PWC1010 WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

What is communication?

Communication is the process of transmitting and receiving of information through

verbal or nonverbal behavior. At the center of any definition of communication must be

the intention of conveying a message, even if the message is abstract (eg. modern poetry).

Why do we communicate?

The purpose of any given communication may be:

To initiate some action

To impart information, ideas, attitudes, beliefs or feelings

To establish, acknowledge or maintain links or relations with other people.

How do we communicate?

The Communication Cycle

Effective communication is a two-way process, perhaps best expressed as a cycle. Signals

or messages are sent by the communicator and received by the other party. He

sends back some form of confirmation that the message has been received and

understood: this is called feedback.

Message

SENDER RECEIVER

Feedback

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The Stages of Communication Process

SENDERS ACTIVITY RECEIVERS ACTIVITY

Impulse to communicate Decoding the Message

Encoding the Message Feedback

Relay of Message

Impulse to communicate

Deciding to communicate and deciding what to communicate is the first stage of

the process.

Messages should ideally be reviewed and put into some working order in the

brain before mouth, body or machinery are used to articulate and present the idea

for someone elses benefit.

Encoding the message

At this stage, the sender puts his message into words, gestures and expressions in

the form that both sender and receiver understand.

We have to bear in mind however, that a symbol that we use and understand may

be ambiguous (have more than one possible meaning) or mean something

different to a person of different age, nationality, experience or beliefs. Just

because we understand what we mean, it does not necessarily mean that someone

else will.

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Relaying the message

Once the idea has been encoded as a message, the sender needs to choose how to

transmit, or get it across to the receiver. The particular route or path, via which

the message is sent, connecting the sender and receiver, is called the channel of

communication. (eg. a notice board, newspaper column, online bulletin board).

The tool which is used to communicate is called the medium which often takes the

form of;

i. Visual communication eg. gesture, chart, picture or screen display;

ii. Written communication eg. a letter, memorandum, note, report or list; or

iii. Oral communication which includes both face-to-face and remote

communication eg. by telephone or television.

Choice of medium

The choice of medium will depend on such factors as:

the Time, depending on its urgency.

the Complexity, which medium will enable it to be most easily understood.

the Distance, the message is required to travel and in what condition it must

arrive.

the need for a written record, eg. for legal documents.

the need for interaction, immediate exchange or instant feedback.

the need for confidentiality or conversely, the spreading of information widely

and quickly.

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Sensitivity to the effect of the message on the recipient: the need for personal

involvement, persuasive power or impersonality.

Cost, for the best possible result at the least possible expense.

Decoding the message

The first step in communication from the receivers point of view is the decoding of the

message i.e understanding what it says. The receiver must

grasp the meaning of the words or symbols used by the sender.

interpret the message as a whole. What it says is not necessarily what it means.

Reading between the lines or inferring may be necessary to establish the

underlying meaning of the message.

Giving feedback

Feedback is the reaction of the receiver which indicates to the sender that the

message has (or has not) been successfully received, understood and interpreted.

There are 2 types of feedback negative & positive.

Positive feedback

i. Action taken as requested

ii. A letter/memo/note sent confirming receipt of message, or replying to

question/invitation etc.

iii. Smile, nod, thumbs up.

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Negative feedback

i. No action, or wrong action taken

ii. No written response at all or written request for more information, repetition etc.

iii. Silence, gesture, blank look, shrug.

Feedback is vital to success in communication because there are so many

potential barriers and breakdowns to guard against.

Types of Communication

Intrapersonal communication: Communication with oneself eg. if you want to

remind yourself to do something,

Interpersonal communication: Communication between two individuals, or

between a number of individuals on a personal level.

a. individual to individual.

b. Individual to group address the group as a whole.

c. Group to individual transmit message on behalf of an organization/

group etc.

The medium of interpersonal communication may be written, oral, visual, non-

verbal or may mix of them, through channels such as face-to-face discussion,

telephone or postal systems, notice boards and so on.

Impersonal communication/Mass communication: mass communication, in

which the message is directed to large, diffuse audience, with no direct contact

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between source and receiver. Like interpersonal communication, it can be oral,

visual or non-verbal, using written, pictorial, or simulated interpersonal

messages.eg. someone talking to the audience in a TV or radio advertisement.

Public communication: Takes place when the organization communicates with a

number of receivers. For example: staff newsletter, reports, meetings etc.

