken and analyzed.
Approximately 1 liter of resin sample will be adequate.
9.5 Failure to produce specified quality of water

The failure to produce specified quality treated water will depend upon the specific Ion
Exchange unit. The causes for deteriorating water quality from each Ion Exchanged bed is given
in the tabulated form.
Quality of water can also deteriorate due to resin fouling. Various type of foulants which can
contaminate the Ion Exchange resin is given in Chapter-10.
55
TABLE 9.1
Failure to produce specified quality water
Unit Problem Causes Remedies
Weak Acid Desired alkalinity not Under regeneration Regeneration should be done
Cation obtained flow rate at minimum of 110% of
Stoichiometric requirement.
When WAC is used in

conjunction with SAC it should
be ensured that there is
sufficient amount of spent
acid from SAC to regenerate
WAC.
The specific flow rate should

be limited to 40 BV/hr.
Strong High sodium leakage Change in water Increase in Na/TC in raw

Acid Cation Hardness leakage Composition water can cause sodium
leakage. Regenerant level
Improper regeneration will have to be increased to
keep the sodium leakage
Continually over- down.
exhausting
Channeling by Resin Inadequate or improper rege-

fines, broken distri- neration can lead to both
butors or underdrain sodium and hardness leakage
collection system. Regeneration should be
carried out as per supplier
instruction.
Low flow rate When regeneration with H2SO4

proper care should be taken to
avoid precipitation of calcium
sulphate. Sulphuric acid
regeneration is normally done
in two stages.
First with low concentration
which is calculated as
5 {1- Ca ppm CaCO3}
total cation CaCO3)
56
TABLE 9.1(Continued)
Units which are over exhausted

will not be properly regenerated
with normal quantity of
regenerant as specified and
would require more acid.
Resin fouling and resin loss

could also be the cause and
hence should be checked and
corrective action should be
taken.
The flow rate should not be too

low and should be maintained
above 0.5 gpm / ft3.
Weak Base Increased mineral Under regeneration Regeneration should be ensured

Anion acidity leakage at 10-125 OF Stoichiometric
Flow rate requirement when used in
conjunction with SBA enough
Conductivity meter spent caustic should be
available to regenerate WBA.
Check and calibrate the

conductivity meter.
Flow rate should not be more

than 40 BV/hr.
Strong Base High conductivity Cation not functioning Improper functioning of cation
Anion properly will effect anion performance.
Sodium slip from cation will
Improper regeneration lead to increase in pH and
conductivity 1 ppm of Na slip
Conversion of strong give rise approximately to
Base group to weak 5-6 Mhos conductivity.
base group.
Check all regenerate parameters
Organic fouling like amount of regenerant
dilution etc.
Silica Hydrolysis Conversion of strong base to

weak group is indicated by resin
Organic fouling swelling and also it takes long
time to rinse out NaOH. Resin
Improper regeneration samples should be analyzed.
57
TABLE9.1(continued)
Silica leakage above normal can

occur in SBA/WBA through fair
regeneration due to hydrolysis
effect. This can be avoided by
draining first 30% of spent
caustic to drain or re diluting the
same to 2%.
Check and calibrate the

conductivity meter.
Flow rate should not be more

than 40 BV/hr.
Mixed Bed Conductivity not Improper regeneration Regeneration should be carried

achieved out as specified.
Air mixing not proper Air mixing should be

thorough. In case after final
rinse quality is not achieved
re air mix and then rinse.
Organic fouling Solution same as for SBA.
Improper Backwash Backwash is very important part

of MB regeneration.If the resins
do not get separated properly
then proper regeneration cannot
be done.
Silica leakage Same as above MB is widely used for silica

removal in case the separation
by backwash is not proper, then
there are chances of silica
polymerization.
For organic fouling Brine wash

for Anion resin should be given.
58
TABLE 9.2
Trouble shooting guide for ion exchange unit
Problem - Reduced Capacity OR poor effluent quality
Defects Causes Remedies
1. Change in Raw water Increase in TDS Obtain new water analysis.

composition
% change in Na/TC or Set water meter to new capacity.
Alk/TA
Calculate new capacity to the
increased load.
Degassifier not working
(Applicable to anion unit) Rectify degasser.
2. Service cycle be Flow meter not working Check, rectify or replace.

exceeded
Recalibrate or replace if not
functioning.
Conductivity meter not Electrodes worn-out (Replanitize)

working or working
inaccurately Check to see if electrodes receiving
representative calibrate sample.
3. Faulty regeneration In sufficient chemical Check and follow proper regeneration

procedure
Weak regenerant (less Check and rectify.
Chemical or too much
dilution water)
Poor distribution of Faulty internal distributor. Rectify

regenerant packed bed
Sulphuric acid concen- Check

tration high.
Sulphuric acid introdu- Rectify

ction time too slow
Ejector not functioning Check ejector. May be checked.

In sufficient power water to
Ejector.
4. Loss of ion exchange High back wash flow rate Check flow rate and water
material temperature water temperature.
Do not exceed specified limit (see
note on backwash)
TABLE 9.2 (continued)
59
Trouble shooting guide for ion exchange unit (Continued )

Chemical attack by Dechlorinate. Check performance of

oxidizing agent ACF Unit. If no ACF unit is there,
(e.g. chlorine) use reducing agent (like sodium
sulphite).
Excessive high pressure Check and rectify

flow rate
Upset supporting bed or Check for resin in effluent or resin

damaged underdrain. trap. Rectify bottom distributor.
5. Fouling of Ion Oxidised iron or manga- Air, chlorine or other oxidizing agent
Exchange material nese in raw water can oxidize iron and manganese.
(Normally effects cation)
Cleaning by HCl for cation or by

Brine for Anion.
6. Channeling or short Excessive turbidity in raw Elimination of cause of

Circuting water fouling by proper pretreatment.
Excessive Resin fines Ensure proper functioning of pre-

treatment.
Backwash, scrap and top up with new

resin.
Resin degraded Chemical attack to resin, Rectify.
Excessive high flow rates Check specification and operate

or operating pressure accordingly.
Inert Resin will prevent cross

contamination of resins by
regenerants (NaOH/Cation
HCl/anion.)
7. Dirty or packed bed See fouling of resins Solution same as provided there.
Short circuiting for
possible cause
8. Restricted flow Obstructions in pipelines Inspect pipeline clean and remove

pump meter etc. obstruction.
Damaged Rubber lining Replace pipe with good rubber lining
60

Valves not properly Open valve fully (except control

opened valve)
Strainer clogged, due to Clean strainers (For removal of resin

dirt and resin fines. fines sec in the appropriate heading)
9. Pump not delivering See pump trouble See pump trouble shooting chart for
shooting chart for cause solution.
10. Excessive Rinsing Organic fouling of Anion Brine treatment or treatment by

resin. Sodium hypochlorite solution under
guidance.
11. Improper Regeneration Increased concentration See method for regeneration.

of sulphuric acid in cation
regeneration.
Regenerant dosage too Use correct regeneration procedure.

low or too weak.
Inadequate backwash Give extended backwash (30 minutes

or more) to clean the bed.
Damaged under drain or Replace or rectify.

Inter distributor.
12. Low Service flow rate Very low service flow Have storage system and operate at
rates increases leakage higher flow rate intermittently or use
from unit. recycle system.
13. Valve leakage Defective valve Rectify or replace.
14. Normal ageing of ion Ageing process is normally Replace old resins with new resins
exchange resins slow for cation resin life is
5-10 years. For anion 3-5
years.
15. Inadequate mixing or Not enough air Check air requirement and blower
resin applies to mixed capacity.
bed only.
Air mixing time too short It should not be less than ten minutes
Improper draining before Entire water should not be drained

air mixing operation normally water level should be just
above resin level.
61

16. Relative location of Loss of cation resin can Add cation resin check for internals
interface distributor lead to this problem like, broken laterals, loose strainer
(applies to mixed bed) Add inert resin etc.
Improper dilution of Check and rectify
regenerant
Pockets of regenerant in See Short Circuiting and

portions of bed leachout Channeling
during run.
62
TABLE 9.3
Trouble shooting Softener
Problem Cause Action
1. Loss of Capacity Increase in raw water Increase Brine, add more resin if
hardness. Change in possible (Not possible in upflow
Na/Ca ratio. Packed bed system) check.
Over exhaustion of unit in Normal regeneration does not

previous run. Restore capacity, use double
regeneration, adjust end of run.
Fouling with iron, manganese Check raw water analysis, give

or aluminum acid wash to resin (In separate
Fouling with dirt, mud etc. Vessel if the unit is not rubber
lined). Give extended backwash
and check for proper working
of pretreatment.
Resin life Consult supplier, recharge if

resin is very old.
Loss of 5% per year in capacity
is considered normal.
Poor distribution channeling Check pretreatment, flow

short circuiting. rate too low, check for broken
distributor plugged distributor.
2. Poor quality of treated Valve leakage Check backwash inlet valve

water Close all valve and see the PG.
Increase in pressure indicates
that inlet valve is passing, See
valves.
Flow rate too high Contact time not sufficient.

