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3 Foreword
4 Summary
6 Q1: What is climate change?
8 Q2: How has climate changed?
12 Q3: Are human activities causing climate change?
16 Q4: How do we expect climate to evolve in the future?
20 Q5: How are extreme events changing?
22 Q6: How are sea levels changing?
24 Q7: What are the impacts of climate change?
28 Q8: What are the uncertainties and their implications?
30 Q9: What does science say about options to address climate change?
The purpose of this booklet is to provide an understanding, based on our As in all areas of active science, uncertainties remain. However, enormous
present scientific knowledge, of some key questions about climate change. scientific progress has been made in our understanding of climate change
It is an extensively revised update of a similarly titled Academy publication and its causes and implications. Since 2010, the IPCC has prepared a new
in 2010 that summarised the state of knowledge at that time. It has been international assessment with the active involvement of many Australian
prepared by a broadly-based Working Group of Australian climate scientists researchers, including several members of the Academy Working Group. This
with review and guidance provided by an Oversight Committee composed of Q&A update is thus well informed by recent international developments in the
Academy Fellows and the former Chair of the Academys National Committee science as well as the most recent work by our ownscientists on peculiarly
for Earth System Science. Australian aspects of the climate change problem.
Along with its sister Academies, the Australian Academy of Science has played As the summary states, Societies, including Australia, face choices about how
an active role in assessing the science of climate change since the 1970s. to respond to the consequences of future climate change. It is incumbent on
The Academy recognises the role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate society to consider these choices.
Change (IPCC) as the mechanism for the international scientific assessment of I wish to thank all the members of the Working Group and Oversight
climate change science, impacts and response strategies. However, it believes Committee (whose names are listed on the back cover) for their painstaking
that it is important that Australian climate scientists explain the science, work in the preparation of this update. I also acknowledge the assistance
including its uncertainties and implications, to the Australian community in of the reviewers and others who helped with this update. The Academy is
simpler terms than can be found in most of the IPCCreports. especially grateful to the Department of the Environment, which provided the
The Working Group who prepared this update was led by Professor Michael financial support for the preparation and publication of this document.
Raupach FAA FTSE and Dr Ian Allison AO with special support, in the later On behalf of the Academy, I am pleased to commend the information in the
stages, from Professor Steven Sherwood. The views presented in the answers following pages to all those who are looking for authoritative answers to the
to the nine key questions were carefully reviewed by an Oversight Committee key questions we are all asking about the science of climate change.
and 12 independent climate scientists* who agreed to help with the
preparation of this document. The role of the Oversight Committee was to Andrew Holmes AM PresAA FRS FTSE
make sure that all reasonable review comments were properly considered by President
the Working Group in preparing their final text. While the reviewers provided Australian Academy of Science
more than 600 individual comments on the penultimate draft, neither they
nor the Oversight Committee are responsible for the final wording of the
detailed answers that represent the views of the expert members of the
WorkingGroup.
Nevertheless the summary on pages 4 and 5 represents the fully agreed *In addition to multi-stage review carried out by the Oversight Committee, the penultimate
left: An image from space of the cloud
patterns associated with a mid-latitude
views of both the Oversight Committee and the Working Group. It has been draft of this document was reviewed by Dr G Ayers FTSE, Dr I G Enting, Professor D Griggs
cyclone off southwest Australia. endorsed by the Academy as a balanced, objective and authoritative summary FTSE, Professor D Karoly, Mr WR Kininmonth, Professor M J Manton FTSE, Dr K G McCracken
Photo:NASA of the current state of knowledge of the science of climate change. AO FAA FTSE, Professor N Nicholls, Dr N Smith FTSE and three anonymous reviewers.
Summary
in greenhouse gases will produce further warming and other
changes in Earths physical environment and ecosystems.
