Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work and is required for life processes. An energy resource is something that can
produce heat, power life, move objects, or produce electricity.
Matter that stores energy is called a fuel. Human energy consumption has grown steadily .throughout human
history. Early humans had modest energy requirements, mostly food and fuel for fires to cook and keep warm. In
today's society, humans consume as much as 110 times as much energy per person as early humans. Most of the
energy we use today come from fossil fuels (stored solar energy). But fossils fuels have a disadvantage in that
they are non-renewable on a human time scale, and cause other potentially harmful effects on the environment.
In any event, the exploitation of all energy sources (with the possible exception of direct solar energy used for
heating), ultimately rely on materials on planet Earth.

Some of the questions we want to answer in this discussion are:

1. What sources of Energy are available?

2. How do the energy sources rely on resources available on Earth?

3. Which energy sources are renewable on a human time scale?

4. Since fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, coal) are our main source of energy, how are they formed, how do we
find them and exploit them?

5. What is the future for our energy needs?

Energy Sources

There are 5 fundamental sources of energy:

1. Nuclear fusion in the Sun (solar energy)

2. Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.

3. Nuclear fission reactions.

4. Energy in the interior of the Earth.

5. Energy stored in chemical bonds.

Solar Energy

Solar Energy arrives from the Sun by electromagnetic radiation. It can be used directly for heat and converted to
electricity for other uses. It is a nearly unlimited source, it is renewable, and largely, non-polluting.

Gravity Generated by the Earth & Moon.

Gravitational pull of the Moon on the Earth causes tides. Tidal flow can be harnessed to drive turbines. This is also
a nearly unlimited source of energy and is largely non-polluting.

Combining both both solar energy and gravity provides other useful sources of energy. Solar radiation heats air
and evaporates water.
Gravity causes cooler air to sink and condense water vapor. Gravity then pulls condensed water back to Earth,
where it flows downhill. The circulation of the atmosphere by the process is what we call the wind. Energy can be
extracted from the wind using windmills. Water flowing downhill has a result of gravity can also be harnessed for
energy to drive turbines and generate electricity. This is called hydroelectric energy. This sources of energy are
mostly renewable, but only locally, and are generally non-polluting.
Nuclear Fission Reactions

Radioactive Uranium is concentrated and made into fuel rods that generate large amounts of heat as a result of
radioactive decay. This heat is used to turn water into steam. Expansion of the steam can then be used to drive a
turbine and generate electricity. Once proposed as a cheap, clean, and safe way to generate energy, Nuclear
power has come under some disfavor. Costs of making sure nuclear power plants are clean and safe and the
problem of disposing of radioactive wastes, which are unsafe, as well as questions about the safety of the plants
under human care, have contributed to this disfavor.
Energy in the Interior of the Earth

Decay of radioactive elements has produced heat throughout Earth history. It is this heat that causes the
temperature to increase with depth in the Earth and is responsible for melting of mantle rocks to form magmas.
Magmas can carry the heat upward into the crust. Groundwater circulating in the vicinity of igneous intrusions
carries the heat back toward the surface. If this hot water can be tapped, it can be used directly to heat homes, or
if trapped at great depth under pressure it can be turned into steam which will expand and drive a turbine to
generate electricity.

Energy Stored in Chemical Bonds

Energy stored in chemical bonds drives chemical reactions. When the reactions take place this energy is either
released or absorbed. If it is absorbed, it is stored in the chemical bond for later use. If it is released, it can
produce useful heat energy. electricity, and light.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells are one example: A chemical reaction occurs wherein Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen in an
electrolyte bath to produce H2O, and releases electricity and heat. The reaction is non-polluting, but currently has
problems, such as safely storing and distributing compressed hydrogen gas, and producing hydrogen efficiently.

Biomass Energy is an other example. It involves burning (a chemical reaction) of wood, or other organic
byproducts. Such organic material is produced by photosynthesis, a chemical process which derives energy from
the Sun and stores that energy until the material is burned.

Fossil Fuels - Biomass energy that is buried within the Earth where it is stored until humans extract and burn it to
release the energy. Among these sources are petroleum (Oil & natural gas), oil shale, tar sands, and coal. All of
which will be one of the primary topics of our discussion here.

Geology and Energy Resources

Exploitation for human use of nearly all of the energy sources listed above, requires geologic knowledge.

While using direct solar energy to heat water and homes does not require geologic knowledge, the making of solar
cells does, because the material to make such cells requires knowledge of specific mineral deposits. Chemicals to
produce wires (iron, copper, gold), batteries, (Li, Cd, Ni), and electric motors (Fe, Cu, Rare Earth Elements) all must
be extracted from the Earth using geologic knowledge.

Hydroelectric energy requires geologic knowledge in order to make sure that dams are built in areas where they
will not collapse and harm human populations.

Finding fossil fuels and geothermal energy certainly requires geologic knowledge.

Nuclear energy requires geologists to find deposits of uranium to generate the fuels, geologists to find sites for
nuclear power plants that will not fall apart due to such things as earthquakes, landslides, floods, or volcanic
eruptions, and requires geologists to help determine safe storage sites for nuclear waste products.