Reduce flow rate.
Low flow rate Check in Loss of Capacity

Poor distribution.
Run at higher flow rate.
63

Trouble shooting Softener
Unit idle Do not keep plant idle. If water

requirement is less recycle
water from unit.
Fouled resin Check and clean with acid.
Low temperature Rare in Indian condition Rate

of reaction slow.
Dirty resin Give extended Backwash

periodically give open manhole
backwash.
64
TABLE 9.4
Trouble shooting Cation unit
Loss of Capacity Improper regeneration Carry regeneration as per specification.
Change in raw water Increase acid quantity

characteristics, Increase in
Na/TC.
Over exhaustion of unit Normal acid will not restore capacity

increase acid quantity.
Channeling Remove resin fines

Replace broken strainer or laterals
Faulty distribution system-check and
rectify.
Loss of Resin Inspect resin bed depth

Control Backwash flow.
Resin fouling 1. Get Resin analyze

2. Clean with acid
3. Replace if analyze too much
decrosslinking and broken
beads.
Poor Quality of treated Valve leakage Action same as mentioned in softener

water
Higher flow greater than Increase Na/TC has more profound
normal design range effect on leakage from increased flow
increases leakage. rate
Low flow rate The flow rate should be maintained

above 0.5 GPM/ft3 of resin.
Temperature Does not have much effect except

for very low temperature
Increased TDS Increased leakage (Analyze and correct)
Valve leakage, High flow rate, change

in Raw water. Inefficient regeneration.
High sodium slip Over exhaustion (Double injection)

in treated water Improper regeneration (Correct)
65
TABLE 9.5
Trouble shooting Weak base anion unit
1. Loss of capacity Increase in EMA in raw Add more Resin, Increase regenerant
water chemical for plant in use.
Rinsing time increases Resin oxidised to weak acid (Retains

Na), Replace resin, Try regeneration
by Ammonia, Recycle rinse water.
Silica Fouling Problem normally occurs when WBA

/ SBA combination is used. Clean
with hot caustic, In thorough fare
regeneration of WBA/SBA drain 1/3
of spent of caustic before feeding
it to WBA.
Flow rates Operate at specified flow rate.
Precipitation by Ca,Mg etc Use decationised or deminieralised

water for dilution of regenerant.
Check cation unit functioning.
Improper working of cation leads
to anion problem.
2. Poor treated water Chloride in treated water Check cation, Analyse regenerant
quality for chloride, Regenerant valve
leaking (Check). Chloride leaking
to sodium leakage normal.
High pH Cation not operating properly.

leaking valve (normally the
regenerant valve).
Low pH, High conductivity Backwash valve leaking
Treated water contains Check cation, check degasser

hardness (especially water treatment plants
suited near cement plant.) Hardness
in regenerant and Regenerant
dilution water.
High sodium content Get resin analyzed for resin

in treated water oxidation
Resin escapes from cation unit to
WBA unit due to Broken laterals.
Check, give more rinse
66
Trouble shooting Weak base unit (Continued)
Ion leakage Valve leaks, channeling, High or low

flow etc.
Resin Fouling Chemically clean, carryout

pretreatment.
67
TABLE 9.6
Trouble shooting Strong base anion unit
1 Loss of capacity Increase in Ionic load Put more resin, use more regenerant
check for Degasser functioning.
Long Rinsing time Cation not working, fouled resin.

Give brine treatment.
Increase in Alkalinity Check
Fouled Resin Chemically clean with hot caustic
Precipitation by Ca, Mg. Check Regenerant for Ca/Mg etc.

Check cation if regenerated by
H2SO4. Use Decationised or DM
water for dilution.
Resin ageing Use specified concentration of NaOH.
Bacterial contamination Unit idle. Do not keep unit idle. Very

important where high purity water
required.
Heavy metal fouling Iron in regenerant or through leakage

from cation. Damaged Rubber lining.
2. Poor treated water High pH, high Check cation. Do more Rinsing,
quality conductivity Check conductivity meter.
Low pH, High Check anion. Regeneration not carried

conductivity properly. Organic fouling, check pH
meter.
High silica Resin organically fouled. (Clean

chemically). Carry regeneration as
per specification. Regenerant
temperature low (carry regeneration
by hot caustic). High service water
temperature, check.
Chloride leakage Valve leakage, chloride in regenerant

WBA not working silica precipitation
in WBA. Rectify.
Hardness Check cation. Use decationised or DM

water for dilution and rinsing.
68
TABLE 9.6 (Continued )
Trouble shooting strong base anion unit (Continued)
Sodium leakage Check raw water for sodium, check

cation for sodium slip, sodium slip give
rise in conductivity and pH (1 ppm of no
slip give rise to 5-6 micro mhos of
conductivity.
69
TABLE 9.7
Trouble shooting Mixed bed
1. Loss of capacity Organic fouling of Check and rectify as mentioned earlier

anion loss of resin. For individual unit.
Excessive Rinsing Organically fouled, clean.
Improper regeneration Channeling poor distribution. Check

laterals and strainers use correct
quantity of regenerant.
Exhaustion of cation/ MB need not be considered to be

anion unit exhausted. Most MBs are designed
for 3-4 runs of Anion and cation.
Pressure drop Valve not opened fully. Broken or

blocked internals. High flow rate Resin
fine etc.
Bacterial growth Unit idle. Check, Recycle water.
2. Treated Water Low pH Anion resin organically fouled Clean,

quality poor Check Blower, Air Mixing not proper,
See not on acid leakage from MB.
High pH Cation/Anion not working, check,

Regeneration not proper, check Increase
in ionic load.
Silica leakage Organic fouling clean. Improper

regeneration. Over exhaustion.
Clumping Happens with new resin, Give Brine

treatment.
High conductivity Air mix not proper, Insufficient air,

Fouled resin, Back wash not proper,
Improper regeneration, Channeling /
poor distribution.
General poor quality Loss of inert resin, Loss of cation resin

if no inert resin, Middle collector not in
proper position, Backwash not proper
Air mixing not proper.
70
TABLE 9.8
Trouble shooting Degasser unit
1. High residual CO2 from Choked suction filter Check and Clean.
Degasser.
Improper air flow to Check damper, blower speed

Degasser discharge pressure.
Degasser blower not Check and operate blower.

Switched on during
service run.
Broken air seal. Air Check and replace fitting,

seal not fit. Results in provide air seal.
Short circuiting.
2. Flooding in Degasser Very high flow rate
Packed tower choked Open and check, Replace

due to director broken broken packing.
packing material.
First layer of packing Arrange as per instructions.

Not arranged properly.
3. Dirt/Dust in air Degasser sucks dust Install air filter

(Normally in Cement and and dirt into water. Periodic cleaning of suction
Allied Industries) This can lead to clogg- filter.
ing of Anion unit.
Chokes suction filter.
71
CHAPTER 10
Resin fouling & Degradation
10.0 Introduction
Ion Exchange resin can be fouled by various contaminants. This can reduce the ion exchange
reaction kinetics and hinder the exchange process. Apart from chemical fouling the resins can
degrade due to physical abuse also - like temperature, pressure etc.
10.1 Causes of resin fouling

This can occur in different form as given below :-
1) Organic fouling usually affecting Ion Exchange resin.

2) Iron and manganese fouling
3) Oil fouling
4) Mud / poly electrolyte fouling
5) Calcium sulphate fouling
6) Silica fouling
7) Bacterial fouling
10.2 Organic fouling

Organic fouling usually affects anion exchange resin and this lead to deterioration in performance
of Demineralization plant. The indication of organic fouled resin can manifest in any one of the
following ways :-
1) Low pH of treated water

2) High conductivity
3) High silica leakage
4) Higher Rinse volume
5) Loss of output
6) Colour in the effluent
Strong Base Anion are prone to organic fouling because of its ability to remove weakly
dissolved acids, adsorb organic acids and salts from the cation effluent. Organic materials in well
waters are comparatively negligible in comparison to surface water. Inspite of pretreatment or
due to failure in pretreatment, some residual organics escape and slowly over a period of time
block the resin sites and pores. This leads to long final rinse and also deteriorating effluent
quality like low pH high conductivity, silica.
Anion resins are much more costlier in comparison to cation resin and thus both the capital as
well as operational cost of demineralization plant is dependent upon it. The operation cost is high
because the regeneration of anion is done by caustic soda which is expensive.
72
The methods adopted to protect anion resins from organic fouling are :-
1) Use of Macro porous resin

Macro porous resin are more resistant to organic fouling due to their pore
structure but have less capacity than gel type resin.
2) WBA before SBA
Weak Base Anion resin are more resistant to organic fouling and in many
instances they precede the strong base anion resin. This protect the strong anion
from fouling.
3) Organic Scavenger
Specialty Ion exchange resin which are capable of absorbing organics are
incorporated as a pretreatment before demineralization.
Inspite of the precaution taken, there may still be some chances of resin getting fouled. It is then
cleaned by giving Brine/Caustic wash. Even other wise it is a good practice to give periodical
Brine/Caustic wash. This period can be once in year, or once in three month or once in a month,
depending upon the influent water quality, type of resin and design of plant.
10.3 Iron fouling

Iron can occur in water supplies as Ferrous iron, Ferric iron, Ferrous hydroxide, Ferric hydroxide
and organic iron.
Iron can be present as :-
a) Suspended insoluble iron which can be filtered out of the ion exchange bed.
b) Soluble ferrous iron oxidised to ferric from after adsorption on cation exchange resin.
c) Soluble iron that is oxidised to ferric form after adsorption on cation exchange resin.
The suspended iron can be removed by BACKWASHING prior to each regeneration. This will
ensure that the material will not accumulate on the Ion Exchange bed.
The formation of ferric hydroxide precipitate when occurs can not be removed by normal
backwashing. An effective method of clean up is by use of SODIUM HYDRO SULPHATE
which is a reducing agent.
The third classification is the most trouble some and coats the cation resin preventing further ion
exchange to take place. Normal recommendation is to clean up the resin with 10% hydro
chloric acid. In case the unit is not rubber lined the resin should be taken out into some plastic
container and then given HCl wash.
Organic Iron if not removed earlier will pass through the cation resin and foul cation resin.
73
10.4 Oil fouling