The science behind these statements >> Measurements from the recent
is supported by extensive studies past (the last 150 years) tell us
based on four main lines of evidence: that Earths surface has warmed
>> Physical principles established as atmospheric concentrations
more than a century ago tell of greenhouse gases increased
us that certain trace gases through human activities, and
in the atmosphere, such as that this warming has led to
carbon dioxide (CO2) and water other environmental changes.
vapour, restrict the radiant flow Although climate varies from
of heat from Earth to space. decade to decade, the overall
This mechanism, known as the upward trend of average global
greenhouse effect, keeps Earths surface temperature over the last
surface and lower atmosphere century is clear.
considerably warmer than they >> Climate models allow us
would otherwise be. The gases to understand the causes of
involved are called greenhouse past climate changes, and to
gases. An increase in greenhouse project climate change into the
gas concentrations raises the future. Together with physical
temperature of the surface. principles and knowledge of
>> The record of the distant past variations, models provide
past (millions of years) tells us compelling evidence that recent
that climate has varied greatly changes are due to increased
through Earths history. It has, for greenhouse gas concentrations
example, gone through ten major in the atmosphere. They tell
ice age cycles over approximately us that, unless greenhouse
the past million years. Over the gas emissions are reduced
last few thousand years of this greatly andgreenhouse gas
period, during which civilisations concentrations are stabilised,
developed, climate was unusually greenhouse warming will
stable. Evidence from the past continue to increase.
confirms that climate can be This document aims to summarise
sensitive to small persistent and clarify the current scientific
changes, such as variations in understanding of climate change
Earths orbit. by answering nine key questions.
Past climate has varied in the atmosphere2426, the evolution about 5C in ice-age cycles, roughly Most past changes in global
above: Aerial view of the Norman River
enormously on a variety of of life27 and meteorite impacts28 have every 100,000 years or so3134 (Figure temperature occurred slowly, flowing towards the Gulf of Carpentaria
time-scales also caused climate change in the 2.1a). In the coldest period of the over tens of thousands or millions in far north Queensland. Photo:
Earths climate has changed past. Several million years ago, for last ice age, about 20,000 years ago, of years. However, there is also iStockphoto.com/John Carnemolla
dramatically many times since example, global average temperature sea level was at least 120metres evidence that some abrupt changes
the planet was formed 4.5 billion was a few degrees higher than lower than today35, 36 because more occurred, at least at regional scales.
years ago15, 16. These changes have today and warm, tropical waters water was locked up on land in For example, during the last ice age,
been triggered by the changing reached much farther from the polar ice sheets. The last 8,000 temperatures in the North Atlantic
configuration of continents and equator, resulting in very different years, which includes most recorded region changed by 5C or more over
oceans17, 18, changes in the Suns patterns of ocean and atmospheric human history, have been relatively as little as a few decades40, 41, likely
intensity19, variations in the orbit of circulation from today29, 30. stable at the warmer end of this due to sudden collapses of Northern
Earth2022, and volcanic eruptions23. Over the past million years, temperature range37, 38. This stability Hemisphere ice sheets or changes in
Natural variations in the Earths globally averaged surface enabled agriculture, permanent ocean currents4244.
concentrations of greenhouse gases temperature has risen and fallen by settlements and population growth39.
-5
-10
400
2013 CO2 concentration (396 ppm)
CO2 (ppm)
325
Figure 2.1: Past changes Past records demonstrate that Global average temperatures
250 in temperature align with global climate is sensitive to have increased over the past
changesinCO2 at a variety of small but persistent influences century
175 timescales. These graphs show Climate and sea level were
Ice-age cycles were initiated by
800,000 700,000 600,000 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 thechanges from longterm
average temperature (oC)20, 45, 46 small variations in the rotation of relativelystable over thousands of
Years BC
and average atmospheric Earth and in its orbit around the years of recorded human history up
(b) Changes over the last 2,000 years CO2 concentration (parts per sun. These changed the seasonal to the 19th century, although with
million)25, 47, 48 over the last (a) and latitudinal distribution of solar some variations45, 49 (Figure 2.1b).
