Coating Types and Selection

Course No: T06-002

Credit: 6 PDH

Gilbert Gedeon, P.E.

Continuing Education and Development, Inc.

9 Greyridge Farm Court
Stony Point, NY 10980

P: (877) 322-5800
F: (877) 322-4774

info@cedengineering.com
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Chapter 4 rate of solvent and they as well as driers 4-2.

evaporation, and that aid in the drying Film
Coating Types
consistency of the wet reaction will be covered. -
and Miscellaneous additives For
coating are most
Characteristics important during that are formulated into min
application. After many coatings for specific g
application, the pigments purposes are itemized and Mec
4-1. Introduction determine the corrosion- discussed. Sections are hani
inhibitive properties and, presented on powder sms
a. All coatings generally, the color and coatings, thermal spray
whether used for corrosion some flow control organic and inorganic Coating binders can be
protection, to provide properties of the applied coatings, and galvanizing subcategorized according
good aesthetics or a coating. The binder tapes and wraps. to the mechanism
pleasing appearance, or for determines the Problems with VOCs also described above.
any other purposewill weatherability of the will be discussed. However, with both
contain a film-forming coating, its environmental oxidation and most
material. This material resistance, and the polymerization film-
may be organic or coating's ability to forming mechanisms,
inorganic and, after function in a given solvent evaporation occurs
application, may form a environment. The required initially, followed by a
hard, impervious film, a surface preparation, and subsequent chemical
soft porous film, or often the application reaction consisting of
combinations in between. equipment and techniques, either a reaction with
Furthermore, the film- are determined by the oxygen or chemical
forming material may be binder. crosslinking. Solvent
clear (unpigmented) or evaporative coatings also
filled with a variety of b. The principal are called thermoplastics
different pigments, mechanisms by which because, when heated,
depending on its function. binders form films are they become plastic and
When the film-forming reaction with oxygen from can soften and deform.
material (resin) contains the air (oxidation), Oxidation and chemically
pigments, it is called a evaporation of the solvent crosslinked coatings set
binder. The binder will from the vehicle (solvent and harden when cured;
hold the pigment particles evaporation), or chemical they do not soften or
together and to the crosslinking deform on heating and,
substrate over which it has (polymerization). The therefore, are called
been applied. When the coating film attained by thermosets. After
binder (resin plus pigment) these mechanisms can be application, most coatings
is dissolved in a solvent to either thermoplastic or dry by solvent
make it liquid, the thermosetting. evaporation to form a film
combination (solvent, Thermoplastic materials that feels dry to the touch.
binder, and pigment) is deform and soften on However, the dried coating
considered to be a exposure to heat. may not be cured, and
vehicle. The term vehicle Thermoset materials do additional chemical
comes from the ability to not deform and remain reactions may be required.
transport and apply the hard upon heat exposure. Oxidation coatings require
liquid to the surface being Each type of coating resin crosslinking with oxygen
coated. Once on the or binder categorized by from the air, and
surface, the solvent its film- forming polymerization coatings
evaporates and the vehicle mechanism, different types require a crosslinking
becomes a pigment- binder of pigments, and the chemical reaction between
system. Application various solvent families two or more coreactants to
properties of the paint will be discussed. Drying attain their final physical
usually are characterized oils are an integral part of and chemical properties.
by the vehicle in a liquid some coating formulations,
condition. The viscosity, a. Oxidation
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(thermoset). Thermoset (thermoplastic). A second

coating types dry and film- forming mechanism
ultimately crosslink by is solvent evaporation.
reaction with oxygen from The solvent within which
the atmosphere. All such the resin is dissolved or
coatings in this class emulsified may be water
contain drying oils that or an organic solvent.
consist mainly of The liquid resin returns
polyunsaturated fatty to a solid material when
acids. The drying oil the solvent evaporates.
frequently is combined The coating is formed as a
with a resin, usually by result of solvent
cooking or heating to evaporation and drying,
enhance water and with no attendant
chemical resistance. The crosslinking or
curing reaction is polymerization. Solvent-
accelerated by the based coating systems that
presence of metallic salts dry solely by solvent
as driers. After evaporation (vinyls and
application, the coating chlorinated rubbers) have
dries by solvent their usage severely
evaporation. However, to
attain maximum chemical
and moisture-resistance
properties, the oil must
react with oxygen from
the air to crosslink, cure,
and further harden. The
auto-oxidation reaction
occurs at a relatively fast
rate shortly after
application of the wet
paint; and it continues
throughout the life of the
coating, although at a
much slower rate. For
most oil-based coatings,
suitable moisture and
chemical resistance occur
within a few days after
application, although
maximum resistances may
not be obtained until
months or years after
application. In time
(often 20 or 30 years
later), the oxidation
reaction and continued
drying of the oleoresinous
binder system leads to
cracking, embrittlement,
and deterioration of the
coating film.