Oil can enter water in number of ways. Leakage through pumps and other equipments which are
lubricated could be the cause. Hence it is very important to removal oil if it is present in feed
water to Ion Exchange unit. If the oil is not removed it will coal the ion exchange resin and block
the exchange sites. In case the resin is fouled by oil. It is cleaned by using propriety surfactants.
Non ionic surfactants are used for oil fouled anion resin.
10.5 Mud fouling

Mud fouling of Ion Exchange resin can occur if there is no pretreatment, inadequate pretreatment
or filters which are not functioning properly. It is very essential that necessary pretreatment is a
must to water before it is feed to ion exchange unit. It is also possible for mud fouling to occur
through poor quality regenerant especially brine. In case the mud fouling as occurred it cannot be
removed by simple back washing but has to be given an open manhole backwashing at slightly
higher flow rate. This is also referred to as an extended backwash.
10.6 Calcium sulphate precipitation
In many instances sulphuric acid (H2So4) is used for regeneration. Normal process of
regeneration with sulphuric acid is to first dilute solution of acid and then in the next state more
concentrated acid is passed. At the end of service cycle top of the bed is concentrated with
calcium ions. If acid is passed in high concentration or low flow rate, precipitation of calcium
sulphate will occur on the resin bed. Retrieval of resin fouled with heavy calcium sulphate
precipitate is not possible and is normally discarded. Mild fouling of calcium sulphate
precipitation can be rectified by soaking the resin in 10% HCl for few hours.
10.7 Silica fouling

Silica removal is very essential in many processes. Its removal is of extreme importance in high
pressure boiler and ultrapure water for electronic industries. The method adopted for removal of
silica is by using strong base anion resin.
Silica fouling can occur as a result of incomplete regeneration of strong base anion resin. In
weak base resin silica fouling can occur due to high silica in spent caustic used to regenerate
WBA resin. Silica that remains on the resin bed polymerizes in subsequent service cycle under
the influent acid pH condition. The silica so accumulated causes reduction of exchanger capacity
and present itself by alkaline hydrolysis as higher than specified silica leakage. This can be
further compounded by the presence of organic matter fouling the anion resin.
The silica fouled resin is cleaned by soaking the resin in warm caustic soda (about 40-45 Deg.C.).
To prevent the fouling of WBA resin by silica, one third of the spent caustic is first drained and
then fed to WBA. It is better to regenerate the anion resin with warm caustic solution to avoid
silica precipitation.
10.8 Microbiological fouling

Microbiological fouling can occur on resin beds because the growth is supported by the resin
itself by providing nutrition for micro biological activity. This normally happens on an idle ion
74
exchange bed. Micro biological fouling on some instances can be so severe that it can interfere
with flow pattern and internal distribution system. It can also lead to mechanical damage due to
excessive pressure drop across the resin bed. If this happen then it has to be cleaned up by using
oxidants like sodium hypochlorite. Extreme care should be taken since it can oxidize the resin
itself. Water should be recirulated on continual basis on stand by or idle units.
10.9 Resin degradation

The resin can get irreversible degraded by oxidants such as chlorine. The oxidants can attack
both cation and anion resin. Thermal degradation of Anion resin can take place due to over
heating during regeneration or service cycle. It can also degrade due to organic fouling.
The following methods are adopted to prevent resin degradation :-

1) Pre chlorination and clarification to remove organic contaminants.
2) Dechlorination through activated carbon removal of residual chlorine.
3) Use of macroporous resin.
10.10 Pressure drop across resin bed

There will be some resistance to flow of water by Ion exchange resin bed. This manifest itself as
pressure drop or head loss.
The pressure drop will be due to two reasons :-
1) Due to vessel and internals

2) Pressure drop to resin component itself.
The vessel pressure drop is due to wall effects and also due to internals inlet distribution and
under bed collection system.
Pressure drop across the resin component depends on following factors :-
1) Water temperature
2) Density of water
3) Viscosity of water
4) Resin void volume
5) Resin particle size
6) Solid content of resin
7) Shape of resin
8) Resin particle diameter
9) Surface of resin
10) Wall effects.
These parameters are taken care of during design stage itself designed pressure drop for to given
unit is calculated by calculation resin pressure drop and pressure drop due to vessel and internal.
Further increase in pressure drop than specified is normally due to external reasons. Increased
pressure drop can lead to flow restriction and stoppage of plant. It can also result in costly
75
replacement. Before this happens, the cause should be investigated and suitable corrective action
taken.
Major external problems are :-
1) Inlet distribution system
2) Under bed collection system
3) Flow meter Increased flow rate
4) Resin wall
5) Resin fines
6) Poor backwashing
7) Improper pretreatment
8) Biological growth
10.11.1 Corrective action
If pressure drop across resin increases immediate corrective action should be taken. Lower
pressure drop can be indicative of resin loss. Dont ignore pressure drop
10.11.2 Inlet distribution system Blocked
Rectify pretreatment, backwash and remove resin fines. Repair and clean distributor of
foreign materials.
10.11.3 Underbed Collection System
The underbed system can vary in design system can be made of stainless steel, PVC,
ebonite etc. It can also be strainer on plate Header/lateral system distortion due to failure
of regenerant dilution system. Periodic inspect on of internal should be carried out.
10.11.4 Flow Meter
In accurate flow meter can lead to pressure drop. Check regularly.
10.11.5 Increase of low rate
Pressure drop increases with flow.
10.11.6 Resin fine
Resin fines can lead to pressure drop and then create more resin fines back wash and remove.
10.11.7 Poor backwashing
See recommendation for backwashing.
10.11.8 Improper pretreatment
Rectify. Check filter failure.
10.11.9 Biological growth
Unit idle. Improper pretreatment. Clean
76
CHAPTER 11
Resin maintenance
11.0 Introduction
Resin maintenance assumes a very critical importance if one wants to obtain a peak water quality
from an Ion exchange unit.
Inadequate maintenance and poor influent quality as mentioned earlier is the major contributive
factors of Resin deterioration. Natural degradation also occurs over a period of type.
We have already mentioned that the influent water quality should be free from all contaminants
which can foul the ion exchange resin.
The following checks should be done for the influent water.
Turbidity - should be less than 2 NTU

Residual chlorine - should be less than 0.1
Iron - absent
Oil and Grease - absent
Organic - absent
Inspite of adequate precaution taken, there are still some chances of resin getting contaminated.
The following procedure is adopted to clean the fouled resin.
Dirty resin - Back washing periodic open manhole backwashing should be

given.
Contamination with heavy - Cation resin normally affected soaking with 10% HCl for
metals about 8-12 hrs.
Organic fouling - Anion resin normally affected.

Brine caustic wash procedure given elsewhere.
Oil fouled Resin - Soaking with warming caustic soda.
Microbiological fouling - Sterilization through sodium hypochlorite solution.

Resin
11.1 Cleaning frequency of resin

The resin is cleaned when fouled but it is a good practice to clean the resin once a year or six
monthly or quarterly depending upon the pretreatment. Requirement of frequent cleaning
indicates deteriorating feed water to the ion exchange plant.
77
11.2 Physical destruction

Physical destruction of Resin is usually due to osmotic or thermal shock. Formation of resin fines
over a period of time due to regeneration / service cycle is natural. It should be periodically
scrapped otherwise it will be build up pressure and make more fines. Formation of resin fines
could also be due to fouling of resin. Immediate action should be taken to rectify the problem.
11.3 Pressure drop

Some pressure drop across the resin bed is natural but it should remain constant at a particular
flow rate. This problem can occur due to resin fouling dirty resin etc. High pressure drop across
the resin bed indicates problem and should be investigated. If immediate curative action is not
taken it can lead to further resin deterioration.
11.4 Other problems

Some problems may net relate to water or the resin. It could be due to vessel itself. Rubberlining
of the vessel may have given off and hence vessel gets corroded. The resin gets coated and
fouled with these corroded products.
11.5 Protection of resin during storage & plant shut down

Ion exchange Resin is normally transported in a drum, lesser quantities are transported in water
tight and light protected HDPE packs. It is always supplied in moist condition. Powdered ion
exchange resins are also packed in similar manner.
The pack or drum should not be opened till one is ready for commissioning of the plant. In case
only a portion of resin from the pack or drum is required - say for topping up, after removal the
pack should be immediately resealed.
Resin drums or packs should be inspected at interval of two to three months. If the resin has lost
some wetness, add demineralised water to moister the same. The drum or pack should be
repacked immediately. Resin in vessel should also be kept submerged in water.
Resin drums or packs should be kept in shade or it should be placed on wooden slippers.
Resins have longer storage life in exhausted condition. It is always better to keep the resins in
exhausted form. Some leading manufacturer advise that Anion resin should be kept in 10% brine
solution during plant shut down.
Ion exchange resins are prone to bacterial growth when the equipment is not in use. For
prevention the following treatment is recommended :-
a) Immerse cation resin in 0.5% solution of formaldehyde (10 gms in one ltr. of
solution) which is available as 35.40% aqueous solution.
78
b) Immerse anion resin in 0.1% solution of quaternary ammonium (2 gms in one ltr.
of water) or in a formaldehyde solution of 0.5%. Prolonged rinsing is essential
before restarting the process. This treatment is suggested in LORCHs Hand
Book of Water Treatment.
It is advisable that above procedure should be adopted only after consultation with the resin
supplier.
79
SECTION 5
MAINTENANCE OF RO PLANTS
PUMP MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLE
SHOOTING
MAINTENANCE OF VALVES
MAINTENANCE OF EJECTORS
INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL
MAINTENANCE OF CHEMICAL FEED PUMP
MAINTENANCE OF VESSELS AND PIPES
80
CHAPTER 12
Maintenance of RO Plants
12.0Introduction
The use of Membrane filtration in water treatment is becoming popular day by day. Its use is
expanding continuously in industry due to deteriorating sources of raw water. A part from the
scarcity the following factors mentioned below had led to rapid development of RO use in
Industrial water treatment.
1) Reduction in cost achieved by reduced chemical consumption