Again, here will concentrate on the fossil fuels.

Fossil Fuels

The origin of fossil fuels, and biomass energy in general, starts with photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the most
important chemical reaction to us as human beings, because without it, we could not exist. Photosynthesis is the
reaction that combines water and carbon dioxide from the Earth and its atmosphere with solar energy to form
organic molecules that make up plants and oxygen essential for respiration. Because all life forms depend on
plants for nourishment, either directly or indirectly, photosynthesis is the basis for life on Earth. The chemical
reaction is so important, that everyone should know it (Hint).

Note that if the reaction runs in reverse, it produces energy. Thus when oxygen is added to organic material, either
through decay by reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere, or by adding oxygen directly by burning, energy is
produced, and water and carbon dioxide return to the Earth or its atmosphere.

Petroleum

To produce a fossil fuel, the organic matter must be rapidly buried in the Earth so that it does not oxidize (react
with oxygen in the atmosphere). Then a series of slow chemical reactions occur which turn the organic molecules
into hydrocarbons- Oil and Natural Gas, together called Petroleum. Hydrocarbons are complex organic molecules
that consist of chains of hydrogen and carbon.

Petroleum (oil and natural gas) consists of many different such hydrocarbons, but the most important of these are
a group known as the paraffins. Paraffinshave the general chemical formula:

CnH2n+2

As the value of n in the formula increases, the following compounds are produced:

n Formula Compound Use

CH4 methane
1

C2H6 ethane
2

Natural Gas
C3H8 propane
3

C4H10 butane
4

C5H12 pentane
5 Gasoline
 C6H14 hexane
6

C7H16 heptane
7

C8H18 octane
8

C9H20 nonane
9

various various
>9 Lubricating Oils, Plastics

When we extract petroleum containing these compounds and add oxygen to it, either in
furnaces, stoves, or carburetors the following reaction takes place:

Formation of Petroleum

The process of petroleum formation involves several steps:

Organic matter from organisms must be produced in great abundance.

This organic matter must be buried rapidly before oxidation takes place.

Slow chemical reactions transform the organic material into the hydrocarbons found in petroleum.

The organic matter that eventually becomes petroleum is derived from photosynthetic microscopic organisms, like
plankton and bacteria, originally deposited along with clays in the oceans. The resulting rocks are usually black
shales that form the petroleum source rock.
As the black shale is buried to depths of 2 to 4 km it is heated. This heating breaks the organic material down into
waxy kerogen. Continued heating breaks down the kerogen with different compounds forming in different
temperatures ranges -

Oil and gas 90 to 160C.

Gas only 160 to 250C.
Graphite >250C.

If temperatures get higher than the petroleum forming window (90 to 150 C ) then only graphite forms, which is
not a useful hydrocarbon. Thus oil is not formed during metamorphism and older rocks that have been heated will
also lose their oil forming potential.

Most oil and gas is not found in the source rock. Although black shales (oil shales) are found, it is difficult to
extract the oil from such rock. Nature, however, does separate the oil and gas. As a result of compaction of the
sediments containing the petroleum, the oil and natural gas are forced out and migrate into a reservoir rock.

Petroleum Reservoirs

Reservoir rock contains pore space between the mineral grains (this is called porosity). It is within this pore space
that fluids are stored. Sands and sandstones are the best reservoir rocks because of the pore space left around the
rounded sand grains. Highly fractured rock of also a good reservoir rock, because the fractures provide lots of open
space. Limestone, if it has often been partially dissolved, also has high porosity.

Another essential property of reservoir rock is that it must have good permeability. Permeability is the degree of
interconnections between the pores. Low permeability means that the fluids cannot easily get into or out of the
pore spaces. Highly cemented sandstones, unweatherd limestones, and unfractured rock have low permeability.

Since oil and natural gas have a density lower than that of water, the petroleum migrates upward. It would
continue upward and seep out at the surface where it would oxidize, if it were not for some kind of trap that keeps
it in the Earth until it is extracted.

Oil Traps

An oil or gas reserve requires trapping in the reservoir. A trap is a geological configuration that holds oil and gas.
It must be overlain by impermeable rock called a seal or caprock, which prevents the petroleum from migrating to
the surface. Exploration for petroleum reservoirs requires geologists to find trap and seal configurations where
petroleum may be found.

Oil traps can be divided into those that form as a result of geologic structures like folds and faults,
called structural traps, and those that form as a result of stratigraphic relationships between rock units,
called stratigraphic traps. If petroleum has migrated into a reservoir formed by one of these traps, note that the
petroleum, like groundwater, will occur in the pore spaces of the rock. Natural gas will occur above the oil, which in
turn will overly water in the pore spaces of the reservoir. This occurs because the density of natural gas is lower
than that of oil, which is lower than that of water.

Structural Traps

Anticlines - If a permeable reservoir

rocks like a sandstone or limestone is
sandwiched between impermeable
rock layers like shales or mudstones,
and the rocks are folded into an
anticline, petroleum can migrate
upward in the permeable reservoir
rocks, and will occur in the hinge
region of the anticline.

