Transport in humans

In large organisms, diffusion is too slow for the efficient exchange of materials
needed for survival.

Transport system in mammals consists of the blood system and the lymphatic
system.

Structure and composition of blood

Blood is a fluid tissue made up of 55% plasma and 45% blood cells and platelets.

Plasma
Contains dissolved substances including some protein, mineral salts, food substances,
hormones (eg insulin) and excretory products (eg urea).

Red blood cells

Contains the pigment haemoglobin which is an iron-containing compound.

Haemoglobin combines reversibly with oxygen, allowing transport of oxygen from

the lungs to other parts of the body.

Does not have a nucleus and has a biconcave shape which increases surface area
to volume ratio, allowing absorption and release of oxygen at a faster rate.

Elastic and bell-shaped in or to squeeze through blood vessels smaller than itself.

Produced in the bone marrow and broken down in the spleen, releasing
haemoglobin which is broken down in the liver into iron (stored in liver) and bile
pigments (excreted into the gut in bile).

White blood cells

Features
• Colourless and does not contain haemoglobin
• Irregular in shape and contains nucleus
• Can change its shape and move

Consists of phagocytes (digests foreign particles) and lymphocytes (produces

antibodies).

They play a vital role in keeping the body healthy by fighting diseases.

Chapter 8 - Transport in humans 1

Platelets
Membrane-bound fragments of cytoplasm from certain bone marrow cells.

Plays a part in the clotting of blood.

Blood groups

Red blood cells carry proteins called

antigens on their cell surfaces.

Blood plasma contains antibodies.

People’s blood groups are classified

according to antibodies and antigens
present in their blood.

A blood group is named after the

antigen present.

Agglutination occurs when the blood

group of the donor is incompatible with the recipients.
• If you belong to blood group B, your red blood cells contain antigen B and your serum
contains antibody a. Therefore, you cannot receive blood containing antigen A or your
blood would agglutinate.
• Blood group O does not contain any antigens. Thus, blood group O is considered the
‘universal donor’.

Functions of blood

Blood transports
• Oxygen and digested food to all parts of the body
• Excretory products to excretory organs
• Hormones to parts of the body where they are needed
• Distributes heat

Oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin in the

lungs.

In higher altitudes, oxygen levels are lower than at sea level. The body increases the
number of red blood cells and hence the haemoglobin content in the body to allow
more oxygen intake.

Blood serves a protective function

• Clotting seals wounds
• Antibodies destroy bacteria and viruses, cause clumping of bacteria and neutralise toxins
• Phagocytosis destroys foreign particles

Clotting
An enzyme known as thrombokinase is released by damaged tissue and platelets
when blood vessels are damaged.

Chapter 8 - Transport in humans 2

Thrombokinase converts prothrombin and calcium into thrombin.

Thrombin then catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen to insoluble threads of fibrin,

forming a clot.

Immune system
Consists of white blood cells and their products.

Helps the body fight diseases.

Organ transplant and tissue rejection

A recipient's lymphocytes may respond to a transplant by producing antibodies to
destroy the transplant.

Tissue rejection will not be a problem if the tissue to be transplanted comes form
the same person.

The risks of tissue rejection can also be reduced by using immunosuppressive

drugs which inhibits the patient’s immune system. However this causes problems
such as a lower resistance to many kinds of infection as well as over dependency on
the drug.

The circulatory system

Consists of the heart, arteries,

arterioles, capillaries, venules, and
veins.

The heart
Muscular organ which drives blood
around the whole body.

When the heart contracts, blood is

squeezed out, and when the heart
relaxes, it fills up with blood. These
contractions and relaxations
circulates blood around the body.

Arterioles
Arteries branch to form tiny vessels
called arterioles which branch into
tinier blood vessels called
capillaries.

Venules
Before capillaries leave an organ or
tissue, they unite to form small
veins called venules.

Chapter 8 - Transport in humans 3

Capillaries
Microscopic blood vessels that are found between the cells of almost all the tissues

Walls are one cell thick called the endothelium. The endothelium is partially
permeable, enabling selected substances to diffuse through quickly.

Capillaries branch repeatedly, lowering the blood pressure in the capillaries in order
to slow down the flow of blood, giving more time for the exchange of substances.