2) Reduction in waste
3) Reduction in manpower requirement.
12.1 Basics of RO operation

The operation of R.O. is based on pressurization of fluid to overcome the normal osmotic
pressure existing when two solutions with different solute (salt) concentration are separated by
semi permeable membrane. Under osmotic pressure, fluid moves from dilute to more
concentrated side. When reverse flow is applied the fluid (water) moves in the reverse direction,
leaving behind a fluid with increased salt concentration.
The most common R.O. Membrane used are ;-
1) Cellulose acetate membrane (CA)

2) Polyamide membrane (PA)
3) Thin film composite membrane (TFC)
CA Membranes have higher resistance to chlorine but are highly pH sensitive. PA and TFC have
less resistance to chlorine but have wide pH compatibility better rejection rate and higher
resistance to organics and bio-degradation.
Membrane are very costly and any body who is involved in maintenance of R.O. plants should
build up knowledge of its operation and maintenance through the supplier of R.O. plant.
We are only suggesting guide lines for preventive maintenance. Typical break down maintenance
should normally be given to expert.
12.2 Factors affecting RO membranes

12.2.1 Scale
Membranes can clog through the formation of scale.
The scale could be due to :-

a) Calcium carbonate
b) Calcium sulphate
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Calcium carbonate scale is normally prevented by proper pH control. PH is normally kept

between 5.5 - 6.0. Polyphosphate such as sodium hexa metaphosphate is normally used for
preventing sulphate. A common concentration of polyphosphate is around 4-6 ppm. The use of
poly phosphate is made to control Fe and Mn is in very low concentration. Poly phosphate
oxidizes the iron and manganese. If concentration of Fe is greater than 1 ppm then some iron
removal method is employed. Poly phosphate also prevents fluoride crystals.
12.2.1 Suspended matters, Bacteria Algae
Membranes can be affected because of the suspended matter and colloids, coagulation,
flocculation, clarification. Filtration and micro filtration, depending upon the suspended matter
and colloidal matter is used as pretreatment of R.O feed water. It is also possible for membrane
to get fouled due to Bacteria /Algae. Thus to prevent this some kind of disinfectant is used for
pretreatment. Chlorination followed by activated carbon is one of the most common disinfectant
used.
12.3 Membrane age

Irrespective of operating conditions, all membranes deteriorate with age. Manufacture normally
suggests membrane replacement after every three years. Three years is average life of membrane
and some places its last slightly longer especially where good maintenance is practiced.
12.4 Membrane deterioration

The reasons for the premature membrane deterioration are :-
12.4.1 Chlorine :- Membrane are very sensitive to Chlorine. CA membranes can resist. Some
amount of chlorine generally less than 1 ppm. PA and TFC membrane are very sensitive to even
trace amount of chlorine. The feed water containing free chlorine should be dechlorinated either
by activated carbon or sodium sulphite.
12.4.2 pH : pH assumes a very important role in RO operation. CA Membranes are highly

pH sensitive. CA membranes are normally operated in 4-6 pH range and Optimum pH is
supposed to 5.5. Above 8.5 CA membrane deteriorates. PA/TFC membranes have wider pH
compatibility but pH is normally kept around 6 to avoid scaling.
12.4.3 Hydrolysis: CA membrane can get hydrolyzed at low or high pH. CA membrane
hydrolyses with time but can be accelerated due to high temperature. PA membrane do not
hydrolyze but deteriorate due to physical failure.
12.4.4 High pressure : Membrane compacts when high pressure is applied. The amount of
product water falls (reduces) of to a point where membrane has to be replaced.
12.4.5 Bacteria : CA Membranes are prone to bacterial attack. PA membranes are not attacked
by bacteria but substance formulating at surface can act as a nutrient.
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12.5 Foulant affecting RO membrane and their removal.
Monitoring of R.O plant is very critical since it helps in recognizing a problem and taking a
timely remedial action. R.O Membranes even during normal operation over a period of time is
subject to fouling by suspended or sparingly soluble material which may be present in the feed
water. Monitoring of plants helps in identifying the foulant and also cleaning procedure to be
adopted.
Typical foulant encountered in R.O are the following :-
1) Calcium carbonate or calcium sulphate

2) Iron oxides
3) Silica
4) Suspended or colloidal impurities
5) Organic
6) Biocide, fungi or slime.
Foulant removal is controlled by flushing or by changing the operating conditions.
The fouling of RO Membrane are indicated by the following parameters :-
1) Drop in feed water flow at normal pressure

2) Deterioration in permeate quality
3) Increase in applied pressure
4) Increase in the differential pressure across the RO stage.
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TABLE 12.1
Trouble shooting RO Foulant
Foulant Symptom Corrective action
Calcium carbonate and Marked decrease in salt Membrane to be chemically cleaned by

phosphate rejection. Moderate solution containing citric acid. Non-
increase in p between ionic liquid detergent made in R.O
feed and concentrate. Permeate at pH 4.0
Slight decrease in
system production.
Metal oxides (Iron, nickel, Rapid decrease in salt Same as above

Copper etc.) rejection. Rapid increase
in p between feed and
concentrate.
Mixed colloids (Iron, organic, Slight decrease in salt Membrane cleaned with solution of
Silica) rejection. Moderate sodium Tri poly phosphate, sodium
increase in p slight EDTA and liquid non-ionic detergent
decrease in system made in R.O. permeate at pH 7.5
production.
Calcium Sulphate Marked decrease in Same as above

salt rejection. Increased
p decrease in system
production.
Organic deposits Marked decrease in Same as above

salt rejection gradual
decrease in system
production.
Baterial Same as above Sanitizing
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12.6 Trouble shooting RO Plants

There are many instances when R.O plants may not produce water of required quality or specified
quantity.
The reasons could be many and proper diagnosis to identify the symptom should be made. Most
industrial RO plants have instrumentation and sampling points which is very helpful in carrying
out trouble shooting and on-site cleaning.
The diagnosis will help to know if the RO failure is due to system upset or fouling.
1. Increase in TDS by 100 ppm of feed water will increase feed pressure requirements by 1
psi due to greater osmotic pressure.
2. Increase in feed water TDS will also increase permeate conductivity since RO always
rejects a fixed percentage of salts.
3. Change in temperature can also increase the feed pump pressure requirements.
4. Increase in the percent recovery of system also increases the reject TDS.
5. A reduction in the permeate flow results in a lower water flux, which will increase
conductivity if the same recovery is maintained, because the passage of salt is
independent of the passage of water through membrane.
Thus it makes it very essential that proper log sheet should be maintained for R.O. operation.
Before attempting any trouble shooting clarify the following points :-
1) Was RO system shut down properly

2) Was RO system shut down for too long
3) Is acid dosing meeting the target pH.
Checks Indication
Pressure drop between feed and Increase by more than 15% indicates
reject line fouling of feed path and membrane surface.
Pressure drop between feed and Increase by 15% indicates fouling on the
permeate line Membrane surface.
Increase in permeate conductivity Membrane fouling faulty conductivity meter.
Increase in pressure requirements Fouling of Membrane
Decreased Salt rejection Fouling of Membrane
85
Checks Indication
Probe individual vessel by measuring Mechanical O ring failure.

The permeate conductivity as it is
collected in the permeate core tube
It is done by inserting 1/4 plastic tube.
Cartridge filter Foulants
R.O. elements Physical damage.
12.7 Chemical cleaning

R.O. Systems when they symptoms of fouling should be cleaned. As mentioned earlier the
following parameters are indications that the systems require cleaning.
1) 10-15% decrease in permeate flow

2) Decrease in permeate quality
3) Increase p between feed and concentrate.
Rule of thumb says that R.O element require cleaning once every three to twelve months.
The chemicals required for cleaning will basically depend upon the type of foulant. Chemicals
can be had from any supplier but procedure for cleaning should always be as per manufacturers
instruction. Proprietary chemicals though more costly are easier to handle.
Optimum cleaning of systems would require use of various chemicals in a particular sequence.
When cleaning a R.O systems keeping the following points in mind.
1) Use chemicals recommended by the supplier or as per manufacturers instruction.