Since anticlines in the subsurface can often be found by observing the orientation of rocks on the surface,
anticlinal traps were among the first to be exploited by petroleum geologists.

Note that synclines will not form an oil trap (Why?).

 Fault Traps

If faulting can juxtapose permeable and

impermeable rocks so that the permeable
rocks always have impermeable rocks above
them, then an oil trap can form. Note that
both normal faults and reverse faults can
form this type of oil trap.

Since faults are often exposed at the Earth's surface, the locations of such traps can often be found from surface
exploration.

Salt Domes - During the

Jurassic Period, the Gulf of
Mexico was a restricted
basin. This resulted in high
evaporation rates &
deposition of a thick layer of
salt on the bottom of the
basin. The salt was
eventually covered with
clastic sediments. But salt
has a lower density than
most sediments and is more
ductile than most
sedimentary rocks.

Because of its low density, the salt moved upward through the sedimentary rocks as salt domes. The
intrusion of the salt deforms the sedimentary strata along its margins, folding it upward to create oil
traps. Because some salt domes get close to the surface, surface sediments overlying the salt dome are
often domed upward, making the locations of the subsurface salt and possible oil traps easy to locate.

Stratigraphic Traps

Unconformities - An angular
unconformity might form a
suitable oil trap if the layers above
the unconformity are impermeable
rocks and permeable rocks layer
are sandwiched between
impermeable layers in the inclined
strata below the unconformity.

This type of trap is more difficult to locate because the unconformity may not be exposed at the Earth's
surface. Locating possible traps like this usually requires subsurface exploration techniques, like drilling
exploratory wells or using seismic waves to see what the structure looks like.
 Lens Traps
Layers of sand often form lens like bodies that
pinch out. If the rocks surrounding these
lenses of sand are impermeable and
deformation has produced inclined strata, oil
and natural gas can migrate into the sand
bodies and will be trapped by the
impermeable rocks.

This kind of trap is also difficult to locate from the surface, and requires subsurface exploration
techniques.

Petroleum Distribution

As we have seen, in order to form a petroleum reserve, the development of 4 features is necessary :

1. Formation of a source rock.

2. Formation of a migration pathway so that the petroleum can move upwards

3. Filling a suitable reservoir rock with petroleum.

4. Development of an oil trap to prevent the oil from migrating out of the reservoir.

Because these features must develop in the specified order, development of an oil reserve is geologically rare. As
a result, petroleum reserves reserves are geographically limited. The largest known reserves are currently in the
Persian Gulf (see figure 14.15 in your text)..

Although the distribution of petroleum reserves is widespread, the ages of the petroleum and the reservoirs is
somewhat limited. Since older rocks have had more time to erode or metamorphose, most reservoirs of petroleum
occur in younger rocks. Most petroleum is produced from rocks of Cenozoic age, with less produced from rocks of
Mesozoic and Paleozoic age.

Petroleum Exploration and Production

The first petroleum reservoirs exploited by humans were found as a result of seeps on the surface. The 1st oil well
was drilled in Titusville, PA., in 1859. Oil wells eased petroleum recovery and initiated an oil boom, and within
years, 1,000s of oil wells had been drilled. It was soon realized that a systematic approach to oil exploration was
essential to prevent drilling dry holes.

First step is to make geologic maps of sedimentary rocks and structures. Based on surface mapping and drill
holes, geologic cross sections are made and such cross-sections often reveal structures and potential reservoir
rocks that could then be drilled.

Geophysical techniques were soon developed in order to see beneath the surface and find reservoirs that could
not be detected from the surface. The most useful technique is seismic reflection profiling which can be done on
both land in at sea. This technique involves generating seismic waves from either small explosions on land or air
guns in the water. The seismic waves reflect back to surface from different rock interfaces below the surface and
these reflected waves are then detected by receivers called geophones. By moving the source and the receivers
along the surface, and tracing the pulse of each seismic wave, a cross section can be constructed that reveals
potential reservoir rocks. These sections are correlated with drill holes where the geology is known, to produce a
detailed picture of the subsurface. (see figure 14.12 in your text).

Once potential reservoir rocks are located, drilling from the surface attempts to tap into the reservoirs. A diamond
rotary bit pulverizes rock to drill the hole. High-density drilling mud is then pumped in to cool the drill bit and lift
the rock cuttings. The heavy mud also helps to prevent blowouts.As the bit advances, the open borehole deepens.
Drill pipe is added by a drill derrick, a tower that stands above the surface. Some derricks are mounted on
offshore platforms and many of these platforms can drill many holes in many directions.

When a petroleum reservoir is encountered, drilling ceases and steel casing is inserted to line the hole and prevent
collapse. After the casing has been emplaced, the well is pumped to recover the oil and gas.

Primary recovery uses the reservoir pressure and pumping to extract the oil, but his is usually inefficient; and
enables recovery of only about 30% of the oil. Secondary recovery methods are then used to extract as much of
the rest as possible. Secondary recover involves pumping in fluids, like steam or CO 2 to help push the oil out.
Sometimes hydrofracturing using high pressure or explosives, can be used to artificially increase permeability and
allow for more efficient extraction.