b. Solvent
evaporation
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restricted because of deformation by virtue of a molecule by virtue of its reactions are becoming
VOC regulations. These three- dimensional polyfunctional increasingly important in
resins must be dissolved crosslinking. This crosslinking. When the formulation of modern
in relatively high amounts crosslinking is achieved suitably dissolved in a VOC-compliant coating
of noncompliant solvents by coreacting two or more solvent and pigmented, systems. Small molecule
to be formulated into a monomers, with at least many coreactive materials units, that by virtue of
corrosion-resistance one monomer having a can be formulated into a their low molecular weight
protective coating. Latex functionality of three or protective coating. Some are liquid, can be reacted
emulsion coatings consist greater, and the other a of the more commonly with other low molecular
of pigmented synthetic functionality of at least used protective coating weight liquid molecules to
resin particles emulsified two. (The functionality systems are based on form a higher molecular
in water. Because latex is the number of reaction catalyzed epoxy resins, weight molecule that will
emulsion coatings dry by sites where crosslinking polyurethane reactions, harden to form a solid
water evaporation (and can occur.) This film- acrylic/vinyl ester resins, (nonliquid) protective
perhaps one percent or less forming mechanism and modifications thereof. film. The most
of a coalescing organic involves a chemical Each of these coating successful adaptations to
solvent), coatings reaction combining systems will be manufacturing low VOC
formulated in this fashion smaller molecules (mers) discussed later. coatings have been two-
comply with VOC to create a larger molecule Polymerization pack, chemically cured
legislation; and they have (polymers). The reactions coating systems such as
rapidly advanced in recent can consist of the same the epoxy, polyurethane,
years to become kind of mer units reacting polyester, and vinyl ester
environmentally safe, to form larger molecules systems.
long-lasting, protective (homopolymers) or
coating systems. different mer units 4
Thermoplastic coatings in reacting to form -
the context used here are copolymers, tripolymers, 3
coatings that dry or, generically, polymers. .
principally, or solely, by After crosslinking, and
water or solvent depending on the type and B
evaporation; they do not extent of crosslinking, the i
undergo chemical resin system is solvent n
crosslinking. Principal resistant, ranges from d
coatings in this class are tough and flexible to hard e
acrylic lattices, solvent and brittle, and does not r
cutbacks, and hot melt significantly deform on s
bituminous coatings and the application of heat. In
vinyl coatings (zinc coating formulations, most (
chromate vinyl butyral coreactive coating systems R
wash primers, vinyl are supplied in multipack e
chloride-vinyl acetate systems consisting of two s
copolymers, and or more containers that i
waterborne vinyls). must be mixed prior to n
s
application. However,
)
c. Chemically some thermoset materials
crosslinked (thermoset). react with moisture from
The binder, sometimes
Thermoset coatings, by the air (moisture and
called a resin, and a
definition, are coatings ketimine curing
suitable solvent (to make it
that are set, and are isocyanates) and can be
liquid) are combined to
nondeformable when supplied as a one-package
form the vehicle. Pigment
exposed to elevated system. After application
particles then are
temperatures. Thermoset in all instances, the coating
dispersed and mixed into
coatings achieve their system, when properly
the liquid resin, and the
characteristic set and the applied and cured, forms a
paint is packaged, usually
ability to resist heat single, extremely large
in a can or pail, for sale.
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Upon use, the liquid have obtained widespread

paint is appliedperhaps use in a variety of different
by brush, roller, or spray service environments as
after which the solvent corrosion-protective
volatilizes, the liquid resin coatings.
dries or cures, and the
pigment particles bind a. Natural resins
together and to the surface (oxidative). Natural resins
being painted. Binders are derived from tree
may be natural or exudations, fossilized
synthetic resins and may vegetable remains, or
be organic or inorganic. insect secretions. Natural
The binder used in a resins derived from tree
particular coating system exudation may be named
is primarily responsible after the region from
for the coating's chemical, which they originated; this
water, and UV light- accounts for some exotic
resistant properties. names such as Kauri,
However, to optimize Batu, Sandric, and others.
protective capabilities, Natural resins generally
most coatings must be are cooked with drying
pigmented to provide oils to make varnishes
color and opacity, to with faster drying rates,
reduce shrinkage, and to higher gloss, and harder
obtain enhanced moisture films than can be attained
and chemical resistance. from the oil alone. Some
When properly applied were used as a sole binder
and dried and/or cured, the in so-called spirit
pigmented binder provides varnishes, i.e., the resin
the decorative, protective was simply dissolved in
layer referred to as a paint
or coating. The
characteristic of the
binder and its method
of drying and/or curing
determines the mechanism
of film formation. Many
of the natural resins used
as binders are derived
from exudations from
trees or insect secretions.
Synthetic binders are
generally by-products of
chemical refining or
manufacturing processes.
These resins are man-
made and, when refined
and modified for coatings
use, can be used as film
formers for protective and
decorative coatings.
Because of their improved
moisture, chemical, and
UV resistant properties
compared with the natural
resins, synthetic resins
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volatile solvents. When
applied to a surface, the
solvent evaporated from
the spirit varnish leaving a
film of the resin on the
substrate. This type of
drying mechanism
involves no substantial
chemical change and is
typical of what today is
called lacquer. In general,
clear films of natural resin,
oil varnishes, and spar
varnishes have poor
exterior durability.
Accordingly, these resins
are no longer used
extensively except for
interior use such as for
wood furniture finishing.
(1) Rosins. The
natural resin, rosin, is
obtained from oleoresin, a
sap exudation of pine
trees. Lighter fractions
(i.e., the fastest
evaporating, when heated,
also usually the lowest
molecular weight) of the
sap include turpentine,
dipentene, and pine oil.
Rosins generally have a
high acid value and poor
resistance to water and
alkalies. They also are
sensitive to oxygen in the
air and are tacky to the
touch. Rosins are most
commonly used to produce
rosin maleic esters, and
they are adducted
(partially reacted) with
maleic anhydride and then
esterified with glycerol.
These esters sometimes
are combined with castor
and/or soya oils to reduce
yellowing and to increase
the hardness and gloss of
paints. Coatings
manufactured from rosin
maleic ester binders are
clear and unpigmented and
are intended for interior
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wood surfaces and
furniture finishes.
(2) Shellac. Lac is a
resinous secretion of a
coccid insect from India
and Thailand used to make
shellac. The dry secretion
is collected, crushed, and
washed. Afterward, it is
melted and dried in sheets
that are broken up and
exported for use as an
alcohol-soluble coating
resin. The shellac film is
both hard and fairly
elastic, and it has a variety
of uses including knot
sealers and sealers for
wood and plaster.
(3) Copals. Natural
resins called copals are
derived from fossilized or
semifossilized vegetable
remains. These resins
have high carboxyl-
functional hydrocarbons of
high acid number and,
therefore, are reactive.
The fossil resins frequently
are cooked with vegetable
oils to result in a resin with
an improved drying time,
hardness, gloss, and water
or alkali resistance.
Because of their
flexibility, these resins
most commonly are used
for coating paper (paper
labels).
b. Oil-based alkyds
(oxidative).
(1) Alkyd resins are
derived as a reaction
product of polyhydric
alcohols and polybasic
acids. Alkyds use a
polybasic acid derived
from a semidrying or
drying oil so the resin
formed can undergo auto-
oxidation at any
temperature. This
definition also includes
polyester resins, of which
alkyds are a specific type.
The properties of alkyd
coatings predominantly are
the result of the properties
of the drying oil used in
the manufacture of the
alkyd resin. Drying time,
hardness, color, and
moisture sensitivity all
depend on the drying oil,
its type, and the degree of
unsaturation (available
crosslinking sites).
Soybean oil has been
shown to give good drying
rates and good color
retention. However,
linseed oils generally dry
faster but darken on
exposure to light. Castor
and coconut oils have
good color-retentive
properties and are used as
plasticizing resins because
of their nonoxidizing
characteristics.
(2) The amount of oil
combined with the resin
influences the protective
capability of the applied
alkyd coating. Long oil
modifications (greater than
94.6 liters [25 gallons] of
oil per 45.36 kilograms
[100 pounds] of resin)
result in less moisture and
chemical resistance and
longer drying times.
However, long oil alkyds
have a greater ability to
penetrate and seal a
poorly cleaned surface.
Short oil alkyds (less than
37.85 liters [10 gallons]
of oil per 45.36
kilograms [100 pounds] of
resin) are fast-drying
coatings that usually
require baking to attain
full cure (approximately
95 C (200 F)) for a few
minutes. Short oil
coatings have good
moisture and chemical
resistance but are
relatively hard and brittle.
Medium oil alkyds (37.85
to 94.6 liters [10 to 25
gallons] of oil per 45.36
kilograms [100 pounds]
of resin) are a practical
compromise between the
long and short oil
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modifications. They mortar, and most