0.4 800,000 years, (b)2,000 years and energy reaching Earths surface21, 22. However, globally averaged
Temp. change (C)
page10).
disturbances. During warm periods,
320 last decade has been the warmest
the major greenhouse gases CO2
of these. Satellite observations
280 and methane were released into the
anddirect measurements also show
atmosphere, and receding ice sheets
0 500 1000 1500 2000
reflected less sunlight to space. warming in the lower atmosphere
Years AD over the past three decades50.
These observations confirm that the
climate system is sensitive to small In contrast, the atmosphere
(c) Changes over the last 160 years
disturbances that can be amplified above about 15 km elevation (the
0.6
by reinforcing feedback processes. stratosphere) has cooled over
Temp. change (C)
0.4
0.2 Likewise, the climate system today thistime5153.
0.0 is sensitive to disturbances from The temperature of the oceans has
-0.2
human influences. also risen. More than 90% of the
-0.4
-0.6 total heat accumulated in the climate
400
system between 1971 and 2010 has
been stored in the oceans54, 55. The
360 greatest ocean warming has taken
CO2 (ppm)
There are regional differences Figure 2.3: Temperature has risen over
Australia and in the surrounding ocean
toclimate change including
since the beginning of the 20th century,
within Australia
Prod
Glouced by
bal C the In
arbo te
Geological
n Pro rnation
ject a
2010 l Geosp reservoirs
here-B
iosp 14
here
Prog
ramme
for th High emissions pathway Figure 3.3: CO2 emissions from burning
e Glo
bal C
arbo (billion tonnes of carbon per year) Low emissions pathway fossil fuels have continued to increase
n Pro
ject.
over recent years. The black dots show
12 Intermediate 1
observed CO2 emissions from fossil fuels
Fossil Fuel CO emissions
Intermediate 2
and other industrial processes (mainly
Observed
cement manufacture); the coloured
10 lines represent four future pathways
Figure 3.1: The natural carbon cycle, in which CO2 circulates between the atmosphere, land as envisaged in 2006 for low to high
and oceans, has been changed by emissions of CO2 from human activities. In this diagram emissions129. Observed emissions are
of the global carbon cycle, numbers on arrows represent carbon flows averaged over tracking the highest-emission pathway.
20042013, in gigatonnes (billion tonnes) of carbon per year106. Source: Global Carbon 8
Source: Working Group for this document,
Project, with updated numbers107. with data from the Global Carbon Project107.
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
1850 1910 1960 2010 1850 1910 1960 2010
has cooled and the lower atmosphere have been observed in the Australian
Box 3.1: Do changes in the Sun contribute to global warming?
has warmed significantlythe region over the past two decades.
predicted consequence of extra These include stronger westerly In comparison with other influences, the effects of solar variations on
greenhouse gases140, 51, 52. This winds over the Southern Ocean, present global warming are small138, 156158. Indirect estimates suggest that
supports the inference that the strengthening of the high-pressure changes in the brightness of the Sun have contributed only a few percent
observed near-surface warming ridge over southern Australia144146, of the global warming since 1750138, 159161. Direct measurements show a
is due primarily to an enhanced and a related southward shift of decreasing solar intensity over recent decades, opposite to what would be
greenhouse effect rather than, say, an weather systems147149. These trends required to explain the observed warming162, 163. Solar activity has declined
increase in the brightness of the Sun. are consistent with climate model significantly over the last few years, and some estimates suggest that weak
projections, and are likely to be activity will continue for another few decades, in contrast with strong
Some recent changes in largely human-induced through activity through the 20th century156. Nevertheless, the possible effects on
Australias climate are linked a combination of increases in warming are modest compared with anthropogenic influences156.
to rising greenhouse gases greenhouse gases and thinning of
Modelling studies indicate that the ozone layer148, 150, 151, 80, 152.
rising greenhouse gases have Past decadal trends in Australian There has very likely been net
facing page: Wollongong, NSW at night.
made a clear contribution to the rainfall (Question 2) cannot yet uptakeof CO2 by Australian Photo: Jim Vrckovski
recent observed warming across be clearly separated from natural vegetation124, 125, consistent with right: Rainforest canopy,
Australia141143. Depletion of the climate variations78, except in global uptake of CO2 by vegetation BellendenKerRange, North Queensland.