Oil Shale and Tar Sands

Oil shale is shale that contains abundant organic matter that has not decomposed completely to produce
petroleum. Oil can be extracted from oil shales, but they must be heated to high enough temperatures to
drive the oil out. Since this process requires a lot of energy, exploitation of oil shales is not currently cost-
effective, but may become so as other sources of petroleum become depleted. Known deposits of oil
shale are extensive.

Tar Sands are sandstones that have thick accumulations of viscous oil in their pore spaces. Extraction of
this oil also requires heating the rock and is therefore energy intensive and not currently cost effective.

Coal

Coal is a sedimentary/metamorphic rock produced in swamps where there is a large-scale accumulation of organic
matter from plants. As the plants die they accumulate to first become peat. Compaction of the peat due to burial
drives off volatile components like water and methane, eventually producing a black- colored organic- rich coal
called lignite. Further compaction and heating results in a more carbon- rich coal called bituminous coal. If the
rock becomes metamorphosed, a high grade coal called anthracite is produced. However, if temperatures and
pressures become extremely high, all of the carbon is converted to graphite. Graphite will burn only at high
temperatures and is therefore not useful as an energy source. Anthracite coal produces the most energy when
burned, with less energy produced by bituminous coal and lignite.
Coal is found in beds called seams, usually ranging in thickness from 0.5 to 3m, although some seams reach 30
m. The major coal producing period in geologic history was during the Carboniferous and Permian Periods, the
continents were apparently located near the equator and covered by shallow seas. This type of environment
favored the growth of vegetation and rapid burial to produce coal.

Known reserves of coal far exceed those of other fossil fuels, and may be our best bet for an energy source of the
future. Still, burning of the lower grades of coal, like lignite and bituminous coal produces large amounts of waste
products, like SO2 and soot, that pollute the atmosphere. This problem needs to be overcome before we can
further exploit this source of energy.

Mining of coal is still a problem from an aesthetic point of view. Seams near the surface are often strip mined and
backfilled, leaving temporary scars on the landscape. Deep coal seams have to be mined through tunnels, which
often collapse, catch fire, or explode as a result of ignition of coal dust or methane released from the coal. Coal
miners often suffer from black-lung disease from years of breathing coal dust.

Energy for the Future

Currently, society relies mostly on fossil fuels for energy (39% natural gas, 24% natural gas, 23% Coal, 8 %
nuclear, and 6% other). Since fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy, at least in human lifetimes), we
need to ask how much longer society can rely on this source. Further, what are the options for the future?

Non-Renewable Resources
First we look at the reserves of various non-renewable energy resources. Look at figure 14.28b in your text. Note
that Uranium (for nuclear energy) and Coal appear to be most plentiful, while Tar sands and oil shale are currently
not economical. The current known oil reserves will likely run out sometime between 2050 and 2150.

Currently we are consuming oil at a rate 3 times that of the discovery of new resources. Even in terms of 4,000
years of human history, the oil age will be very short lasting only 150 to 200 years.

Coal reserves could last for about 300 years if we can cope with the associated pollution. Natural Gas is cleaner
and can probably last for another 200 years.

Nuclear seems like a good bet in terms of available resources, but can it be made cheap, clean, and safe? Will the
recent problems with nuclear reactors during the March 11, 2011 earthquake have an effect on the future of
nuclear energy?

Tar Sands and Oil Shale will require research to find more efficient way to extract, the resource, but will likely be
necessary to replace oil in the short term.

Renewable Resources
Wind power is limited to areas with high consistent winds, and so is limited to very specific areas. The wind mills
are not aesthetically pleasing to look at at, make a lot of noise and kill large numbers of birds, all problems that
would need to be overcome to expand this resource.

As for hydroelectric resources, they will not likely increase, since most rivers are already dammed and there are
few places left where new hydroelectric facilities could be built.

Geothermal energy is limited to areas of known thermal activity (mainly recently active volcanic areas). It is a
great local resource, but will never play a major role as an energy resource.

Solar energy is a huge source, but requires other resources (Li, Rare Earth Elements) to exploit. Many of these
problems might be overcome with new research and the development of new technologies.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells are another promising resources with plenty of supply, but needs further research and
technological development.

Future energy resources have huge environmental, political and economic implications that could change the
world order. Still, the geologic aspects of energy resources will play a large role.
Energy resources are the opportunities an area offers to generate electricity based on its natural conditions and
circumstances. Some of these energy resources are obvious; an area might contain coal, oil, wood, or gas. But
others, like renewable resources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, and wave power are not so obviousthey're
based on the natural weather patterns and features of an area.

Fossil Fuels

When electricity was first generated, it was done by burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are natural fuels formed from
the remains of once-living organisms, compressed at high temperature and pressure over millions of years.
Examples include coal, which is made from dead plant matter, and oil and gas, which are made from dead marine
animals. These fossil fuels have a lot of energy contained within them, which is released when the fuel is burned.