usually dry hard within 24
hours and are the oil
length of choice for most
new and maintenance
alkyd coating systems.
cementitious surfaces (as
a result of inherent
alkalinity because of the
use of lime as a
component of cement).

(3) All alkyd coating c. Alkyd modification

systems initially dry by (oxidative). Alkyds are
solvent evaporation and perhaps the most widely
cure by auto-oxidative used industrial protective
crosslinking of the oil coating by virtue of their
constituent. Because of ease of application,
the presence of the drying relatively low cost,
oil, alkyd coating systems color
have limited chemical and
moisture resistance,
cannot be used in highly
chemical environments
(acid or alkali), and are
not resistant to immersion
or near immersion
condensing conditions.
However, their relatively
low cost, ease of mixing
and application, and
excellent ability to
penetrate and adhere to
relatively poorly prepared,
rough, dirty, or chalked
surfaces make them the
coating system of choice
on steel exposed to
nonchemical atmospheric
service. Alkyd coatings
are widely used for
structural steel such as the
exterior of buildings,
handrails, cranes, gantries,
etc. Alkyd coating
systems should not be
used in immersion or in
environments in which the
coating will be subjected
to prolonged wetting,
dampness, or condensing
humidity. Because drying
oils are saponified by
alkalies, they should not
be applied to alkaline
surfaces, including
applications over
galvanizing (as a result of
the alkaline nature of zinc
hydroxide, a corrosion
product of zinc), concrete,
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stability, and good weather alkyd primers and epoxy for alkyds. Epoxy resin urethane oil coating. The
ability in most topcoats). oil- based coatings have isocyanate reaction
atmospheric better adhesion, moisture, decreases the drying time
environments; therefore, it (3) Silicone and chemical resistance of the coating and
is reasonable to assume modifications. Silicone than alkyds, although they provides enhanced
that coating formulators modification of alkyd are slightly more resistance to chemicals,
would seek to improve resins is perhaps the most expensive. These coatings moisture, weathering, and
properties of the drying oil widely promoted are used as baking and air abrasion. Uralkyd
alkyd by modification modification for dry original equipment coatings are used as
with other resin types. corrosion-protective manufacturers coatings marine coatings of wood
Although these coatings. A silicone applied to appliances, boat hulls, machinery
modifications will intermediate is added to machinery, pumps, valves, enamels, and an upgrade
somewhat increase the the alkyd resin in etc. to an alkyd coating.
cost of the coating system, quantities up to
improved properties 30 percent to provide (5) Urethane d. Waterborne acrylic
usually result and make polymers with greatly modifications. Alkyd emulsion coating. An
the modification cost improved durability, gloss resins are commonly emulsion is essentially a
effective. retention, and heat reacted with isocyanates dispersion of droplets of
resistance. Moisture to form a so-called one liquid in another
(1) Phenolic resistance is greatly uralkyd or liquid, in which the first is
modification. improved by the silicone not normally soluble.
Modification with a modification, and this type Examples of emulsions are
phenolic resin improves of paint is used milk and mayonnaise; in
gloss retention, water, and extensively as marine and both of these, fat globules
alkali resistance. Phenolic maintenance paint. are disbursed in water.
alkyd resins have For paints, emulsion
performed satisfactorily in (4) Epoxy technology is promising
water immersion, a service modifications. Alkyd for VOC compliance
in which nonphenolic resins can be combined because water is not a
modified alkyd resins are with epoxy resins to restricted solvent, and only
not suitable. produce coatings with small amounts of solvents
improved chemical and called coalescing
(2) Vinyl moisture-resistant solventsare required in
modifications. Alkyd properties. Epoxy ester the formulation. The resin
resins with vinyl coatings are similar to is polymerized to a
modification are alkyds, and they are used relatively high molecular
commonly formulated as when improved weight (10,000 or higher)
universal primers. These performance is required. in emulsion paints. The
primers generally can be Epoxy esters result from pigment is incorporated in
topcoated with most the direct esterification of the resin, and the
generic- type intermediate an epoxy resin and a fatty semisolid resin-pigment
and topcoats. The alkyd acid such as a vegetable polymer is emulsified in
constituent improves oil or rosin. The resulting water. Acrylic polymers
adhesion, film build, and epoxy ester resin is are especially popular as
solvent and thermal prepared by reacting it an emulsion resin because
resistance; the vinyl with drying oil by heating they provide coatings with
modification enhances in the presence of an unexcelled color retention
recoatability and chemical esterification catalyst. and have excellent exterior
and moisture resistance. The same drying oils used weathering and durability
These coatings frequently to prepare alkyds also are properties. The hardness
are used as shop primers used to prepare epoxy and flexibility of emulsion
or as tie coats between esters. Oil length is polymers vary
different generic coatings categorized as long, considerably because of
(e.g., over inorganic, zinc- medium, and short with the types and amounts of
rich primers or between properties similar to those monomers used in their
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molecular weights. percent acrylic copolymer