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere southwest Western Australia153 on land (Figure 3.2, see page 13). This Photo: Robert Kerton
overAntarctica and rising where a significant observed has been accompanied by increases
greenhouse gas concentrations declinein rainfall has been in the greenness of Australian
are also likely to have contributed attributedto human influences vegetation154, which is also consistent
significantly to climate trends that onthe climate system80. with globaltrends155.
7
40
6 30
20
5
4 0
10
1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
3 Year
1
1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
Year
High emissions pathway Low emissions pathway
above: Drawing on data from multiple satellite missions, Figure 4.1: Future projected climate change depends on net emissions of greenhouse
NASA scientists and graphic artists have layered land gases. Retrospective and future projected global surface air temperature changes
surface, polar sea ice, city lights, cloud cover and other (C; relative to 18611880) under both high and low emissions pathways. Individual model
data in a visualisation of Earth from space. Image: NASA simulations are shown as faint lines, with bold lines indicating the multi-model average.
Goddard Space Flight Centre/Reto Stckli The corresponding two emissions pathways, including all industrial sources, are included
in the inset. Emission units are gigatonnes (billion tonnes) of carbon per year (GtC/y).
Source: Data from Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) 5166.
A model with high climate sensitivity A model with low climate sensitivity Figure 4.2: Projections of temperature
and rainfall show consistent features at
11 large scales but differ regionally, especially
for rainfall. Projected global distributions
temperature changes C
9 of surface air temperature changes (top)
50
40
30
precipitation change
20
Projected %
10
0
10
20
30
40
50
During the next few decades and and decreases in many subtropical worldwide, broadly agree on the under a high emissions scenario.
beyond, global warming is expected and mid-latitude regions), further patterns of global-scale warming, At more localised regional scales
to cause further increases in ocean warming, and further rises with greater atmospheric warming the models can produce different
atmospheric moisture content, more in sea levels167. The magnitude of over land than over the oceans, and results: for example, some models
extreme heatwaves, fewer frosts, expected change depends on future greater warming at high northern project substantial changes to
further decreases in the extent and greenhouse gas emissions and latitudes than in the tropics and phenomena such as El Nio or
thickness of sea ice, further melting climate feedbacks. Southern Ocean (Figure 4.2 top). dramatic changes to vegetation168,
of mountain glaciers and ice sheets, Future projections, based on Future changes depend on the and regional projections of
shifts in rainfall (increases in most climate models operated across a emissions pathway, and will be precipitation vary between
tropical and high-latitude regions large number of research centres less if emissions are curtailed than models(Figure4.2bottom).
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Cumulative CO2 emissions from 1870 (billion tonnes of carbon)
To keep global warming temperatures to no more than emissions were 530billion tonnes. Figure 4.3: Global warming is closely
belowany specified threshold, 2Cabove preindustrial levels, the The remaining quota is equivalent related to cumulative CO2 emissions.
there is a corresponding total CO2 emitted from human to around 30years worth of current Points represent Intergovernmental Panel
limiton cumulative carbon activities (accounting also for effects emissions188, 189. To stay within such on Climate Change projections from
dioxide emissions the Fourth and Fifth Assessments (IPCC
of other gases) would have to stay a carbon quota, long-term global
AR4, AR5); coloured bands represent
The amount of future global warming below a carbon quota between emissions reductions would have uncertainty, by showing the relationship
is closely related to cumulative CO2 820187 and 950188 billion tonnes toaverage between 5.5% and ifthe climate were more (red) or less
emissions114, 164, 183187 (Figure4.3). of carbon. So far,humanity has 8% peryear, accounting for time (blue) sensitive to disturbance than
emitted well over half of this quota: required to turn around present current best estimates. Source: Working
For example, to have a 50:50
Group for this document, with data from
chance of keeping globalaverage between 1870 and 2013 cumulative emissions growth189.