When fossil fuels are burned in a power plant, the heat released boils water, producing steam. That steam drives a
turbine to spin inside a large magnetic field, and this produces electricity. The main problem with doing this is that it
creates a lot of pollution, including greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, which are causing the earth's climate to
warm. Ideally, we would want to find other ways to generate energy.

Natural gas

occurs deep beneath the earth's surface. Natural gas consists mainly of methane, a compound with one carbon
atom and four hydrogen atoms. Natural gas also contains small amounts of hydrocarbon gas liquids and
nonhydrocarbon gases. We use natural gas as a fuel and to make materials and chemicals.

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons, a subject of a religious cult and academic disputes, as well as an essential
resource. It is invisible and odorless. The amount of natural gas in Russia is more than wherever in the world.

What is the composition of natural gas?

The base of natural gas is methane (CH4), the simplest hydrocarbon (organic compound consisting of carbon and
hydrogen atoms). Normally, it also includes heavier hydrocarbons methane homologs such as ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), and some nonhydrocarbon admixtures.

Natural gas can exist in the form of gas fields in formations of some rocks, as gas caps (above crude oil), and
in dissolved or crystalline forms.

Gas odor

It is worth mentioning that none of the above-named gases has color or odor. Typical unpleasant smell, which
almost everybody knows from everyday life, is added to gas deliberately and is called odorization. Sulfur
compounds are usually used as odorants, i.e. substances with unpleasant smells. Humans can smell one of the
most common odorants ethanethiol even if one part of this substance is dissolved in 50 million parts of air. Gas
leaks can be easily identified exactly due to the odorization.

Academic dispute

There is no shared opinion on the origin of natural gas (just as on that of crude oil) among scientists. Two main
concepts biogenic and mineral state different factors for the formation of hydrocarbon fossil minerals in the
Earth subsurface.

Mineral theory

Formation of fossil minerals in rock beds is a part of the Earth degassing process. Due to the internal dynamics
of the Earth, hydrocarbons at great depths raise to areas of the lowest pressure, resulting in formation of gas and
crude oil deposits.

Biogenic theory

Living organisms that had died and sunk to bottoms of water bodies, then decomposed in the vacuum. Sinking
deeper and deeper due to geological movements, residues of decomposed organics turned into hydrocarbon fossil
mineral, including natural gas due to thermobaric factors (temperature and pressure).

Invisible pores
There is a false idea that gas is located under ground in cavities from where it can be easily and completely
extracted. In fact, gas can be inside a rock with such fine porous structures that the human eye cant see. Holding
a piece of sandstone mined from a huge depth, it is rather difficult to believe that theres natural gas inside it.

Worshipping gas

The humankind has known about the existence of natural gas for a long time. Although people learnt to use it for
heating and lighting as far back as the 4th century A.D., luminous flame, leaving no ashes, remained a mystic and
religious cult of some peoples for a good while. For instance, fire-worshippers temple Ateshgyakh, where
ministrations took place up to the 19th century, was built on the Apsheron Peninsula (currently, Azerbaijan) in the
7th century..

By the way, first attempt (quite short-term) to use natural gas for commercial purposes in Russia was made not far
from Ateshgyakh, at an oil refinery in Baku, in 1859.

Thermal lamp and first gas in Russia

History of the Russian gas industry dates back to 1811. At that time, an inventor Pyotr Sobolevsky created
a thermal lamp the first device for generating synthetic gas. Having reported about it at a meeting of the All-
Russian Society of Philology, Science and Arts, Sobolevsky was awarded a medal for his invention by Decree of Tsar
Alexander I of Russia. A few years later, in 1819, first gas lanterns were lighted on the Aptekarsky Island in Saint
Petersburg. Thus, the history of the Russian gas industry began almost 200 years ago. Its anniversary was in 2011.

In the mid 1920s, 227.7 million cubic meters of gas were produced in the USSR. In 2010, Gazprom Group produced
508.6 billion cubic meters of gas.

Russia has the worlds largest natural gas reserves. Gazproms share accounts for about 70 per cent of these
reserves. Thus, Gazprom has the largest natural gas reserves in the world.

Russian gas industry experienced a period of active growth from early 20th century: gas fields were developed for
the first time; and the associated (petroleum) gas was utilized.
Russian wit
However, until the 20th century in Russia natural gas was a by-product of crude oil production called associated
gas. Notions of gas or gas condensate fields didnt even exist. They were discovered accidentally such as during
drilling of artesian wells. At that, we know of an inventive merchant from Saratov who built a glass plant and a brick
yard in the location, where he was drilling for water but found gas instead. Manufacturers gradually began to realize
that natural gas could be extremely useful.

Coal takes millions of years to form

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock with a high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons.
Coal is classified as a nonrenewable energy source because it takes millions of years to form. Coal contains the
energy stored by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago in swampy forests.

The plants were covered by layers of dirt and rock over millions of years. The resulting pressure and heat turned the
plants into a substance now known as coal.
Types of coal
Coal is classified into four main types, or ranks: anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite. The ranking
depends on the types and amounts of carbon the coal contains and on the amount of heat energy the coal can
produce. The rank of a coal deposit is determined by the amount of pressure and heat that acted on the plants over
time.