Methyl methacrylate formulations have been
monomer gives the hardest developed that provide
thermoplastic polymer, good protection as
and acrylate monomers complete water-based
yield the softest product. systems (primer,
Copolymers of acrylic and intermediate, and topcoat)
methacrylic esters are used on blast-cleaned structural
extensively for exterior steel. Acrylic latex coating
acrylic emulsion paints. systems also are used
Vinyl acetate-acrylic extensively for protecting
copolymers also are aluminum and other
popular, particularly for nonferrous metals and for
interior use. The acrylic
constituent upgrades water
and alkali resistance, film
flexibility, and durability;
and it acts as a
permanent plasticizer for
the vinyl acetate.

(1) Styrene-acrylic.
Styrene-acrylic
waterborne systems in
which the styrene is
copolymerized with lower
alkylacrylates have gained
in importance. They are
characterized by high
gloss and good gloss
retention. When properly
formulated, they dry
quickly and develop good
film hardness. Styrene-
acrylic systems are used
primarily as interior house
paints or as coatings for
relatively mild interior
industrial service
conditions. These
coatings may yellow on
exterior exposure and do
not have good moisture
resistance. They also are
used as concrete block
fillers.

(2) Latex emulsions.

Latex emulsion coating
systems have gained in
popularity because of
their ease of application
and cleanup and their good
color retention and
durability on exterior
surfaces. One hundred
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painting wood in
exterior weathering
environments. Because
they are also VOC
compliant, acrylic latex
coating systems have
gained popularity as shop-
applied systems. Even
more popular are latex
emulsion intermediate
and/or finish coats used in
conjunction with a water-
based, inorganic, zinc-rich
primer. Water-based, zinc-
rich primers, coated with
acrylic emulsion
intermediate and top coats,
are rapidly becoming
popular because of their
VOC compliance, good
corrosion protection,
and aesthetic properties.
Although many of the
acrylic emulsion coating
formulations have
dramatically improved
moisture resistance, these
coatings are not
recommended for use in
areas of high condensing
humidity, ponding water,
splash zones, or for
immersion service. The
ionic surfactants used in
the emulsion to provide in-
can stability will result in
water sensitivity after
application. Water vapor
transmission may be a
problem for wood or
masonry surfaces, and
latex paints may be
suitable for these surfaces
because they are said to
breath. Breathing occurs
as a result of irregularities
during the coalescence
part of film formation. A
series of pores or defects
in the coalesced film allow
passage of water vapor but
retain the larger liquid
water molecule. Water-
based paints develop poor
film properties when
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applied in cold, damp
weather. Both cold
weather and high humidity
or dampness retard water
evaporation and the drying
and coalescence of the
paint film. The result can
be a soft, poorly adherent
film that, when drying
finally occurs, may be
cracked or brittle with
poor adhesion. Too fast a
water evaporation rate on a
hot surface can lead to a
powdery, poorly adherent
paint or a film with many
voids, pinholes, or cross-
sectional porosities.
Storing emulsion paints at
excessively high
temperatures for prolonged
periods or freezing the
emulsion may destabilize
it and cause settling, de-
emulsification, and/or
severe viscosity changes.
e. Bituminous (solvent
evaporation). Bitumens
used in the coatings
industry are coal tar and
asphalt. These materials
are distinctly different
physically and chemically;
but in appearance they are
essentially identical black,
thermoplastic, tar
materials. Coal tar
enamels, or pitches, are
derived from the coking
of coal. When coal is
heated in the absence of
air to a temperature of
approximately
1093 C (2000 F), it
decomposes partially into
a gas and a coke. Coal
tar is formed when the
gas is subsequently
condensed. Lighter oil
fractions are removed
from the tar by subsequent
heating and gas extraction
until the desired coal tar
composition for use in
coatings is obtained. moisture and chemical
Asphalt may be mined or resistance. Because of
obtained as a residue from UV light- induced
the distillation of crude cracking, unmodified coal
petroleum. Lighter tar coatings most
fractions are removed commonly are used below
during distillation until the grade or in water-
desired asphalt tar suitable immersion service.
for coating use is obtained. Thermoplastic bituminous
Asphaltic coatings have coatings are applied as hot
much greater UV melts, solvent cutbacks,
resistance than the coal or water emulsions.
tars, and they are suitable
for use in above-grade (1) Hot melt. Hot melt
atmospheric weathering application involves
applications. However, heating the bitumen to a
coal tar coatings are vastly temperature of
superior to asphaltic approximately 178 C
coatings in (350 F) to 246 C (475
F); its viscosity at that
temperature is low, almost
waterlike. The hot melt
then is applied by mop or
swab to the surface being
coated, although other
techniques such as brush,
rolling, or spraying may be
used. Flow coating of the
interiors of pipes and
small vessels also is
possible. In this method,
the hot melt is flowed
onto the pipe or vessel
while the item is rotated
or turned. In general,
hot melt applications
provide the best moisture
and chemical resistance,
followed in order by
solvent cutback and water
emulsions. Pipelines
coated with hot melt coal
tar have 100-year
successful exposure
experience underground
and in water immersions.
In the pipe coating shop,
the pipe is blast-cleaned to
SSPC-SP 10 metal by a
rotary blast machine. The
bitumen is flow-coated
onto the pipe with
alternate reinforcement of
asphalt- or coal tar-
impregnated felt paper.
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The finish wrap is of powdered silica, mica, and