2) Maintain pH, temperature, dosage and contact time as per guide lines.
3) pH plays a crucial role in cleaning so be prudent in making pH adjustment.
4) Acids and caustic should never be mixed. It is an elementary chemistry.
5) Cleaning is done in stages. After introducing the first chemical it should be thoroughly
rinsed with permeate or deionized water before introducing the next chemical.
6) Detergents should always flushed out with high pH deionized or permeate water.
12.7.1 Basic Steps of Cleaning
To clean R.O onsite requires a cleaning skid. The cleaning skid usually includes the following :-
1) Cleaning tank 2) Cleaning pump

3) Cleaning cartridge filter 4) Mixer
5) Instruments 6) Sample points
86
The steps may vary depending upon the requirement but basic guidelines are as follows :-
1) Foulants and service concentrate are removed with a low pressure flush using feed or
permeate water.
2) Cleaning solutions made as per recommendations.
3) Cleaning solutions introduced to first stage for 60 minutes.
4) Throttle flow to minimize plugging of feed path with dislodge foulants.
5) 20% of initial cleaning solution should be drained.
6) Adjust pH to target
7) Soaking chemicals for overnight as per manufacturers recommendation can be done but
one should be careful to see that proper pH and temperature is maintained.
8) After chemical cleaning it should always be rinsed with low pressure using permeate
water to remove all traces of water.
9) Once all cleaning is completed R.O is put back into service. Stabilization can take few
hours to few days for R.O permeate quality to stabilize. R.O takes longer time to
stabilize after high pH cleaning.
87
CHAPTER 13
Pump Maintenance & troubleshooting
13.0 Introduction
Pumps are one of the most important equipment in water treatment plant operation. We have
already mentioned that apart from process problem the failure of ion exchange operation could
also be due to equipment like Pumps, Ejectors and others.
Service engineers, commissioning engineers, operating staff, maintenance staff should have some
idea of their working and likely problem to crop due to their malfunctioning.
The objective of good maintenance is that to see that a system should have a continuous service.
This is only possible if each equipment of the system itself works with reliability and
uninterrupted. This can be only ensured with proper upkeep.
Maintenance of pumps can be broadly classified as :-
1) Preventive maintenance
2) Break down maintenance
Preventive maintenance of pump
1) Inspection and check out procedure

2) Lubrication
3) Adjustment
4) Alignment
5) Replacement of worn parts
Break down maintenance is any repair work that is caused due to sudden break down. This can
happen inspite of preventive maintenance. The symptoms, causes and suitable remedial action
are mentioned in the table.
Pump is used for pumping which can be considered as addition of energy to a fluid which is
mainly for the purpose of moving the fluid from one point to another.
88
13.1 Operation & Maintenance

Preparation for operation and running Action
1. Starting of pump for the first time 1. Flush out the pipelines especially the suction
(New installation or reinstallation pipe. Install a strainer in suction pipeline for
after repair). dirt, weld beads etc. to prevent damage to
impeller.
2. Carry out a no load test for motor before

coupling the pump to motor.
3. Check the direction of driver (motor) before

coupling the pumq.
4. An overload protection should be provided to

protect the motor from overload due to
impurities etc.
2. Stuffing box. The stuffing box should be so adjusted that there

is a slight but constant leakage from stuffing box
glands. The gland should be kept as loose as
possible to prevent excessive sleeve and packing
wear.
3. Bearing Pump bearings should always be cleaned

inspected and well lubricated before starting.
4. Priming Except for self priming and submerged pumps

all pumps should be primed before starting. The
pumps and suction pipe should be filled with
water from external source. Discharge valve is
normally kept closed.
5. Starting 1. Lubrication of bearing etc. should be checked
2. Priming of the pump should be ensured after

closing the discharge valve and also the drain
in casing, suction and discharge.
3. All rotating parts should be free. This can be

checked by rotating the parts with hand.
4. Start the pump and open the discharge valve

gradually when the pump reaches to its
related speed or pressure.
5. Check the leakage from stuffing box. There

should be slight but continuos leakage from
the glands.
89
6. Turn on circulation to mechanical seal and

if required cooling water to bearings and it
required cooling water to bearings and cooled
stuffing box if incorporated in the unit.
7. Do not operate the pump for long keeping the

discharge valve closed. It can result in over
heating.
8. The pump bearing and driver should be

checked for over heating and vibration.
6. Operating Checks Bearing temperature

Vibration
Undue noise
Suction and discharge pressure
Stuffing box leakage
Cooling water if provided separately
Pump oil level
This should be recorded hourly and any

deviation from specification should
be immediately dealt with.
90
13.2 Maintenance Procedure
Maintenance Action
Operational manual The operation and maintenance manual of the supplier of pump
should be read and strictly adhered.
Maintenance Records Maintenance record for maintenance carried out and the details
of the pump and driver is very useful. It helps in stock control of
spares. Helps in taking action for proper maintenance.
Maintenance Intervals Pump manufacturers recommend some checks to made hourly

which ensures a regular inspection of pump while running and
preventing a major failure. Depending on the pump
manufacturers recommendation the routine maintenance can be
carried out monthly, quarterly, six month or annually.
For e.g.
Monthly checks - Bearing temperature & pump
alignment
Quarterly checks - Draining oil, checkup of bearing etc.
Six monthly - Checking of shaft packing
Annually - Complete dismantling
91
13.3 Typical problems encountered in pump operation

Pump failure in service can be sudden like shaft breaking or gradual like corrosion of impeller but
these conditions are rare and do not occur in well maintained and operated pumps. Here some
typical problems encountered in the operation of pumps are given. Though there may be some
variation in solving some of the problems for different pumps but basic methodology of
maintenance and trouble shooting is similar.
TABLE 13.1 Troubleshooting pumps

S.No. Problem cause solution
1. No liquid delivered 1 Lack of Prime 1 Fill the pump and its suction pipe
completely with the liquid to be
handled.
2 Speed of pump 2 See if the motor is receiving full rated

driver too low or voltage. Check for open phase in
not adequate. motor
3 Discharge head too 3 All discharge valve should be wide

high open. If discharge head is still too
high, check for obstruction in piping
and valves due to damaged rubber-
lining or due to solids. The pipes
should be cleaned before and after
installation.
4 Suction lift too high 4 Suction pipe, foot valve can be

choked or clogged by mud or
some other solids like welding
beads etc. Clean.
5 Impeller plugged 5 Impeller plugged by solid materials

in liquid which prevents it from
discharging liquid. The casing should
be opened and all foreign material
should be removed.
6 Wrong direction of 6 Check the pump rotation direction

rotation. as indicated on pump. The direction
can be changed by changing the
wire on motor.
7 Air or vapor pocket 7 This could be due to improper layout

in suction line of suction line. Tighten the joints in
the suction line.
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TABLE 13.1
Troubleshooting pumps (Continued )
S.No Problem cause Solution
1 Not enough 1 Air leak 1 Air leak can happen in suction line or stuffing
liquid delivered box of the pump. If suction pipe check the
stuffing box. The glands should be so
adjusted that there is sufficient flow from
stuffing box. If this replacement does not
give required flow replace packing.
2. Low NPSH 2. Check catalogue or contact supplier to know

the NPSH required.
3. Worn Wearing rings 3. Replace
4. Damaged impellers 4. Replace
5. Undersized foot 5. Area of foot valve opening should be atleast

valve equal to suction pipe and 1.5 to 2 times as
large.
6. Wrong direction of 6. Check and rectify by replacing the wire.

rotation.
7. Fluid viscosity too 7. Check the catalogue to see the viscosity of

high the fluid the pump can handle
.
8. Worn gaskets 8. Replace
9. Impeller eye too 9. Improper selection of pump for particular

small duty - Replace.
2. pump discharge. 1. Gas or air in liquid 1. Check for bubbles in suction pipe, provide
pressure flow air separation chamber if required.
2. Obstruction in pump 2. Water passage may be blocked. Open casing

water passage and check. Remove obstruction if any.
Replace casing if required.
3. Impeller diameter 3. Replace with large dia impeller if possible

too small after discussion with pump supplier. Higher
pressure can also be obtained by reducing
pipe friction loses, static suction, discharge
head or by increasing pump speed. Care
should be taken to see that any of changes
does not overload the driver.
4. Speed too low 4. Increase speed or check alignment check for

open wire.
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TABLE 13.1
Troubleshooting Pumps (Continued )
S.No Problem Cause Solution
5.Worn warring rings 5. Replace.
4. Pump losses 1. Incomplete priming 1 Prime again

prime after 2. Air leak in suction 2. Check and rectify as mentioned earlier.
starting piping or packing
glands.
3. Gas or air in liquid 3. Check and rectify
4. Low NPSH 4. Check
5. Misplaced lantern 5. Rectify
ring in stuffing box.
5. High power 1. Discharge head too 1. Check with supplier.

Consumption low
By pump Driver 2. Wrong liquid 2. Pump should be used for the liquids
due to pump specified,
overload viscous liquid greater than specified can
cause the drivers over load.
3. Speed too high 3. Rectify
4. Wrong direction of 4. Rectify

rotation
5. Packing too tight 5. Rectify
6. Distorted casing 6. Rectify
7. Bent shaft 7. Realign
8. Misalignment 8. Check all rotating and stationary parts.
9. Mechanical failure
6. Stuffing Box 1. Packing too tight 1. Rectify

Over Heats
2. Not enough 2. Lubricate the packing properly.
lubrication on packing
3. Wrong grade of 3. Replace with proper packing.

packing.
4. Not enough flow to 4. Constant flow of liquid to packing is

.packing. must
5. Stuffing box not 5. Check and install properly.

Installed properly.
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TABLE 13.1
Troubleshooting pumps (Continued )
S.No Problem Cause Solution
7. Vibration 1.Gas or air leak, 1. Check and rectify as previously

insufficient NPSH. mentioned
2.Suction pipe not 2. Check and correct
submerged properly
3.Improper alignment 3. Realign
4.Worn or loose bearing 4. Replace
5.Plugged or damaged 5. Remove obstruction. Replace

impeller damaged impeller.
6.Bent shaft 6. Rectify or replace.
7.Discharge valve not 7. Check and rectify

positioned properly.
8. Over heating of 1.Low Oil level 1. Check and fill.