Anthracite contains 86%97% carbon, and generally has the highest heating value of all ranks of coal. Anthracite
accounted for less than 1% of the coal mined in the United States in 2014. All of the anthracite mines in the United
States are located in northeastern Pennsylvania. Anthracite is mainly used by the metals industry.

Bituminous coal contains 45%86% carbon. Bituminous coal in the United States is between 100 and 300 million
years old. Bituminous coal is the most abundant rank of coal found in the United States, and it accounted for 48% of
total U.S. coal production in 2014. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity, and it is an important fuel and
raw material for making iron and steel. West Virginia, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Indiana were the five
main bituminous coal-producing states in 2014, accounting for 70% of total bituminous production.

Subbituminous coal typically contains 35%45% carbon, and it has a lower heating value than bituminous coal.
Most subbituminous coal in the United States is at least 100 million years old. About 44% of total U.S. coal
production in 2014 was subbituminous, and nearly 90% was produced in Wyoming.

Lignite contains 25%35% carbon and has the lowest energy content of all coal ranks. Lignite coal deposits tend to
be relatively young and were not subjected to extreme heat or pressure. Lignite is crumbly and has high moisture
content, which contributes to its low heating value. Lignite accounted for 8% of total U.S. coal production in 2014.
About 92% of total lignite production is mined in Texas and North Dakota, where it is burned at power plants to
generate electricity. A facility in North Dakota also converts lignite to synthetic natural gas and pipes it to natural
gas consumers in the eastern United States.

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons that formed from plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. Crude
oil is a fossil fuel, and it exists in liquid form in underground pools or reservoirs, in tiny spaces within sedimentary
rocks, and near the surface in tar (or oil) sands. Petroleum products are fuels made from crude oil and other
hydrocarbons contained in natural gas. Petroleum products can also be made from coal, natural gas, and biomass.

BIOMASS

We have used biomass energy, or "bioenergy"the energy from plants and plant-derived materialssince people
began burning wood to cook food and keep warm. Wood is still the largest biomass energy resource today, but
other sources of biomass can also be used. These include food crops, grassy and woody plants, residues from
agriculture or forestry, oil-rich algae, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Even the fumes
from landfills (which are methane, the main component in natural gas) can be used as a biomass energy source.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range
from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the Earth's surface, and down even
deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called magma.
Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or upper 10 feet of the Earth's surface maintains a nearly constant
temperature between 50 and 60F (10 and 16C). Geothermal heat pumps can tap into this resource to heat and
cool buildings. A geothermal heat pump system consists of a heat pump, an air delivery system (ductwork), and a
heat exchanger-a system of pipes buried in the shallow ground near the building. In the winter, the heat pump
removes heat from the heat exchanger and pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the
process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the heat exchanger. The heat removed
from the indoor air during the summer can also be used to provide a free source of hot water.

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar is the Latin word for suna powerful source of energy that can be used to heat, cool, and light our homes and
businesses. That's because more energy from the sun falls on the earth in one hour than is used by everyone in the
world in one year. A variety of technologies convert sunlight to usable energy for buildings. The most commonly
used solar technologies for homes and businesses are solar water heating, passive solar design for space heating
and cooling, and solar photovoltaics for electricity.

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies
such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial
photosynthesis.

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive
solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power.
Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water
heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials
with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity. The United Nations
Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was
1,57549,837 exajoules (EJ). This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption, which was
559.8 EJ in 2012.[3][4]
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar
energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries energy security through reliance
on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution,
lower the costs of mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages
are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared

HYDROELECTRICAL ENERGY

Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's
total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity,[1] and was expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the
next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in
2013. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent
of domestic electricity use.
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The hydro
station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants. The average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger
than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[2] With a dam and reservoir it is also a flexible source of
electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing
energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a
considerably lower output level of greenhouse gases than fossil fuel powered energy plants.[3]

WIND ENERGY

Wind energy is a form of solar energy.[1] Wind energy (or wind power) describes the process by which wind is used
to generate electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A generator can
convert mechanical power into electricity [2]. Mechanical power can also be utilized directly for specific tasks such as
pumping water. The US DOE developed a short wind power animation that provides an overview of how a wind
turbine works and describes the wind resources in the United States.
Wind Energy Basics

Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, variations in the earth's surface, and rotation
of the earth. Mountains, bodies of water, and vegetation all influence wind flow patterns [2], [3]. Wind turbines convert
the energy in wind to electricity by rotating propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft,
which turns an electric generator. Three key factors affect the amount of energy a turbine can harness from the
wind: wind speed, air density, and swept area. [4]