kraft paper for UV limestone dust may be
protection. Field incorporated with the
application of a hot bitumen. After
bitumen is best done by application, the water
swabbing with a mop. evaporates and
However, swabbing is coalescence occurs to
rarely done at present form a protective film.
because of safety Latex emulsions (both
considerations and the asphaltic and coal tars) are
development of suitable, widely used as driveway
safer, alternate coatings or parking lot sealers and
that are more easily field as waterproofing agents.
applied. Bitumen latex emulsions
are VOC compliant. Some
(2) Solvent cutback. solvent cutback
Asphaltic or coal tar applications may not be
bitumens are dissolved in VOC compliant
a suitable solvent
(aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbon solvents).
Dissolving the bitumen in
a solvent lowers its
viscosity enough that the
cutback can be applied by
brush, roller, or spray as
appropriate. After
application, the solvent
volatilizes and the
bitumen resolidifies into a
film. The coating
thickness and moisture
resistance of a solvent
cutback is considerably
less than that achieved by
hot melt application, but
the convenience of not
having to heat the bitumen
at the jobsite immediately
prior to application is a
major advantage.
Cutbacks are used on
pipelines, pump stations,
below grade, and
immersion applications
when hot melt bitumens
cannot be applied.

(3) Water emulsion.

Water emulsions are
prepared by suspending
minute particles of the
bitumen in water using
emulsifying agents.
Pigmentation with inert
fillers such as coal dust,
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because of the use of rich coatings, or other For best performance, modified vinyl resin
solvents; and hot applied, metal surfaces. wash primers should be coatings in common use
hot melt bitumens may Additionally, the carboxyl topcoated with a coating in USACE will not
release VOCs into the groups introduced into the based on a hydroxyl adhere to the wash
atmosphere during vinyl copolymer resins modified vinyl solution primer. Many other
heating and application. provide points of reactivity resin. This is an especially coatings adhere well to the
Furthermore, volatile for crosslinking reactions. effective system in wash primer, including oil-
phenol- containing seawater and freshwater based alkyds, epoxies, and
compounds produced (1) Vinyl chloride. immersion and in urethanes. When mixing,
during the heating of the Vinyl acetate copolymer corrosive environments. the acid diluent must be
bitumen are considered coatings have been used Wash primers have many added slowly to the base
carcinogenic and skin extensively by USACE for application particularities. with agitation to prevent
irritants. Accordingly, protection of submerged If an all-vinyl system is local gelation. These wash
suitable worker protection steel or as a coating desired, the wash primer primers should be used
must be provided in the systems specified for the must be coated with a within 8 hours after
form of protective protection of steel used in hydroxyl modified vinyl mixing; any primer
clothing and appropriate locks and dams. Because solution coating. The remaining after 8 hours
respirators. of the high amounts of maleic acid should be discarded
solvents that must be used because there will be a
f. Vinyl (solvent to dissolve vinyl resins, gradual decline in
evaporating copolymer). most vinyl coatings, adhesion of the mixed
Most vinyl coatings except water-based vinyl wash primer. There may
consist of a resin formulations, are not be no physical change in
comprised of a VOC compliant. appearance after 8 hours
copolymer of PVC and but adhesion will be
polyvinyl acetate (PVA) in (2) Vinyl butyral diminished substantially.
the ratio of approximately wash primer. Basic zinc The mixed wash primers
86 percent PVC to 13 or chromate vinyl butyral must be applied thin (as a
14 percent PVA. wash primers have been wash) to a thickness not
Approximately 1 percent used extensively as exceeding approximately
or less maleic acid is used primers to provide 1.9 cm (3/4 mil). Coating
as a modifier to provide excellent adhesion to a failures may result if
adhesion to metallic variety of surfaces, mixing and application
surfaces, and the same including carbon steel, instructions are not
amount of hydroxyl stainless steel, zinc, followed. Vinyl wash
modification (using a cadmium, tin, aluminum, primers range in VOC
vinyl alcohol) provides galvanized steel, content from
adhesion to vinyl butyral magnesium, and even 680 to 765 grams/liter
wash primers or other glass. These wash (g/L) (5.7 to 6.4 lb/gal).
organic coatings. primers are preferred (To convert grams per liter
Increasing hydroxyl when exposure to salt to pounds per gallon,
modification of vinyl water or salt spray occurs divide by 119.8, for
chloride or vinyl acetate because they inhibit example, 250 g/L 119.8
resins enables the underfilm corrosion. = 2.1 lb/gal).
incorporation of the vinyl Basic zinc chromate and
into alkyds, epoxies, and vinyl butyral wash (3) Vinyl chloride-
other resin systems. This primers formulated in vinyl acetate copolymers.
incorporation improves air accordance with DOD-P- These vinyl solution
dry, moisture resistance, 15328 D incorporating a coatings are noted for
and compatibility. Maleic vinyl butyral resin, basic outstanding toughness and
acid modification to the zinc chromate pigments, water resistance. USACE
vinyl chloride-vinyl and a phosphoric acid has used a five-coat vinyl
acetate copolymer alcohol solvent system system for years on steel
improves adhesion to have been used exposed in both freshwater
blast-cleaned steel, zinc- extensively in the past. immersion and
4-17
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

atmospheric service on
locks and dam gates. /
Although the five-coat g
system is somewhat a
expensive to apply, it is l
extremely durable when )
properly applied. .
Repainting intervals of
more than 20 years are (4) Waterborne vinyl.
commonplace, although Vinyl resins and modified
maintenance repainting vinyls frequently are
and touchup of emulsified vinyls modified
deteriorated or damaged with acrylic resins to
paint may be necessary at provide enhanced
more frequent intervals. flexibility, toughness, and
The common USACE recoatability. Vinyl
vinyl system uses a vinyl acrylics are most
resin containing 86 commonly used for
percent polyvinyl exterior surfaces.
chloride, approximately Waterborne vinyl coatings
13 percent polyvinyl consisting of pigmented
acetate, and maleic acid polyvinyl acetate are
modification. The coating formulated for interior use.
system has excellent The polyvinyl acetate can
toughness, moisture be used alone as a
resistance, and light homopolymer, or it can be
resistance; and it can be coreacted with other
topcoated easily after monomers such as the
extended periods of time. lower molecular weight
Generally, PVC-PVA esters of acrylic, fumaric,
copolymer coatings or maleic acid. Latices
range in VOC content based on polyvinyl acetate
from 540 to generally have relatively
6 poor moisture resistance,
5 light fastness, and exterior
0 durability. They are not
the preferred choice for
g exterior surfaces, although
/ they are eminently suitable
L for interior use. Polyvinyl
acetate based
( homopolymer and
4 copolymers are relatively
. inexpensive, and they are
5 easy to apply and clean
up. These emulsion
t coatings are suitable
o for