COMMUNICATION STRUCTURES/NETWORKS

Downward Communication The channel managers use to send messages to

employees or customers.
Upward Communication The channel subordinates use to send information to
superiors
Horizontal Communication The path that managers and other employees use to
communicate across departmental lines.
Crosswise Communication Also known as the grapevine is the informal network
that transcends the hierarchy and departmental boundaries.

Downward and Upward Communication Vertical Communication

Downward communication occurs when information is released by a superior and travels

down to their subordinates or to the least trained member of the group. An example of
such could be a memo. Management could release a memo on new rules about internet
access. The memo being passed down the chain of command is an example of downward
communication. Upward communication occurs when subordinates or individuals at the
lower level of an organisation communicate with superiors or individuals at the higher
level of the organisation.

Channels in Downward and Upward Communication

It is very important to understand and be aware of the different channels used in
organisations when communicating information. There are certain channels which are
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appropriate for downward communication as there are for upward communication.

Basically there are two types of channels that are formal and informal channels.

Formal channels are structured and officially recognised by the business or organization.
An employee turning in a project to the manager or supervisor, for example, is using a
formal channel of communication. For closed-loop organisations, their focus is
specifically on completing the communication process so that they will receive the
desired feedbacks. They work to make sure that information through formal channels is
accurate, specific, and understood.

Informal channels, however, are used for a more personal information and it travels
through a less structured path. This is where the term grapevine is often used to
describe an informal channel in which employees learn or receive information informally
and unofficially usually through gossip and rumour). Instant messaging is also an
informal channel that employees may be able to use. Informal channels generally cannot
be controlled, though, which can pose problems. However, formal channels can be
controlled, as management and head supervisors often determine how the channels work.

Types of Downward Communication

Giving Orders
As a manager, you give general direction and specific orders to your employees. You
want those directives to be understood and followed. This is not the time when you want
dissent and debate. You already sought input from others and decided what you want
done. So you issue a directive to your employee(s).

Giving Recognition
Giving recognition needs to be an ongoing activity. The reasons go beyond people's need
or desire for recognition. An employee needs to know when he or she hits the mark and is
doing things right. A manager needs to let employees know what behaviours are wanted
and expected.
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Both employees and managers benefit from this form of downward communication.Most
managers enjoy giving positive feedback to their employees. With a few exceptions,
people like seeing the satisfaction that others get when they get acknowledged for a job
well done.

Correcting Behaviour
As soon as you see an employee deviating from performance expectations, take the time
to give feedback to the employee so the undesirable behaviour doesnt repeat and become
ingrained. When left unattended, even the smaller infractions can creep up and become
performance issues later on.

Giving Information
Information flowing top down to employees is never enough, so make a point to spread
information as often as possible and using as many channels as you can think of. You can
use emails, department meetings, staff meetings, blogs, and other internal collaboration
tools that your company may have.

Getting Information
You may not view getting information as downward communication; after all, the
information is flowing upward. The reason why its being discussed in this context is
because the manager seeking information initiated this interaction, so the dynamics of
power are in full effect. In the same way you as a leader provide information to your
employees, there will be times when you need to get information from them. This could
be in the form of reports, answers, explanations, statuses, advice and information.

Giving Performance Appraisals

A key component of effective performance appraisals is on-going feedback to the
employee regarding his or her performance. Provide good and bad feedback often, its

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one of the most effective ways to ensure that employees perform to expectations and
grow to become the best employees that they can be.

Formal Directions of Communication

When Communication with Subordinates Downward Communication

To issue instructions
To persuade and sell
To appraise performance
To compliment, reward, and discipline
To clarify intentions and instructions

To get to know them as individuals

Types of Upward Communication

Giving Oral or Written Reports

As an employee, one of your goals may be to give reports that are complete, clear and
useful. Reports that make you look competent and professional. The key to a good report
(whether its a verbal report or a written one) is that it addresses the concerns of the
people receiving the report. You can have the greatest presentation and content, but if the
report doesnt answer the specific questions and concerns of your readers or audience, the
report will be lacking.

Reporting Periodic Project Statuses

This is a sub-category of giving oral or written reports but project status reporting
deserves its own discussion, because the reporting is done periodically. These days most
managers are too busy to receive periodic status updates, unless the updates are
significant. If not much has happened since the last time you provided a status report, its
best not to spend too much time preparing and giving one. This is assuming you are on

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schedule against a completion date. If there is nothing to report because you havent
completed what needed to be done, they you do need to provide a full report as to the
reasons why you are delaying the work.