Bearing
2 Poor or wrong grade 2. Check consult supplier for correct
of oil. grade of oil.
3.Dirt in bearing 3. Clean
4.Dirt moisture in oil 4. Use clean oil.
5.Cooling water not 5. Provide sufficient cooling water for

sufficient for bearing bearing.
6.Loose fitting of oil seals 6. Tighten the oil seals.
9. Rapid Wearing of 1.Misalignment 1. Realign

Bearings.
2.Bent shaft 2. Change shaft or rectify
3.Lack of lubrication 3. Lubricate
4.Wrong bearing 4. Check and replace
5.Moisture in oil 5. Use moisture free oil.
95
13.4 Prime movers
The typical prime mover for pump in Ion Exchange water treatment system is usually by
induction motors, sometimes synchronous motors are also used. The centrifugal pumps are
driven at constant speed. The reciprocating pump at times is run on variable speed which allows
for easy adjustment of pump capacity.
Electric motor being the driver of the pump it is always advisable to do fault finding on the motor
side first before taking any corrective measure on the pump side.
The following should be kept in mind :-
1. Squirrel cage induction motor may be DOL, star delta or auto transformer depending
upon the service and the duty of pump.
2. Starting torque for DOL, star delta and auto transformer is 2-3 times the full load current.
3. Speed load characteristics is normally constant for this kind of motor.
4. The connection at motor and should be checked for star or delta connection.
96
CHAPTER 14
Maintenance of Valves
14.0 Introduction
Valves are widely used in water treatment industry. The basic function of any valve is to permit
control of flow of fluids through the pipe. All valves have a passage way and some kind of
movable parts for closing and opening the interior passage.
The types of valves normally encountered in water treatment plants are :-
1) Gate Valve
2) Globe valve
3) Plug and ball valve
4) Butterfly valve
5) Diaphragm valve
6) Needle valve.
14.1 Valve layout & sitting

It is necessary from maintenance point of view that valves should be accessible for removal with
least disturbance to the pipe line system for maintenance work. Hence it is important that valve
should be given adequate support. The installation should be such that it should allow for easy
operation and adjustment whenever required.
14.2 Maintenance
Valves can last the life time of plant but like any moving part, they will require periodic
maintenance to ensure safe and reliable operation.
14.2.1 Spares
Availability of spares is very important for any maintenance work. It is always a good practice to
buy some commissioning spares and spares for atleast two years. Commissioning spares is
advocated because it is possible that due to debris and dirt some item may get damaged. Apart
from spares for valves, there should be few spares valves also. This is because some valve may
have to removed from line for maintenance at workshop. The spare valve can be replaced so that
there is no disturbance to the continuity of process.
14.2.2.Routine Maintenance
Valves and actuators should be cycled at least once a month for efficient working of valve linear and rotary
spindles should be kept free from dirt and debris and lubricated as per specifications. Greasing should be
done at all grease points and this should also be done once a month. Gland packing should be checked
every fifteen days and adjusted at the first sign of leakage. It should be replaced if necessary.
97
14.2.3 Overall and Maintenance
Any valve which fails to operate totally will have to be removed from the pipeline and taken to
workshop for overhauling. The valve removed should be replaced with another similar valve so
as not to disturb the process.
The valve removed is overhauled as per manufactures instruction or sent to supply or repair.
14.3 Valve selection

The correct valve for application is selected based on the following criteria.
1. Function of valve like a) on-off b) frequent or infrequent c) operation.
2. Mode of operation - manual or electrically etc.
3. Process medium - corrosive / flow rate etc.
4. End connection - screwed or flanged.
5. Speed of operation - emergency use or standard use
6. Availability - If critical should be available in stock.
Hence it is necessary to know that valve selected for a particular purpose has been done with
keeping the above in view. Hence any replacement should be with similar valve or similar spare.
For e.g. a rubber lined diaphragm valve should not be replaced with unlined valve even though if
it is for a very short period.
14.4 Typical valves used in water treatment

14.4.1 Gate Valve
A valve primarily used as a stopping device or for interrupted supply. The seating device is
perpendicular (at right angles) to the line of flow. Makes the valve impractical for throttling and
frequent operation.
14.4.2 Globe Valve

A valve in which doser device moves in straight line and seating is parallel to the line of flow.
They open and close much more quickly and hence used where frequent operation or regulation
of flow is required. For e.g. Domestic water tap. It is normally not advisable to use globe valve
where there is significant pressure drop.
98
14.4.3 Diaphragm Valve

Diaphragm valve are those valves in which the closure device is provided by deformation of
flexible diaphragm. This valve is very widely used in water treatment because it can be lined
with anticorrosive element and withstand wide variety of temperature and application. Pinch
valve is similar to diaphragm and is closed by deformation of tube and used in low flow
application as in laboratory.
The above valves are basically linear valves.
14.4.4 Plug and Ball Valves

In these valves, the closure device rotates about an axis at right angles to direction of flow and in
the open position the flow passes through it. It is designed for straight flow and tight closure.
The plug valve can be lubricated or non-lubricated type.
Water Butterfly Flanged butterfly
The above valves are of rotary type.
99
14.5 Valves nomenclature by function

14.5.1 Check Valves
This valves are used to permit flow in one direction only. It will automatic close in the reverse
flow direction. It is available as swing or lift. Lift check valve will in operate in horizontal line
only.
14.5.2 Isolating Valve
A valve used only in open and closed position.
14.5.3 Regulating Valve
A valve designed for use in all position from fully open to fully closed position.
14.5.4 Control Valve
A valve operated with some power device. The power can be supplied pneumatically, electrically
or hydraulically..
14.5.5 Safety Valve
A valve which limits to safe pressure to be exceeded without any other force except by that of the
flow concerned.
14.5.6 Diverting / Mixing Valve
A valve which can be used for more than one function.
14.6 Multiport valve
Recently multi port valves are being provided by many water treatment suppliers especially for
swimming pool filters. One of the biggest disadvantage of this valve is that when ever the
position has to be changed there should be stoppage of flow or diversion of flow. Hence when
ever such valves are installed it should be installed with isolation valves. When ever the lever of
multi port valve is changed, the isolation valve should be opened and closed when the position
has been changed. At present most of the valves are imported and hence it is necessary to ensure
that is an additional spare valve or spares for rectification. Literature of multi port valve
manufactured in India is given in the annexure.
100
CHAPTER 15
Maintenance of Ejectors
15.0 Introduction
Ejectors are widely used in water treatment plants. It is used in Ion Exchange water treatment
plant for injecting chemicals for regeneration o ion exchange resins. Ejectors can be considered
as a small pumping unit. Its advantages lie in that it has no moving parts. It is compact and can
be installed on-line of the main piping and cost also less in comparison to pump. The other
advantage with ejector is that wrong concentration of chemical can enter the resin unit in
comparison to pump regeneration where dilution water flow and chemical flow should be
properly controlled.
Proper working of ejector is necessary to ensure complete regeneration of resins. There are many
instances where the ejectors may not be working at all or may not be working satisfactorily.
Usual problem associated with ejector is shown in the chart.
To the unit
Power water +
Regenerant
Regenerant
Solution
Power Water
101
TABLE 15.1
Troubleshooting Ejectors
Problem Cause Solution
Ejector does not lift 1. Ejector nozzle choked 1. Check and clean
the solution
2. Leak in suction line 2. Rectify
3. Suction line not submer- 3. Rectify

ged properly.
4. Suction strainer is blocked 4. Clean
Ejector unable to force 1. Strainers choked. 1. Clean

chemical into unit
2. Delivery line plugged 2. Flush delivery line and check for
damaged rubber lining.
3. Valve blocked 3. Check
4. Insufficient power water 4. Proper vacuum not created,

flow increase power, water flow.
5. Pressure is low 5. Increase pressure to specification.
6. Air locking unit 6. Remove air from the unit by filling

water to the unit.
7. Fouled resin 7. Fouled resins can retard flow.
8. Drain valve not opened fully 8. Open regenerant drain valve full.
9. Ejector nozzle choked 9. Check and rectify
10. Non working valves 10.Power, water valve, suction valve

may not be working check.
Flow of chemical to 1. Too high air pressure 1. Control pressure

the ion exchange unit
very fast. 2. Power, water flow too high 2. Control power water flow as specified
3. Suction valve not controlled 3. Adjust suction valve to requirement.
Very slow flow of 1. All causes mentioned for 1. See ejector not working.
Chemical into ion ejector not working is
Exchange unit. applicable.
102
CHAPTER 16
Instrumentation & Control
16.0 Introduction
Ion Exchange and pre treatment system require regular monitoring for controlling contaminants
in the system and proper functioning of the system. Thus if for a small ion exchange water
treatment plant some basic instrumentation is required. The following are critical instruments and
should be adequately maintained.
Pressure gauge : To monitor inlet and outlet pressure of the unit.
Flow meter / totalizer : Measuring flow rates and output of the particular unit.
Conductivity Meter : For checking the performance of demineralizer.
pH meter : For checking performance of demineralizer.
There are other important instruments normally found in large water treatment plant like in power
plant where each constituent is to be properly controlled. For e.g. like Silica, dissolved oxygen
etc. But we are limiting ourselves to the basis instrumentation normally found in small and
medium water treatment plants.
16.1 pH meter
This is another instrument which is helpful in ensuring proper and smooth operation of the plant.
In conjunction with conductivity meter it is easy to know whether the cation or anion is mal
functioning or exhausted.
High pH and high conductivity indicates exhaustion of cation unit.
Low pH and high conductivity indicates exhaustion of Anion unit.
On line pH meters though important is not given by many suppliers. Most of small and medium
size factories depend upon the laboratory pH meter, the laboratory pH meter will normally give
lower pH than an online pH meter due to contamination of DM. water method of calibrating
pressure gauge is given in appendix A.
16.2 Flowmeter & Totalizer
This is another important instrument in Ion Exchange water treatment process. The rate of flow
indicators helps in regulating the service and regeneration flow rate. The flow totalizer helps in
determining the service cycle. The most frequently used rate of flow indicator are Rotameter and
flow totalizers are water meter. Periodic maintenance and servicing of these instruments are thus
essential for smooth operation of the plant. On site calibration of Rotameter are slightly difficult
but performance can be checked for error over a period of type due to erosion of float etc.
103
16.3 Conductivity meter