5
.
4

l
b

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EM 1110-2-3400
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4-19
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

interior use and exterior bisphenol-A type, are mixing prior to (a) Polyamine
nonaggressive relatively small and must application. This allows crosslinked epoxy coatings
environments. However, be coreacted with the reaction to begin and generally have excellent
an acrylic modification is copolymer curing agents initial crosslinking to alkali resistance and the
required when greater to attain crosslinking occur before the paint is greatest chemical
moisture and exterior properties sufficient to applied. Some of the resistance of the epoxies.
weathering resistance is provide a protective small amine molecules They also have good
needed. coating. The copolymer will partially crosslink moisture and water
crosslinker frequently is with the epoxy resin resistance. These epoxies
g. Catalyzed epoxies called a catalyst or curing molecules and increase are the most brittle and the
(crosslinking copolymers). agent, and it usually is a their size and reduce the least flexible; and they
The epoxy resin most polyamine- or polyamide- tendency for migration. have a strong tendency
commonly used for containing material. to degrade on UV light
industrial protective exposure, resulting in
coatings is of the glycidal- (1) Polyamine curing chalking. Amine-cured
ether type, specifically, agents for epoxies. epoxies, with suitable
that derived from The polyamines (i.e., nonreactive pigments, are
bisphenol-A and diethylenetriamine, used widely as tank lining
epichlorhydrin. This hydroxyethyldiethylene- systems for the protection
combination of raw triamine, of steel and concrete in
materials yields a series of bishydroxydiethylenetriam water and aqueous
related compounds that, ine) are relatively small chemical immersion
prior to crosslinking, molecules with a low service. Because of their
have an epoxide group at molecular weight high crosslink density
each end of the molecule, compared to the epoxy (achieved as a result of the
and a alcoholic hydroxyl resin. When reacted, they small molecular size of
group as a midchain lead to tight crosslinking most of the amines used as
pendant. Crosslinking and high chemical and coreactants), amine-cured
takes place preferentially moisture resistance. epoxies are the epoxies of
through the terminal However, during the choice in atmospheric or
epoxy groups then through crosslinking reaction, any immersion environments
the midchain hydroxyl unreacted amine may be of high and low (pH 3-
groups. Other epoxy squeezed out of the 12+) hydrolyzing
resins have been crosslinked film to the chemicals.
developed, including surface and develop the
cycloaliphatic epoxies, so-called amine blush, a (b) Phenolic
that offer improvements in hazy white coloration on modification to the
light stability and UV light the coating surface. The epoxy resin further
degradation; but these blush, a reaction between enhances water resistance;
epoxy resins do not exhibit the amine and carbon and phenolic modified
the adhesion, chemical dioxide from the air, is epoxies, with amine
resistance, and flexibility not detrimental and can be coreactants, are perhaps
of resins derived from allowed to remain on the the most popular coating
epichlorhydrin and surface unless topcoating system for freshwater and
bisphenol-A. Epoxy is necessary. However, saltwater immersion and
cresol novolacs also have the blush must be removed many aqueous chemical
been developed and by wiping or washing it solutions, even at elevated
provide high temperature from the surface (it is temperatures. Phenolic
resistance and great water soluble) before a modification enhances
chemical resistance at the subsequent epoxy coat is moisture and heat
expense of brittleness applied. To minimize resistance properties of
and a lack of formation of the amine the epoxy, but it imparts
toughness and flexibility. blush, many formulators slightly more brittleness
The epoxy molecules, require a 15- to 30-minute and diminishes alkali
particularly those of the induction time after resistance.
4-20
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

Chemical crosslinking in
(c) Polyamine the applied film is not
crosslinked epoxy considered to be as
coatings are readily extensive as that provided
formulated as VOC- by the nonprereacted
compliant coating systems amine, and the chemical
as a result of the low resistance is somewhat
molecular weights of both less. However,
the amine and epoxy application is much easier
coreactants. If a relatively and not nearly as
low molecular weight dependent on thorough
bisphenol- A epoxy is mixing and adequate
used, both the epoxy and induction time.
amine coreactants are in
liquid form. Little if any
solvent is needed to
dissolve or dilute the
resins, and 100 percent
solids coatings are
feasible.

(d) Amine adduct

epoxies were developed to
reduce the tendency
toward amine blushing; to
eliminate an induction
time; and to make the low
molecular weight amine
less volatile, safer, and
easier to mix. An amine
adduct is prepared by
reacting an excess of a
polyfunctional (three or
more reactive sites) amine
with some of the epoxy
resin to increase its
molecular size. The
prereacted amine adduct
then is packaged in a
separate container,
sometimes with additional
pigment and solvent. As
with all other coreactant
curing agents, the
components in the
separate containers are
mixed prior to application.
Because of the greater
molecular size of the
amine adduct relative to
the unprereacted amine,
amine blush is eliminated
and most of the other
problems associated with
small molecular weight
amines are minimized.
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4-22
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