IPCC AR4andAR5.
century190195. This high variability increase. This is already being to the probabilities of some kinds
Temperature
poses great challenges for recording observed globally200: heavy rainfall of extreme events. There is a
and analysing changes in climate events over most land areas have discernible human influence in the
extremes not just in Australia, become more frequent and intense observed increases in extremely
but the world over. Nevertheless, in recent decades, although these hot days and heatwaves209, 210. While
some changes in Australias climate trends have varied notably between the record high temperatures of
extremes stand out from that regions and seasons. In southern the 2012/2013 Australian summer
background variability. Australia194, 195, for example, the could have occurred naturally, they
frequency of heavy rainfall has were substantially more likely to cold extremes threshold
Human-induced climate decreased201 in some seasons. While occur because of human influences
change is superimposed on there is no clear trend in drought on climate211, 212. By contrast, the
natural variability occurrence globally50, indications large natural variability of other Time
In a warming climate, extremely cold are that droughts have increased in extremes, such as rainfall213 or
days occur less often and veryhot some regions (such as southwest tropical cyclones171, means that Figure 5.1: Temperature extremes change as average temperature increases. In this
days occur more often (Figure 5.1). Australia) and decreased in others thereis still much less confidence schematic illustration, the increase in average temperature is shown by the sloping line
(such as northwest Australia) since in how these are being affected by on the right. The idealised temperature time series has similar variability throughout the
These changes have already been
whole record. In the latter part of the record, the hot extremes threshold is exceeded
the middle of the 20th century202204. humaninfluences.
progressively more frequently. Source: Working Group for this document.
(e) Future change in 20yr RV of warmest daily Tmax (TXx) (f)(c)Future RP for present
Warmdaydays (TX90p)
20yr RV of wettest day (RX1day) (d)
Warm days Very Wet Days 29 historical 18
70 RCP2.6 70
40 40 60
60 60 RCP4.5
60 RCP8.5 60
30 30
50 50
Relative change, %
20 20
50 50 40
40 40
30 30 10 10 40 40
20 20 0 0 30 30 20
(C) Years
10 10 -10 -10 20 20
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 7 9 11 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 0
Year Year
10
Figure 5.3: Over most continents, a heavy rainfall event that occurs only once in 20 years
10
today is expected to occur at least twice as often by end of the 21st century. The map
shows projections, under a high emission pathway, of the return period during 20812100
1960 1980
for daily precipitation 2000
values that 2020 return
have a 20-year 2040period2060 2080 2100
during 19862005. Adapted
from IPCC (2013) Fifth Assessment Report,Year
79
Working Group 1, Technical Summary, TFE.9,
Extremes are expected to future will likely mean that extreme
Figure 1f.
Figure 5.2: Future increases in extreme
change in the future precipitation is more intense and more
As the climate continues to warm in frequent, interspersed with longer dry
temperatures in Australia are strongly
linked to global greenhouse gas emissions.
(e) Future change in 20yr RV of warmest daily Tmax (TXx) (f) Fut
response to further greenhouse gas spells214, 215, likewise with substantial But future changes in heavy rainfall are
much less certain. Plots show Australia-
emissions, high temperature extremes regional variability. wide changes in (left) the percentage
will become hotter and cold extremes In many continents, including of days annually with daily maximum
will become less cold214. The rate of surface air temperature warmer than the
Australia, a high temperature event temperature exceeded by the hottest 10%
change of temperature extremes
expected once in 20 years at the of days during 19611990; and (right) the
in Australia will depend on future
end of the 21st century is likely to percentage change in annual precipitation
emission levels215: higher emissions from the wettest 5% of rainfall days
will cause progressively more frequent be over 4oC hotter than it is today
(relative to 19862005). Red and blue lines
high extreme temperatures (Figure 5.2 (Figure 5.4). Furthermore, what represent outcomes under high-emissions
left). Climate model projections also we experience as a one-in-20-year and low-emissions pathways214, 218, 219.