Reporting Problems, Concerns and Complaints

This seems very straightforward, but there are potential pitfalls about reporting problems:
To describe problems in detail and skip providing any possible solutions.
To report the problem to the bosss boss, creating a went around his/her boss
awkwardness.
To report the problem in the wrong place or the wrong time, e.g. An employee reports
his need for additional training at a full departmental staff meeting. In that example,
the employee's training is a individual matter, not a group issue.

Giving Information
You may be privy to information that falls outside of the normal day of work, it could be
a rumour or verified information about something your boss needs to know. What to do?
It is fine to provide information as long as its verified, otherwise you are going on a
very slippery downhill: turning into an ear for your boss.

Asking for something

You may want to ask for a raise for yourself or one of your employees. You may need
additional resources (money, staff, authority, access to information) to complete your
project. This is perhaps the most difficult area of upward communication: To ask your
manager for something. Some people prefer to skip the exercise altogether and live with
the consequences of not asking and not getting what they want.

Floating Suggestions and Ideas

Lots of people have great ideas, but few get to see their ideas be accepted and
implemented. Most organisational cultures dont welcome change, and even when the
culture fosters innovation, people as individuals resist change. Its just human nature.

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To heighten the odds of your idea getting considered by your manager, make sure that
you describe:
How the solution will benefit the company
How the proposed solution is more cost effective than the existing solution
The likelihood of a successful transition from the existing solution to the new one
How to pull it off with the least amount of pain during the transition
Include a plan B, should the solution doesnt work as planned

When communicating with Superiors Upward Communication

To provide responses to request
To keep them informed of progress
To solicit help in solving problems
To sell ideas and suggestions for improvement
To seek clarification of instructions

Horizontal Communication:
When Communicating with Peers:

To share ideas for improvement

To coordinate activities
To provide assistance
To get to know them as individuals
To set goals and define roles
To create, examine, and improve methods
To improve working relationships
To define, investigate, and solve problems
To gather, process, and distribute information

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UNDERSTANDING VERBAL COMMUNICATION STYLES

There are various verbal communication styles which are Passive, Aggressive and
Assertive.

a) Passive
The passive communicator often allows his own rights to be violated by failing to
express his honest feelings. The goal of being a passive communicator is to avoid
conflict no matter what. Also, it is seen as very safe since there is little risk involved.
The characteristics of a passive communicator is that there is little eye contact, often
defers to others opinions, usually has quiet tone, and may suddenly explode after
being passive for too long.

Examples of responses of a passive communicator:

I dont know.
Whatever you think.
You have more experience than I. You decide.
Ill go with whatever the group decides.
I dont care. It doesnt matter to me.
Yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes. . . NO!

b) Aggressive
There are several characteristics of an aggressive communicator. The aggressive
communicator protects his own rights at the expense of others rights no exceptions.
The goal of the aggressor is to win at all costs; to be right. He does not consider those
actions as a risk because this person thinks that he will always get his way if he
becomes aggressive and people will listen to him if he acts aggressively. However,
this behavior is very risky in terms of relationships. The aggressive communicator can
be identified by several key indicators such as, eye contact is angry and intimidating;
lots of energy; loud and belittling; never defers to others, or at least does not admit to;
manipulative and controlling. Thus, he often uses violence or verbal abuse.
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Examples of responses of an aggressive communicator:

I dont know why you cant see that this is the right way to do it.
Its going to be my way or not at all.
Youre just stupid if you think that will work.
Who cares what you feel. Were talking about making things work here.

c) Assertive
Assertive communicators usually use balance in his way of communication. He
protects his own rights without violating the rights of others. The goal of the assertive
person is to communicate with respect and to understand each other; to find a solution
to the problem. He takes a risk with others in the short run, but in the long run
relationships are much stronger. The assertive communicator can be identified through
some characteristics such as his eye contact is maintained; he listens and validates
others; he is confident and strong, yet flexible; he is very objective and unemotional;
and he presents his wishes clearly and respectfully.