Arteries and Veins

Arteries Veins
Carry blood away from the heart Carry blood towards the heart

High blood pressure, hence blood flows Low blood pressure, hence blood flows
in spurts more slowly and smoothly

Have think and elastic muscular walls Have thin and slightly muscular walls

Carry oxygenated blood (except Carry deoxygenated blood (except

pulmonary arteries) for pulmonary veins)

Semi-lunar valves are absent Semi-lunar valves are present to

prevent back-flow of blood

Have a smaller lumen when compared Have a larger lumen when compared
to a vein of similar external diameter to an artery of similar external
diameter

Double circulation in mammals

The blood flows through the heart twice in one

circuit.

Consists of the pulmonary circulation and the

systemic circulation.

Pulmonary circulation
From the heart, the pulmonary arteries carry the
blood to the lungs.

Oxygenated blood is returned to the heart by the

pulmonary veins.

Systemic circulation
Oxygenated blood leaves the left side of the heart
and is distributed by arteries to all parts of the
body (except the lungs).

Chapter 8 - Transport in humans 4

Veins carry the blood from all parts of the body back to the
right side of the heart.

Advantages of a double circulation

Blood enters the lungs at a lower pressure compared to
blood leaving the heart, giving more time for the exchange
of gases in the lungs since blood travels slower there.
Blood is pumped to the rest of the body at high pressure,
hence oxygenated blood is distributed to the body tissues
more quickly, helping maintain the high metabolic rate in
mammals.

The heart

A muscular pump that keeps blood flowing through the blood

vessels of the body.

Supplied with food and oxygen by a set of blood vessels called

the coronary arteries.

Structure
Four chambers
• Left atrium
• Left ventricle
• Right atrium
• Right ventricle

The left ventricle has thicker walls than the

right ventricle.

The median septum separates the left and

right chambers of the heart.

Path taken by blood through the heart a brief summary to prevent insane boredom

Deoxygenated blood from various parts of the body is returned to the right atrium.

When the right atrium contracts, blood flows into the right ventricle.

Blood leaves the right ventricle through the pulmonary arch.

Oxygenated blood from the lungs is brought back to the left atrium by the
pulmonary arteries.

The cardiac cycle so wordy D:

Both the atria and ventricles are relaxed. The left atrium receives blood from the
pulmonary arteries while the right atrium receives blood from the venae cavae.

When the atria contracts, blood is forced into the ventricles.

Chapter 8 - Transport in humans 5

The ventricles then contract after a short pause. This contraction is known as the
ventricular systole. This increase in pressure forces the bicuspid and tricuspid valves
to close, preventing back-flow of blood into the atria. This produces a louder ‘lub’
sound. When the pressure in the left ventricle becomes higher than the pressure in
the aorta, the semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary and aortic arches are forced open.
Blood flows from the left ventricle into the aortic arch. As the ventricles contract, the
atria relax.

The ventricles then relax, which is called the ventricular diastole. The drop in
pressure in the ventricles causes the semi-lunar valves in the two arches to close,
preventing back-flow of blood into the ventricles. The produces the softer ‘dub’ sound.
The drop in pressure in the ventricles also causes the bicuspid and the tricuspid valves
to open. The whole cycle then repeats.

Main arteries and veins

Arteries
• The hepatic artery delivers blood to the liver
• The renal arteries deliver blood to the kidneys
• The pulmonary artery delivers blood to the lungs

Veins
• The hepatic vein returns blood from the liver to the heart
• The renal veins return blood from the kidneys to the heart
• The pulmonary veins return blood from the lungs to the heart
• The hepatic portal vein delivers blood from
the gut to the liver

Tissue fluid and lymph

Tiny spaces between tissue cells contain a

colourless liquid known as tissue fluid.

Tissue fluid is blood plasma that has moved

out of the capillaries to the surrounding
tissue cells.

Tissue fluid does not contain plasma

proteins, but it does have white blood cells
that have moved out of the capillaries.

Coronary heart disease

Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood on the walls of blood vessels.

If the coronary arteries become blocked, blood supply to the heart is reduced,
resulting in either angina (chest pains usually in women) or heart attack.

Atherosclerosis is the deposition of fatty substances on the inner surface of an

artery.

A diet consisting mainly of saturated fats, smoking and stress can increases risks of
atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease.

Cutting down on the aforementioned activities and exercising regularly can reduce the
risk of coronary heart disease.
Chapter 8 - Transport in humans 6