Source: working group for this document.
suggest (though with considerable temperature today would become
uncertainty) that in the next several an annual or one-in-two-year event
decades, heavy rainfall events in by the end of the 21st century in C
Australia will tend to increase under manyregions216. -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 7 9 11
a high emissions pathway (Figure 5.2
Future changes in other extreme
right). Across the globe, projections
weather events are less certain.
point broadly to an intensification of Figure 5.4: The maximum temperature in any 20-year time period is expected to increase
the wettest days214, 216 and a reduction Evidence suggests there will with time, being substantially higher at the end of the 21st century than today. The map
be fewer tropical cyclones, but shows projections under a high emissions pathway of the change from 19862005 to
in the return time of the most
20812100 in 20-year return values of daily maximum temperatures. Adapted from IPCC
extreme events (Figure 5.3), although that the strongest cyclones will
(2013)79, Fifth Assessment Report, Working Group 1, Technical Summary, TFE.9, Figure 1e.
there is much regional variation in produceheavier rainfall than they
these trends. For Australia, a warmer docurrently171, 217.
levels changing?
to 116,000 years ago)16, 220, 221 when
global average surface temperatures sheet, and the increased discharge
were less than 2C above their values of ice into the ocean from both
the Greenland and Antarctic ice
just before the start of the industrial
sheets62. This increase in ice-sheet
era in the 19th century222. The
discharge is related to increases in
estimated contributions from ocean
ocean temperatures adjacent to and
thermal expansion223 and a then
underneath the glacier tongues and
smaller Greenland Ice Sheet16 imply
floating ice shelves that fringe the
acontribution also from Antarctica
coast of Greenland and Antarctica241.
to this higher sea level.
The sum of storage of water in
terrestrial reservoirs242 and the
Globally, sea levels are
depletion of ground water243, 244 have
currentlyrising
made a small contribution to sea-level
For two thousand years before rise during the 20th century244, 245.
the mid-19th century, the long-
term global sea-level change was Australian sea levels are rising
small, only a few centimetres per
Around the Australian coastline,
century224232. Since then, the rate of
sea level rose relative to the land
rise has increased substantially233;
throughout the 20th century, with
from 1900 to 2012, sea level rose
a faster rate (partly as a result of
by a global average of about 19 natural climate variability) since
centimetres234237. In the past 20 years, 1993246, 247. This follows several
both satellite and coastal sea-level thousand years when there was
data indicate that the rate of rise a slow fall of Australian sea levels
has increased to about 3 centimetres relative to the land at rates of a few
per decade. A similarly high rate centimetres per century. This was
was experienced in the 1920 to 1950 a result of ongoing changes to the
period234, 235, 237 (Figure 6.1). solid Earth following loss of the large
The two largest contributions to surface loading from ice sheets of the
sea-level rise since 1900 were the last ice age248.
Climate changes have always Impacts from human-induced Some regional changes in Australian
affected societies and climate change are already rainfall have been linked to human-
ecosystems occurring induced climate change. Southwest
Climate change, whatever the The clearest present-day impacts Western Australia has experienced a
cause, has profoundly affected of climate change in Australia and reduction in rainfall since the 1970s
human societies and the natural elsewhere are seen in the natural that has been attributed, at least
environment in the past. Throughout environment, and are associated with in part, to enhanced greenhouse
history there are examples of warming temperatures and increases warming (Question 3)78, 80, 152, 153.
societal collapse associated with in the number, duration and severity Societal adaptation to the resulting
regional changes in climate, ranging of heatwaves78, 286. These impacts shortfalls in water supply is possible
from the decline of the Maya in include changes in the growth and and already occurring (Box 7.1).