(2) Polyamide curing Specially formulated formulated in this fashion (b) The 100 percent
agents for epoxies. polyamide-cured epoxies show typical epoxy finish solids epoxies generally
Polyamide curing agents have the ability to displace properties; but they are have short pot lives
are the condensation water from a surface. less flexible than other because the coreactants
products of a dimerized These coating materials epoxies because the films are not diluted. Some
fatty acid with the can be applied and cured are thicker and the close formulations require the
polyamine. Terminal under water to form spacing of the reacting use of special twin-feed
amine functionality allows corrosion-resistant groups leads to a high airless spray equipment
crosslinking to occur as coatings. crosslinked density. The for external mixing (refer
with a straight amine, film is tough and relatively to paragraph 8-
although the polyamide (3) 100 percent solids nonbrittle. Solventless 2g). When aromatic
molecule is much larger. epoxies. epoxy systems have low polyamines are used for
The crosslinked film has internal stress and are less curing, hardening times of
improved flexibility, (a) The 100 percent brittle because there is 4 to 12 hours can be
improved gloss and flow, solids epoxies can be negligible volume attained even at
excellent water resistance, formulated from low contraction on curing to a temperatures as low as
and good chemical molecular weight solid. freezing. Although these
resistance. However, polyfunctional liquid coating systems are
polyamide-cured coatings epoxy resins. The relatively expensive, they
have somewhat less viscosity of these resins are used primarily as
solvent and alkali can be lowered even corrosion-resistant linings
resistance than amine- and further by the use of for storage tanks (e.g., oil
amine-adduct-cured compatible reactive tankers), both on land and
epoxies. Because fatty diluents with an epoxy in marine vessels.
acids have a water functionality of one; they Because of their low
repellent tendency, do not contribute to molecular weight liquid
polyamide-cured epoxies crosslinking but are formulation, these
are said to be tough, chemically bound into the materials also can be used
flexible, water-repellent final crosslinked film. as self-leveling epoxy
coatings. Compared to the The liquid epoxy resin flooring systems. These
amine and amine-adduct system is crosslinked by a coating systems generally
types, polyamide-cured liquid polyamine or are clear or high gloss and,
epoxies have significantly polyamide without the when applied, have a
better UV light resistance, addition of any solvent. A waterlike consistency that
resulting in substantially tertiary amino phenolic hardens to a smooth,
less chalking on exterior catalyst, such as tri- glossy flooring.
exposure. Polyamide- (dimethylaminomethyl)
cured epoxies are perhaps phenol may be added to (4) Coal tar epoxies.
the most widely used of produce polymerization of
the three types of curative the epoxy resin with itself. (a) Coal tar epoxy is a
systems, and they have This and other phenols act combination of a coal tar
wide application in the as accelerators in the and an epoxy resin. The
protection of steel and curing reaction. Silicone epoxy resin usually is
concrete in freshwater and resins may be added as packaged separately from
saltwater immersion. flow agents, and dibutyl the curing agent, which
Polyamide-cured epoxies phthalate can be added as frequently is combined
have the best exterior a plasticizer. Thus, the with the coal tar resin.
weathering resistance and entire liquid paint can be The curing agent may
the best ability of the converted to a crosslinked be an amine, amine
epoxies to recoat after coating that becomes a 100 addict, or polyamide. The
extended periods. percent solids epoxy. crosslinking reaction is the
Polyamide epoxies are These materials have little, same as those previously
used to protect substrates if any, volatile organic described, with active
exposed to condensation material so they are hydrogens from the amine
and high humidity. VOC compliant. Coatings nitrogen providing a
4-23
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

crosslinking site to the amine adduct and

epoxide groups and, in polyamide types.
some situations, the However, even with the
hydroxyl groups of the latter types, the first coat
epoxy resin. The coal tar may cure so hard and
acts as a filler within the glossy after only a few
crosslinked epoxy matrix, hours that adhesion of
and the resulting film has subsequent coats may be a
the toughness, adhesion, problem. To attain
UV resistance, and adhesion between an
thermal stability of the undercoat and subsequent
epoxies combined with the coats of a coal tar epoxy,
extremely high moisture it may be necessary to
resistance afforded by the roughen the surface by
coal tar. The amine- sweep blast cleaning or
cured coal tar epoxies other scarifying
generally have great
chemical and moisture
resistance but are more
brittle and harder to apply
and topcoat than the amine
adduct and polyamide-
cured coal tar epoxies.
The polyamide-cured coal
tar epoxies are more
water resistant, flexible,
easier to topcoat, and
more tolerant of
application variables than
the other epoxies.