Equation for Wind Power

Wind speed
The amount of energy in the wind varies with the cube of the wind speed, in other words, if the wind speed

doubles, there is eight times more energy in the wind ( ). Small changes in wind
speed have a large impact on the amount of power available in the wind [5].
Density of the air
The more dense the air, the more energy received by the turbine. Air density varies with elevation and
temperature. Air is less dense at higher elevations than at sea level, and warm air is less dense than cold
air. All else being equal, turbines will produce more power at lower elevations and in locations with cooler
average temperatures[5].
Swept area of the turbine
The larger the swept area (the size of the area through which the rotor spins), the more power the turbine

can capture from the wind. Since swept area is , where r = radius of the rotor, a small
increase in blade length results in a larger increase in the power available to the turbine
Renewable energy describes a collection of energy technologies i.e. solar, wind, geothermal derived from sources
that are never-ending and can be replenished time after time. Most countries across the world heavily depend
on fossil fuels (oil, coal and natural gas) as sources of energy to power their economies.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable forms of energy, meaning, they utilize limited resources that will ultimately deplete,
hence, driving up overall energy costs. These very countries have responded to the threat by stepping up
campaigns to embrace renewable forms of energy like solar and wind.

This is why the question can only be begged: what are the real benefits of using renewable energy? While there are
certainly advantages and disadvantages to switching to renewable energy, it is quite arguable that the benefits of
using such sources outweigh the shortcomings of it, especially in the future.

Of course, the shortcomings are all things that can, with time and money, be fixed due to the rapid technological
advancements our country makes on a nearly annual scale. The benefits of renewable energy sources are
breathtaking, and while we may not quite be in a position to fully switch over to renewable energy sources just
quite yet (requiring a balance of renewable energy and other sources for now), it is imperative that we look ahead
to the future.

The most widespread sources of energy include:

Wind: This takes advantage of wind motion to generate electricity. Wind motion is brought about by the heat from
the sun, and rotation of the earth, mainly via the Coriolis Effect.

Solar: taps heat from the sun to produce energy for generation of electricity, heating, lighting homes and
commercial buildings.
Hydropower: Utilizes moving water to produce electricity. Moving water creates high energy that can be
harnessed and turned into power.

Biomass: Together with snow and rain, sunlight is essential for plant growth. Organic matter that constitutes plants
is referred to as biomass, which can be utilized to generate electricity, chemicals or fuels to power vehicles.

Ocean: Takes advantage of rising and falling of tides to generate electricity

Geothermal: Leverages heat from underneath the earth to generate electricity.

Renewable energy is considered clean energy since it doesnt cause grave environmental pollution.

Renewable energy technology is a term used to refer to hybrid technology or other forms of technology that store
up energy created or produced by renewable sources, are able to anticipate renewable energy supply and helps to
deliver energy produced by renewable energy technologies to the final consumer. Renewable energy technologies
include wind power, solar power, hydroelectricity, biomass energy, and biofuels, which are chiefly used for
transportation.

While advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy exist, the advantages to using renewable forms of
energy far outweigh the disadvantages, more so moving to the future.

Advantages of Renewable Energy

1. Renewable energy is eco-friendly

It is a clean source of energy, meaning, it has low or zero carbon and greenhouse emission. Fossil fuels emit high
levels of greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide, which are greatly responsible for global warming, climate change,
and degradation of air quality. Fossil fuels also contribute to sulfur emission to the atmosphere leading to acid
rains. Acid rains can cause damage to buildings. Solar and wind power are considered eco-friendly because they
emit zero toxic gases to the environment. The use of renewable energy dramatically reduces the dependence on
fossil fuel as a source of energy, hence, cutting back on air pollution.

2. Its a renewable resource

This implies that they do not deplete over a lifetime and there is zero possibility that they will run out (sustainable
source of energy). Sources of energy like fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal) are considered limited resources and there
is strong possibility that they will run out in the future. Renewable energy can help developing countries from over-
reliance on fossil fuels. Powerful winds, heat emanating from beneath the earth, sunshine and moving water can
guarantee a huge and steady energy supply to a nation for many years.

3. Renewable energy is a reliable source of energy

In the previous few decades, the use of fossil fuel has sharply increased. This over-reliance on fossil fuels has led to
our security being threatened. Fossils fuels are prone to trade disputes, political instabilities, spike in energy prices
and unnecessary wars. These variables affect a lot more than a nations energy policies; they can significantly drain
a countys economy.

Although most argue that solar and wind energy are unreliable, a solid infrastructure puts this argument to rest. If
solar and wind plants are distributed over a large geographical location, there can be minimal electricity generation
interruption because weather disruptions in one location cannot be the same in other locations.

4. Leads to job creation

Renewable energy makes real economic sense because it is a cheaper alternative to most traditional sources of
energy. Since the inception of renewable energy, new and stable jobs have been added to most world economies.
For, instance, in Germany and UK, many jobs have already been created thanks to their relentless efforts to develop
and encourage the use of renewable forms of energy. Experts project that with the ongoing rigorous campaigns to
embrace renewable energy, thousands of stable jobs will be created.

5. Renewable energy has stabilized global energy prices

Change up to renewable sources of energy means stability of energy prices across the globe. This is because the
cost of renewable energy depends on the initial cost of installation of renewable energy technologies as opposed to
fossil fuels, which increase and decrease depending on the current inflation and availability of the resource.
Respective governments would only need to cater to the initial costs and thats it.