This is probably one of the most important instrument used in demineralizer water treatment
plant. It helps in the smooth operation of the plant. High conductivity of demineralised water
can be indication of either exhaustion or mal functioning of the unit.
16.4 Pressure guage

A pressure guage is a very important instrument since it help in identify :-
1) Backwashing of filters.
2) Backwashing of ion exchange unit
3) Resin fouling
4) Resin fines
The pressure drop across the unit is normally predetermined and taken during the design stage.
Thus if the pressure drop exceeds the specification. The unit calls backwashing or check for fines
and fouling if there is no change in pressure drop after back washing.
Thus pressure gauge plays such as important role in water treatment plant but is probably the
most neglected instrument.
The pressure guages should be so installed that actual pressure drop across the bed is measured by
Co2 from atmosphere during collection of sample. The pH can be as low as 5.5 though
conductivity will remain unchanged. Hence it is normal to guarantee DM water quality on
conductivity measurement rather than pH measurement.
The role of pH meter is very critical when dealkalization is done by the use of WAC resin. This
is because there is wide fluctuation of pH during WAC cycle.
16.5 Tips for calibrating instruments

The need to maintain the instrument described earlier is very important. Thus calibration of
instrument to maintain accurate reading is paramount to proper operation of plant.
Instruments may be calibrated in many ways either by giving electrical input signal or chemically
by the use of some standard solution.
The most important step in calibration of conductivity meter is in selecting a standard solution.
KCl is one solution which has been universally acceptable for calibration of conductivity / TDS
meter. pH meter is calibrated by buffer solution of 4.1, 7 and 9.2.
In selecting a standard solution for conductivity meter the following points should be kept in
mind.
a) In multirange conductivity meter, calibration on the highest scale should be done. This
will suppress any error on the lower scale.
b) Calibration should be done if possible at 25 Deg.C.
104
c) The standard solution should have accuracy of + 1%.
d) The sensor should be placed in beaker containing fresh standard solution of known
conductivity.
e) Always calibrate with fresh standard solution.
f) Electrical calibration does not calibrate the loop. The sensor and cables are excluded.
g) The frequency of calibration will depend upon the intended use but once a fortnight for small
and medium plants and once a week for large plant is advocated.
h) See a short note for TDS and conductivity at the end of this chapter.
i) Resistivity meter calibration can not be done with standard solution as it can easily get
contaminated with atmospheric CO2. A 18 mega ohm water will degrade by 2 mega ohm-cm
if allowed to stand in air.
j) pH meter can be calibrated with a millivolt meter. 1 pH gives a millivolt of 59.9. This will
only calibrate the meter. The electrodes and the errors introduced with the cable (signal)
cannot be adjusted with this calibration. It is always advisable to calibrate pH meter and
electrode with buffer table.
k) Flow meter / totalizer can be calibrated by volumetric measurement.
l) Pressure gauge can be calibrated with master test gauge or by dead weight pressure tester.
16.6 Conductivity and TDS measurement

Conductivity metering is common in Ion exchange demineralization plant. This is quite an
established practice. But now-a-days instead of conductivity many water treatment suppliers
provide TDS meter (total dissolved solid meter). TDS meters are nothing but conductivity meter
that measures in part per million. It is known that pure water is a poor conductor of electricity but
when some salts are introduced it allows electricity to pass through. Conductivity increase is
directly proportional to the salts added. Thus it becomes quite obvious that whenever dissolved
solids are added water becomes good conductor of electricity and when demineralised the
conductivity decreases. Thus conductivity monitoring allows for determining the quality of
water. But there is a draw back in conductivity measurement i.e. it is a non-specific
measurement. It cannot distinguish between different type of ions, giving instead a reading
proportional to the combined effect of all ions present.
Ions have different charge and hence each ion conduct electricity to different degree. For eg. Na
ion will conduct one third less than K-ion given the same potential. True TDS reading is always
obtained by evaporation method analytically. This gives both qualitative and quantitative
analysis. This is but time taking and not feasible onsite. Instead it is more easier and less costly
to measure TDS by meter. This is only quantitative measurement only.
Conductivity measurement is direct whereas TDS measurement is indirect. Hence when TDS
meter is used it assumed that water sample is of known dissolved solid. Manufacturers provide
conversion factors based on NaCl or KCl for reading TDS meter. If NaCl is used for conversion
factor then it is 0.5 i.e. 100 mhos as 75 ppm. Thus it is evident that same water sample
105
measured by two different meter will give different reading based on the conversation factor.
This confusion is avoided in conductivity measurement. It is always essential to obtain from the
supplier a qualifier to know on what scale the measurement is based. (NaCl scale, KCl scale or
any other scale). There are different solution on which the TDS scale is based.
106
CHAPTER 17
Maintenance of feed pumps
17.0 Introduction
Chemicals are dosed after ion exchange treatment for correction of pH for boiler feed. Acids are
dosed for maintaining proper pH to R.O feed. Sodium hypochlorite is dosed for chlorination .
All these chemicals require some feed system for dosing. In earlier days the dosing used to be
done either by proportional doser or gravity dozer which were mechanical in operation. To day
with technology development dosing of chemicals are done by electronic pumps. The most
widely used electronic dosing pumps are diaphragm type dosing pumps. Piston and other type of
pumps are also available.
17.1 Description
A typical metering pump system components consists basically of the following :-
1) Injection valve
2) Back pressure / anti siphon valve.
3) Pulsation damper
4) Pressure relief valve
5) Metering pump
6) Shut off valve
The importance of maintenance is directly related to the chemical being dosed. Some chemicals
are being dozed on continuos basis. Stopping of chemicals being dozed due to pump system
failure can lead to damage to process or equipments down stream. For example dozing of caustic
to Boiler feed water for maintaining pH or acid dosing to RO feed. Hence it is very critical that
such pumps be backed up by a spare pump for replacement in eventuality of system failure.
Metering pumps can fail to doze chemicals either due to mechanical or electrical problems.
Failure of diaphragm is one type of common mechanical problem which occurs in metering
pumps. Blown fuse, problems in power supply card etc are sonic of the common electrical
problem.
A metering pump should be periodically recalibrated to check for wear. The calibration is
simple. Take a graduated cylinder at suction side. Work at normal system pressure and
determine the displacement per stroke. If it varies considerably from previous calibration (the
stroke length and frequency are kept same) then pumps calls for over hauling. Recalibration also
helps in maintaining proper chemical dosing.
17.2 Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance program will depend mainly upon the following factors :-
107
a) Critical nature of application
b) Manufacturer recommendation
c) Owners maintenance policies and past experience.
d) Other environmental factors.
A regular log sheet to maintain records is very helpful in scheduling of preventive maintenance
and for stocking of critical spares. Records will tell which part of the pump system wear most
and based on this the spares can be stocked. Proper maintenance of pump ensures longevity of
its life.
a) Safety equipment are very essential in when servicing of chemical dosing pumps.
b) A safety shower or eye wash basin should be near to the place where pump is being
serviced.
c) Switch of power supply before removing the pump from service.
d) Close all valves before removing the pump for service.
e) Relieve pressure from the discharge line and flush out all chemicals from the line and
pump.
f) If pump has flooded suction close the shut off valve. If the pump is placed on the tank
disconnect the suction.
g) When any joints are being opened it is advisable to wrap some clothes around the joint so
that there is no placing of chemicals.
h) Make sure that all chemicals from suction to delivery side is flushed out with the help of
water before attempting any service on it.
i) Pump can also fail due to other components. Hence when a pump is taken for service the
following components also be checked and serviced or replaced if necessary - Back
pressure valve, pressure relieve valve, pulsation dampers, injection valve etc.
j) Plastic tubing, foot valves, injection valves are all subject to damage and periodic check
should be ensured.
k) In automatic dosing with metering pump it is important that sensors which control pumps
should be periodically calibrated and serviced as per manufacturers instructions.
108
CHAPTER 18
Maintenance of vessel & pipes
18.0 Introduction
Pressure sand filtration, granular activated carbon filters, Ion exchangers use either an mild steel
or FRP vessels. MS vessels are rubber lined or with any other anti corrosive lining like plastic or
FRP when used for deionization. Softener and sand filter vessels are normally painted inside with
some kind anti corrosive paints. For smaller size plants today FRP vessel are replacing MS
vessel because it is non corrosive and maintenance free.
Refer to the troubling shooting chart and you will find that many problems are directly related to
the vessel itself. For example iron fouling of softener resin could be due to the peeling of paint
from the vessel itself. Peeling of rubber line from vessel containing cation exchange or anion
exchange are also possible and could be cause for the deteriorating quality of water. Hence it is
very important that there vessels should be periodically inspected. Inspection of vessel can reveal
broken internals, damaged rubber lining which can be set right at the minimum cost.
18.1 Check up periods for vessels
Pressure sand or dual media filters Once every year when the filter media is being
changed. Normal recommendation for changing
filter media is once every year and the vessel can
be inspecting during this period. The vessel can
be repainted before filling the media.
Activated carbon filter Same as above
Ion exchanger vessels Every six months to check for any damaged
rubber lining , peeling of paints if softener vessel
broken internals etc.
Regeneration Tanks Every six months.
Degasser Tower and sump Same as above