Examples of responses of an assertive communicator:

So what youre saying is. . . .
I can see that this is important to you, and it is also important to me. Perhaps we
can talk more respectfully and try to solve the problem.
I think. . . I feel. . . I believe that. . . .
I would appreciate it if you. . .
Let me understand your thoughts on this

Assertive communication is the healthiest because boundaries of all parties are

respected. It is easier to problem-solve and surely has fewer emotional outbursts along
the way. However, it requires skills and a philosophy change, as well as lots of
practice and hard work. When both parties do it, no one is hurt in any way and all
parties win on some level.

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Potential Problems in Communication

Two technical terms used to describe problems or breakdowns, which occur in

communication, are:

i. Distortion;

ii. Noise

Distortion

Distortion refers to the way in which the meaning of a communication is lost in

handling i.e during the encoding and decoding stages of communication.

Noise

Noise refers to distractions and interference in the environment in which

communication takes place, obstructing the process of communication by

affecting the accuracy, clarity or even the arrival of the message.

a. Physical noise, eg. other people talking, passing traffic.

b. Technical noise, eg. bad handwriting, crackle on a telephone line.

c. Social noise, eg. interference created by differences in personality/culture

or outlook of the sender and recipient.

d. Psychological noise, eg. excessive emotion (anger, fear), prejudice or

nervousness can also interfere with effective transmission of a message.

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The problem of noise can be reduced by redundancy: using more than one

channel of communication so that if a message fails to get through one

channel, it may succeed by another.

Personal differences

There are many factors in an individuals personality, mentality, experience and

environment which can cause distortion or noise in the communication process. For

example,

Racial, ethnic or regional origins:

Religious beliefs and traditions.

Social class and socio-economic.

Education and training.

Age.

Sex.

Occupation

Personality traits and types- a wide range of characteristics which shape attitudes

and behaviour: introvert/ extrovert, stable/neurotic, active/passive etc.

Intelligence- in terms of mental ability and understanding, linguistic or numerical

ability.

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Perception

Perception is the process by which the data gathered by the senses is selected,

sorted, organized and interpreted by the brain in order to form meaningful and

coherent messages or information.

Selective perception

The sub-conscious mind decides which stimuli/information are (subjectively)

relevant and which are irrelevant and can be safely ignored.

When we focus on selected stimuli, we say we give them our attention.

This is important for the communicator:

1. as listener and reader, because of the need to minimize potential

distractions and to be aware that some parts of a message may be ignored

thus, distorting the overall meaning.

2. as creator and sender, because the need to attract and hold the recipients

attention to the key points and meaning of the message.

Non-Verbal Communication

What is non-verbal communication?

Non-verbal communication is basically anything that conveys a message without

using words or symbols. It may be linked to words (eg. a tone of voice), or it may

be independent of any verbal message.

Movement is highly communicative. Think what you can convey through, for

example, frowning or smiling, nodding, scratching your head, putting your head

in your hands or slamming a door.

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There are two broad categories of non-verbal communications: First, Non-verbal

communication linked to verbal communication, which adds meaning over and

above what the speaker is saying in the words themselves between the lines of a

message.

Words Other factors Meaning

Really, Im fine. Quivering lips, pale face, Im upset, or ill, and either

curled up in chair, arms trying to be brave or not

folded around body. wanting your help.

Correct me if Sarcastic smile, patronising You and I both know Im

Im wrong. tone. right.

Second, Non-verbal communication independent of any verbal message, so that

meaning is conveyed by non-verbal cues. If you forget a friends birthday, for

example, this in itself may be enough to communicate that you dont care about

them anymore, or that you are angry with them for some reason.

Channels/Types of Non-verbal Communication

Because so much of human interaction is non-verbal, this system includes many

kinds of communication. There are 9 forms of non-verbal behaviour and each is

used to establish personal identity, relational messages and express personal

identity and cultural values.

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i. Kinesics

Kinesics refer to body position and body motions including facial expressions.

Our bodies communicate a great deal about how we see ourselves. For instance,

someone who walks briskly conveys determination; someone who moves without

purpose (or can never sit still) signals nervousness, impatience or distractions.