6. Less maintenance of facilities

Once infrastructure for the harnessing of the renewable resource is laid down, there is low to zero maintenance
required. This means that the owners of the facilities will reap big profits while providing cheap electricity to
the population.

7. Boosts public health

This is a no-brainer. If governments took upon themselves to build more renewable energy facilities, the population
would enjoy the health benefits. According to a study by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Americans
spend approximately $361.7 to $886.5 billion every year on overall health of the population. A big chunk of this
budget goes to mitigate and cure diseases related to fossils fuel use like heart diseases, cancer, and neurological
disorders.

Greenhouse, carbon and sulfur compounds emitted by fossils fuels are risky to our health if inhaled over time. This
is reason enough to consider renewable energy moving forward.

8. Empowering of people in the countryside

Renewable energy generation mainly takes place in remote settings. This means that local towns would get a fair
share of power generated, ultimately, catalyzing the regeneration of those depressed areas both socially and
economically. Electrification of those areas will open up untapped opportunities for development through the
advancement of greenhouses using geothermal power, district heating of towns and communities through hot
water generated by the energy exploitation of forestry and agricultural biomass.

Disadvantages of Renewable Energy

1. The electricity generation capacity is still not large enough

There are still challenges to generation of large quantities of power in renewable energy technology compared to
traditional forms of energy generation like fossil fuel. Fossil fuel still produces large quantities of electricity today,
by far. This, essentially, means that it cant be solely relied upon to power the whole nation.

This means that either we need to set up more such facilities to match up with the growing demand or look out for
ways to reduce our energy consumption. This phenomenon indicates that a balance of different energy sources will
still prevail for some years to come.

2. Renewable energy can be unreliable

Renewable energy technologies totally depend on the weather (for e.g.: sun and wind) to be able to harness any
energy. In case atmospheric conditions are not good enough, renewable energy technologies would lack the ability
to generate any electricity. This might instigate campaigns by the authorities to reduce energy usage in order
to serve the population for a longer period.
 3. Low-efficiency levels

Renewable energy technologies are still significantly new to the market, meaning, they still lack the much-needed
efficiency. This poses forecast problems and investors may shy away from investing their money for fear of not
getting returns pretty quick.

4. Requires a huge upfront capital outlay

Setting up renewable energy generation facilities requires a huge financial outlay. Installation of wind turbine, solar
panels, and hydroelectricity plants are relatively expensive. These plants require upfront investments to build, have
high maintenance expenses and require careful planning and implementation. Also, the electricity generated needs
to be delivered to towns and cities, which means additional cost of installing power lines.

NON RENEWABLE

Advantages
1) Its always seen that compared to renewable the non-renewable energy sources are cheaper and easily
available. The main factor which distinguishes a sought after fuel from other is its accessibility and for all kinds non
renewable energy sources the main point of attraction is its affordability and accessibility.

2) Advantage of availability throughout the year unlike the renewable sources which are either season bound
rainfall, sunlight availability or commercial viability.

3) Most of the non-renewable energy sources have high energy output which is not observed in renewable sources.

4) Another advantage of non-renewable sources is its compatibility and transport over a long distance. It could be
carried over a long distance without much hassle.

5) Storability is another big factor which works for non-renewable energy sources.

Disadvantages
1) Once a non-renewable energy source is used up it cannot be replaced again.

2) These are highly polluting sources and increase the greenhouse gasses in environment.

3) The residual products these sources are responsible for all kinds of non-biodegradable material accumulation.

4) The exposure to these sources has increased the level of pollution and increase in lung / pharyngeal diseases.

5) The rise in temperature due to greenhouse gas accumulation has in turn triggered the ice cap melting and rise in
sea level.

"Let Me Love You" Never let you go, never let me down
(feat. Justin Bieber) Oh, it's been a hell of a ride
Driving the edge of a knife
Never let you go, never let me down
I used to believe
We were burnin' on the edge of somethin' beautiful Don't you give up, nah-nah-nah
Somethin' beautiful I won't give up, nah-nah-nah
Sellin' a dream Let me love you
Smoke and mirrors keep us waiting on a miracle Let me love you
On a miracle Don't you give up, nah-nah-nah
I won't give up, nah-nah-nah
Say, go through the darkest of days Let me love you
Heaven's a heartbreak away Let me love you
Oh, baby, baby Let me love you
Let me love you
Don't fall asleep Don't you give up, nah-nah-nah
At the wheel, we've got a million miles ahead of us I won't give up, nah-nah-nah
Miles ahead of us Let me love you
All that we need Let me love you
Is a rude awakening to know we're good enough Oh, baby, baby
Know we're good enough
Don't you give up, nah-nah-nah
Say go through the darkest of days I won't give up, nah-nah-nah
Heaven's a heartbreak away Let me love you
Never let you go, never let me down Let me love you
Oh, it's been a hell of a ride Don't you give up, nah-nah-nah
Driving the edge of a knife I won't give up, nah-nah-nah
Never let you go, never let me down Let me love you
Let me love you
Don't you give up, nah-nah-nah Oh, baby, baby
I won't give up, nah-nah-nah