Degasser packing can also be checked during
this period.
DM. Water tank Should be checked and cleaned once every three
months. It is very essential that DM water tank
should be clean otherwise it
can get contaminated very easily. In high
purity DM water tank air vent has some
chemicals like KOH for absorbing atmospheric
CO2 which should be changed periodically.
109
Acid/Caustic Storage tank Once every three months especially of acid tank.
any damage to the vessel can lead to acid

leakage. MS can withstand caustic but there is
danger of hydrolysis of metal with NaOH.
Rubber lined Pipes and valves Once every three months pipes should be flushed
out of dirt and any accumulated impurities.
These are preventive maintenance to keep the system in best condition. Break down maintenance
has to be carried immediately when any problem in the vessel is observed.
110
APPENDIX
Appendix A1 OPERATING INSTRUCTION FOR PRESSURE SAND FILTER
Appendix B1 OPERATING INSTRUCTION FOR ACTIVATED CARBON FILTER
Appendix C1 SOME USEFUL INFORMATION
111
APPENDIX A 1
Operating instruction for Pressure sand filter
INITIAL FILLING
Open valve PSF V1 and PSF V2
Once the water starts coming
from PSF V6, close valve PSF V6
PSF V1
PSF V6
PSF V2
SERVICE
All other valves are closed
PSF V1
PSF V2
BACKWASH
Time : 15 20 minutes
Throttle valve PSF V3 to achieve
specified backwash flow rate.
PSF
V4
PSF V3
112
RINSE

Throttle valve PSF V5 to achieve
specified rinse flow rate. PSF V1
PS
F
113
APPENDIX B1
Operating instruction for activated carbon filter
INITIAL FILLING
Open valve ACF V1 and ACF V2
Once the water starts coming
from ACF V6, close valve ACF V6
ACF V1
ACF V6
ACF V2
SERVICE
ACF V1
ACF V2
BACKWASH

Throttle valve ACF V3 to achieve
specified backwash flow rate.
ACF
V4
ACF V3
114
RINSE
Throttle valve ACF V5 to achieve
specified rinse flow rate.
ACF V1
ACF
V5
NOTE
When activated carbon is installed in a vessel, it should be soaked for 12 to 24 hours to remove
trapped air and back washed to remove fines and stratify the bed. A necessary maintenance item,
periodic back washing removes solids trapped in the carbon bed, as well as fine carbon particles.
Since the dechlorination reaction oxidizes the carbon surface, which slowly breaks down the
carbon structure, back washing is especially important in de-chlorination applications. Frequency
is determined by the solids content of the feed water.
Tests on activated carbon dechlorination systems indicate that regular back washing of carbon
beds helps preserve the dechlorination and filtering efficiency. By back washing regularly and
expanding the carbon by at least 30 percent, fouling or binding of the carbon bed does not occur.
CAUTION
Wet activated carbon removes oxygen from air. In closed or partially closed containers and
vessels, oxygen depletion may reach hazardous levels. If workers must enter a vessel containing
activated carbon, appropriate sampling and work procedures for potentially low-oxygen spaces
should be followed, according to all applicable federal and state requirements.
115
APPENDIX C1
Some useful information
CONVERSION FACTORS
To convert From To Multiply by
Acre square metres 4047

Acre foot cubic metres 1234
Btu J 1056
Btu kW hr 0.293/1000
Btu/sec W 1054
Calorie J 4.184
Cal/g J/Kg. 4184
Cubic yard cubic metres 0.7646
Fathom metres 1.829
Foot metre 0.3048
Cubic feet/sec cubic metres/sec 0.78/100,000
Cubic feet cubic metre 0.0283
Square feet square metre 0.0929
Gallon cubic metres 4.546/1000
Gram Kg 1/1000
Horse power W 745.7
Inch metres 0.0254
Square inch square metres 6.452/10000
Cubic inch cubic metres 1.639/100000
Kilogram force N 9.807
Kilowatt hours J 3600000
Litre cubic metres 0.001
MM mercury Pa 133.3
Pound force N 4.448
Pound mass Kg 0.4536
Square yard square metre 0.8361
Ton (metric) Kg 1000
Watt hour J 3600
Yard metre 0.9144
116
A. Percent % Solution
1. to make % solutions
amt. to weigh = [% as whole no x vol wanted]/100
or amt to weight = % as decimal x vol wanted
2. to calculate % solution made
% sol'n = [amt. weighed / total vol of solution] x 100
3. to make % solution from higher % solution
.V1C1 = V2C2
4. to calculate possible volume to make
Vol possible or (total vol) = g on hand x 100 mL / % as whole no
.
B. Molar Solutions
1. to make M solutions
amt to weigh = [MW x M wanted X total volume] / 1000
2. to calculate M of solution made
M = [amt weighed x 1000] / MW x total volume
3. to make M solution from higher M solution
.V1C1 = V2C2
4. To convert % solution to M
M = [% whole no x 10] / MW
% solution = [M x MW ] / 10
5. to calculate M from strong concentrated solutions
M = [sp. gr. x 1000 x % assay (as decimal)] / MW
6. to calculate possible volume to make
Vol possible = [g on hand] /[MW x M needed] x 1L
C. Normal Solutions
1. to make N solutions
117
amt to weigh = [Eq. wt. x N wanted x total vol.] / 1000

2. to calc. possible volume
vol. possible = [g on hand x 1L] / [Eq. Wt. x N needed ]
3. to calculate N of solution made
N = [amt weighed x 1000] / [Eq. Wt. x total volume]
4. to make N solution from higher M solution
.V1C1 = V2C2
5. to convert % solution to N
N = [% as whole no. x 10] / Eq. Wt.
6. to convert M solution to N
M = N / Valence
N = M x Valence
7. to calculate N from concentrated solution
N = [sp. gr. x 1000 x % assay (as decimal)] / Eq. Wt.
8. to calc. vol. needed of conc. sol'n
.V1= [V2C2 x Eq. Wt.] / [Sp. gr. x 1000 x % assay (as decimal)]
D. To calculate dilution needed

1. [what you want] x vol want / [what you have] = amount to measure of what
you have
E. Conversion
mg/dL =[ mM/L x MW] / 10
mM/L = [mg/dL x 10] / MW
C = 5/9 (F-32)
F = 9/5 C + 32
Kg = 1b / 2.2
1b = Kg x 2.2
118
NOTES
119

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Water treatment-Instruction and maintenance manual

Objectives and Scope of this Manual

Objectives of the manual

Proper installation, inspection, operation, maintenance, repair and management of water

1. Wastage of Chemicals because of wrong and inefficient operation.

2. Wastage of treated water because of operators unawareness of what unit produces

3. Failures because of equipment problem .

Scope of the manual

Section 1 contains information on water impurities

1. The impurities present in water.

Section 2 contains information on Pretreatment methods

1. Various pretreatment processes which precedes the ion exchange process

Section 3 contains information on Ion Exchange resins and Processes

1. What are cations and anions.

Section 4 contains information on plant performance problems and rectification.

1. Troubleshooting ion exchange Resins

3. Maintaining and storing ion exchange resin

Section 5 contains information on equipment troubleshooting

Module Title Page No

Chapter 1 Water and its impurities ----------------------------------------- 1

Chapter 3 Pretreatment Process --------------------------------------------- 16

Chapter 5 Ion Exchange Water treatment ---------------------------------- 26

Chapter 12 Maintenance of Reverse Osmosis(RO) Plant ----------------- 81

Tables 5.1 Affinities of Cation and Anion Resins 29

Tables 9.1 Failure to produce specified quality water 56

Tables 9.2 Troubleshooting guide for Ion Exchange unit 59

Tables 9.3 Troubleshooting Softener 63

Tables 9.4 Troubleshooting Cation exchanger 65

Tables 9.5 Troubleshooting Weak base Anion unit 67

Tables 9.6 Troubleshooting Strong Base Anion Unit 68

Tables 9.7 Troubleshooting Mixed Bed 70

Tables 9.8 Troubleshooting Degasser 71

Tables 12.1 Troubleshooting RO Foulant 84

Tables 13.1 Troubleshooting Pumps 92

Tables 15.1 Troubleshooting Ejectors 102

WATER AND ITS IMPURITIES

Water and Its Impurities

1.0 Water - properties

1.1 Water supplies

1.2 Harmful effects of water impurities

5) Off flavour and taste in food and drinks.

1.3 Water impurities

The impurities present in water can be broadly classified as :-

1.4 Non ionic impurities

Major non ionic impurities are:

1.4.4 Organic impurities

1.5 Ionic or dissolved impurities

Major ionic impurities can be subdivided as cationic and anionic impurities.

1.6 Cationic impurities

1.7 Anionic impurities

Importance of Water Analysis

2.0 Water analysis

2.1 Need for Water Analysis

2.2 Definition used in water analysis

It is common practice to express hydrogen ion concentration in terms of pH. By

Ionic product of water Kw has a value of 1 x 10 - 14 and in neutral water H + concentration

Kw = H + x OH- = 1 x 10- 14 ----------------- (1)

The equilibrium represented by equation (1) occurs universally in aqueous solution

M. Alk. = Total Alk = HCO-3 + CO-3 + OH-.

The result of titration with phenolpthalein indicator is called P-Alkalinity.

P. Alk. = OH + 1/2 CO3.

1. Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness.

The sum of temporary and permanent hardness is called Total Hardness.