Mexico (linked to drought)284 to distribution of plants, animals and Box 7.1: Impacts of a drier climate: the case of southwest
insects77, 287289; poleward shifts in the WesternAustralia
the disappearance of the Viking
community from Greenland in distribution of marine species; and Declining rainfall and surface reservoir recharge since the mid-1970s in
above left: The Southern Seawater
the fifteenth century (linked to increases in coral bleaching on the Desalination Plant at Binningup, WA, southwest Western Australia have been linked to changes in atmospheric
decreasing temperatures)285. Some Great Barrier Reef290 and Western supplies drinking water to Perth. Photo: circulation that are consistent with what would be expected in an
of these regional climate changes Australian reefs291, 292. Some of these Darryl Peroni Photography, courtesy of atmosphere influenced by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations152.
changes can directly affect human Water Corporation. TheWater Corporation of Western Australia is addressing the diminishing
occurred rapidly, on timescales
activities; for example, through the above right: Developed by the CSIRO surface water resource by setting out to deliver a climate-independent
similar to current rates of global
effects of changing distributions Information and Communications
climate change. supply of water for domestic consumption through two desalination
Technology Centre at its Queensland
of fish and other marine organisms laboratory, Starbug is an autonomous, plants. These now have the capacity to provide around half the piped
on commercial and recreational miniature submarine for underwater water supply for the wider Perth region at a cost several times greater
fisheries293, and the impacts of coral monitoring and surveying of ecosystems than that of surface water370.
bleaching on tourism294. such as the Great Barrier Reef. Photo: QCAT
1000
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Current changes are expected groundwater that are affected by Figure 7.1: As temperatures become
to continue and intensify in changed rainfall patterns300, 301; and warmer, native animals that depend
thefuture (5) tropical savannahs affected on cooler mountain habitats may be
by changes in the frequency and particularly vulnerable, as shown for this
The impacts of future climate
example from northern Queensland. The
change and related sea-level rise will severity of bushfires302. Figure 7.2: In most parts of
maps indicate the number of considered
be experienced in many areas, from Climate warming causes land and Australia, the number of extreme
species now present in the Wet Tropics
fire weather days has increased over
the natural environment to food ocean life to migrate away from bioregion under the current climate and
the last few decades. The map, left,
security and from human health to areas that have become too warm, those expected with temperature rises of
shows the trends in average fire
1C, 3.5C and 5C shown according tothe
infrastructure. and towards areas that previously weather days (annual cumulative
colour code at the left. The impactsof
were too cool303. In many places, values of the McArthur Forest Fire
Ecosystems: Among Australias changes in rainfall are not included in this
climate change is likely to lead Danger Index (FFDI)) at 38 climate
terrestrial ecosystems, some of example. Adapted from Williams et al.
reference sites. Trends are given in
to invasion by new species and (2003)296.
the most vulnerable to climate FFDI points per decade and larger
change are (1) alpine systems as extinctions of some existing species Increase
(pts/decade) circles represent larger trends
habitats shift to higher elevations that will have nowhere to migrate, < 100 according to the size code shown
100 below. Filled circles represent trends
and shrink in area295; (2) tropical for example because they are located growth in some trees and plants, 200
that are statistically significant. The
and subtropical rainforests on mountain tops (Figure 7.1). an effect sometimes called 400
time series, top, shows the trend
due to warming temperatures Seemingly small changes, such as the CO2 fertilisation. Absorption 600
in the annual cumulative FFDI at
(moderated or intensified by rainfall loss of a key pollinating species, may of CO2 into the oceans causes Melbourne Airport. Adapted from
changes)296298; (3) coastal wetlands potentially have large impacts304. ocean acidification, impeding Clarke et al (2013)307.
Please note: This caption differs slightly
affected by sea-level rise and saline Carbon dioxide affects ecosystems shell formation by organisms
to the first print run of the booklet.
intrusion299; (4) inland ecosystems directly, both positively and such as corals and causing coral
dependent on freshwater and negatively. On land it enhances deterioration or death305.
Deaths
vulnerable individuals such as the sick 25.5 25
and elderly313. During the heatwave 100 20
of early 2009 in Victoria, there were
15
374 more deaths than average for the
time of year314 (Figure 7.3). Warmer 50 2004-08 average deaths 10
temperatures in future will lead to 2009 deaths
5
increased occurrences of heatwaves *Deaths data from BDM and reports to SCO 2009 max temp (C)
(Figure 5.2 left, see page 21). Without 0 0
26/01 27/01 28/01 29/01 30/01 31/01 1/02
further adaptation, extremely hot
episodes are expected to have the Date