Our faces also communicate messages; we can indicate happiness (smiles), doubt

(raised eyebrows) or anger (stares). How we position ourselves relative to others

also expresses our feelings toward them - friends often sit together while

competitors typically maintain distance.

ii. Haptics

Haptics refer to physical touch. Touching or contact communicates closeness as

well as power and status. People with high status touch others and invade others

spaces more than those with low status. Between the two genders, women tend to

engage in touch while men more typically rely on touch to assert power and

control.

iii. Physical appearance

High value is often placed on physical appearance. People form initial evaluations

based on individuals appearance. We first notice physical qualities such as

gender, skin colour and features. Then we form judgements of how attractive

others are and make inferences about their personalities. For example, plump,

rounded bodies are often associated with laziness and weakness while thin,

angular physiques are thought to reflect youthful, stubborn personalities. Though

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these associations have no factual basis, they can affect decisions about hiring,

placement and promotion.

iv. Artifacts

Artifacts are personal objects we use to announce our identities and personalize

our environments. We craft our image by how we dress and what objects we carry

and use. For instance, doctors wear white and drape stethoscopes around their

necks while the military requires uniforms with stripes and medals to signify rank

and accomplishments. Artifacts communicate important relational meaning we

use them to perform our identities and express how we perceive and feel about

others.

v. Proxemics

Proxemics refer to space and how we use it. Space reflects intimacy e.g. when

we are angry with someone, we tend to move away from him and resent it if he

approaches us. Space also announces status with greater space being assumed by

those with higher status. How people arrange space reflects how close they are

and whether they want interaction. E.g. Those who enjoy interaction arrange

furniture to invite conversation and eye contact. For less interaction, chairs may

be far apart and face the television instead of each other.

vi. Environmental factors

Environmental factors are elements of settings that affect how we feel and act. We

respond to architecture, colours, temperature, sounds, smells and lighting. e.g.

dimly-lit room can enhance romantic feelings while dark rooms can be

depressing. Rooms with comfortable chairs invite relaxation while stiff chairs

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prompt formality. Thus, environmental factors influence not only patterns of

interaction but also feelings and moods.

vii. Chronemics

Chronemics refer to how we perceive and use time to define identities and

interaction. E.g. cultural rule stipulates important people with high status can keep

others waiting. Its standard practice to wait to see a doctor even if you have an

appointment. Chronemics also express cultural attitudes toward time. In western

societies, for example, time is valuable so, speed is highly valued but Malaysian

have more relaxed attitudes toward time and punctuality.

viii. Paralanguage

Paralanguage refers to vocal sounds such as murmurs and gasps and vocal

qualities such as volume, rhythm, pitch and intonation. These vocal cues act as

signals for others to interpret what we say as a joke, threat, statement, question

etc. Voices can also be used to communicate feelings eg whispering indicates

secrecy and intimacy while shouting conveys anger.

ix. Silence

Silence can communicate powerful messages. It can communicate different

meanings. Eg. It can signal awkwardness or disconfirm others we deliberately

ignore others when were angry with them.

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Written Communication

Advantages

The advantages of written messages include the following.

They provide a permanent record of transaction or agreement for confirmation

and recollection of details. Evidence may also be necessary for legal purposes.

They provide supporting confirmation and clarification of verbal messages, again

in case evidence should be needed, but also an aid of memory.

They are easily duplicated and sent out to numerous recipients: this ensures that

everyone receives the same message. It also enables office personnel to write one

message (to adapt or copy) instead of making numerous phone calls.

They are capable of relaying complex ideas, aided by suitable layout and the

permanence of the record, which allows the recipient to pore over it at length if

necessary.

They can be stored and later retrieved for reference and analysis as required.

They are perceived as impersonal, and can be used in situations where unusual

formality or distance need to be established within an otherwise personal

relationship (for example, formal disciplinary proceedings).

Disadvantages

Time. A written message can be take time to produce, and to send, especially if it

has to go by post and if expensive technology is beyond the users reach. Because

of the time factor, swift interactive exchanges of opinion, attitude and so on are

impossible.

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Inflexibility. Once sent, the message cannot immediately be altered or amended,

even if circumstances change or errors are discovered.

Impersonality. Written communication also tends to more across as formal and

impersonal, so in situations requiring greater sensitivity or persuasion, the

personal presence or voice of the sender may be more effective.

Accessibility. Peoples ability to read and interpret written messages will vary

according to background, education, knowledge of the topic and so on. Eg. If the

vocabulary is difficult, the reader may not understand the message.

Distance. Non-verbal signals (eg. gesture, facial expression) are not available to

help in interpreting the message the receiver is left with only the words,

presentation and written style. Instant feedback is also not available which means

errors in interpretation may not be corrected immediately.

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