(b) One problem with

coal tar epoxies is
recoating. The recoat
window for application of
a coal tar epoxy topcoat to
a coal tar epoxy undercoat
can be as little as 18 hours
with some formulations,
and with most
formulations it usually is
within 48 hours.
Extensive intracoat
disbonding may occur
after this time. The
disbonding is believed to
result from low molecular
weight hydrocarbon oils
from the coal tar exuding
to the surface after
application and from UV
light- induced oxidation.
Amine-cured coal tar
epoxies are more
susceptible to this
phenomenon than the
4-24
EM 1110-2-3400
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4-25
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
techniques and to remove
the oxidation and exudate
products. Alternately,
slow evaporating strong
solvents such as
methylene chloride and
diacetone alcohol can be
applied to the coal tar
surface being overcoated.
These solvents will
penetrate, attack, and
partially dissolve or swell
the coal tar epoxy surface
so molecular entanglement
and adhesion may occur.
However, because these
solvents are slow
evaporating, they may be
retained within the coal tar
epoxy film. If the coal tar
epoxy is immersed in
water, these relatively
polar solvents may
attract water and
blistering may occur.
Therefore, care should be
taken when using solvents
to increase intracoat
adhesion for coal tar
epoxies in immersion
service. The problem is
of much lesser
consequence if the coal tar
epoxy is used on an
atmospheric or nonwater
immersion surface.
h. Urethanes
(crosslinking copolymer).
Crosslinking reactions in
urethane coatings consist
of a reaction between an
isocyanate containing (-
N=C=O) material and a
material with a characteristics,
polyhydroxylated (-OH)
containing coreactant.
Crosslinking occurs
because of the high
reactivity and affinity of
the isocyanate group for
the active hydrogen of the
polyolhydroxyl or any
other active hydrogen
atom attached to a
4-26
nitrogen or oxygen atom. weight of these high gloss finish coats.
The rate of this isocyanates can be The appearance of
crosslinking reaction increased by self-reaction polyurethane coatings
depends on a number in the presence of catalysts formulated with aliphatic
factors, such as the type to form dimers and/or isocyanates are
and configuration of both trimers. unsurpassed in this regard
the isocyanate and polyol by any of the epoxies,
materials and (b) Aliphatic acrylics, or other coating
temperature. However, isocyanates react more materials. One of the
the reaction is such that, slowly and are most important aliphatic
with most formulations, considerably more isocyanates is HDI. In its
crosslinking can occur at expensive than the monomeric form, HDI is
temperatures as low as 18 aromatic isocyanates, but an irritant as is true with
C (0 F) or less. they allow the formulation TDI and MDI. However,
of nonyellowing, light HDI can be reacted
(1) Isocyanates. The stable, (commonly with water) to
isocyanate reactant can be obtain a higher molecular-
either aromatic (containing weight modification that is
the benzene ring) or less volatile and safer.
aliphatic (straight chain or When HDI or its higher
cyclical) hydrocarbons. molecular-weight
Aromatic polyurethanes modifications are reacted
are prone to darkening and with a suitable polyol in
yellowing on exposure to the presence of certain
sunlight because of the metal catalysts (tin,
chromophoric nature of bismith, zinc, iron, cobalt),
the benzene ring. Because a urethane coating with
aliphatic polyurethanes, by excellent resistance to
definition, do not contain discoloration, hydrolysis,
the benzene ring, they do and heat degradation is
not yellow or darken and produced.
are preferred for exterior
use. (c) Because of the
potential presence of
(a) The most important unreacted monomeric
monomeric diisocyanates forms of TDI, MDI, and
used for coatings are HDIall of which are
toluene diisocyanate respiratory irritantsan
(TDI), 4,4, air-fed respirator should be
diphenylmethane used when mixing and
diisocyanate (MDI), and applying these materials.
1,6, hexamethylene Workers and painters may
diisocyanate (HDI). never develop an
Because of their irritant isocyanate sensitivity, or
these the sensitivity may occur
materials rarely are used in only after prolonged
unreacted form for the exposure. However, some
compounding of urethane individuals may become
coatings. They normally sensitized quickly, on
are converted into initial contact or on only a
isocyanate terminated short exposure. When
polymers or adducts of isocyanate respiratory
polyols such as hydroxyl sensitization occurs, it
terminated polyesters and occurs suddenly and
polyethers. The molecular drastically, and the
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

affected individual should coating depend

be removed from the work predominantly on the
site. The sensitization is properties of the
permanent, and increased polyhydroxylated
exposure leads to coreactant. The VOC
increased irritation to content of most
affected tissues and polyurethane coatings
membranes (refer to ranges from 250 to 550
Chapter g/L (2.1 to
1 4
0 .
) 6
.
l
(2) Polyols. Polyols b
coreact with isocyanates to /
form a polyurethane film. g
A polyol consists of a
large molecules l
(commonly acrylics, )
polyesters, polyethers, .
epoxies, vinyls, and
alkyds) that have been (3) Acrylic urethanes.
reacted with di- or Acrylic urethanes are
polyfunctional alcohols perhaps the most widely
such as propylene glycol, used urethanes for
trimethylolpropane, corrosion protection and
pentaerythritol, and others.
The hydroxyl-terminated
polyol materials are
packaged separately from
the isocyanate, and the
packaging usually includes
appropriate solvents and
pigments. On application,
the isocyanate and polyol
constituents are mixed and
crosslinking proceeds via
the isocyanate-hydroxyl
functions and liberates a
carbon dioxide gas. To
prevent bubbles and voids
in the coating cross-
section as a result of the
carbon dioxide gas
inclusion, all polyurethane
coatings must be applied
relatively thin (0.038 to
0.05 mm [1.5 to 2.0 mils]
per coat). This allows
the gas to pass easily
from the coating before
the coating cures and
hardens. In general, the
characteristics and
properties of the urethane
4-27
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

4-28
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

atmospheric service. urethanes. This high crosslinked epoxies. The resistant urethanes for
When properly isocyanate demand also epoxy addition induces a interior use; or as primers
formulated, these materials substantially increases the tendency for an epoxy in exterior exposures.
have excellent cost of polyester urethane urethane to chalk, and the
weatherability, gloss, and over acrylic urethanes. lower moisture resistance (7) Vinyl
color retention and good Polyester polyurethanes resulting from the polyurethanes. Urethane
chemical and moisture are used in exterior urethane crosslink coatings using vinyl
resistance. They can be chemical environments in produces a less chemical- polyols combine abrasion
tinted easily and which acid fumes or and moisture- resistant resistance of the urethane
pigmented to provide a highly corrosive polymer than a with the toughness,
variety of deep and pastel conditions are conventionally cured flexibility, and chemical
colors at a lower cost per encountered. They have epoxy coating. Most epoxy resistance of the vinyl.
gallon than the next most high gloss, are light fast, urethanes are formulated These urethane coatings
popular class, the and have a good with a less expensive are promoted for use when
polyester urethanes. appearance. aromatic isocyanate. They flexibility and abrasion
Acrylic urethanes are not are promoted primarily as resistance are important.
used for water immersion (5) Polyether low- temperature-curing However, vinyl urethane
service and, for the most urethanes. The polyether epoxies; as fast curing, coatings are subject to
part, they do not have the prepolymer is chemically some chalking or fading
chemical resistance of the considerably less on exterior exposure and
polyester urethanes. expensive than either do not have the color,
However, they have acrylic or polyester gloss, weatherability, or
excellent weathering and polyols. However, solvent resistance of the
color retentive properties polyethers are sensitive to acrylic and polyester
when an aliphatic UV-induced oxidative urethanes. Because the
isocyanate coreactant is degradation. Ether vinyl is thermoplastic and
used. These are the most linkages within the is attacked and softened
popular aliphatic polyether are somewhat by solvents, recoating
polyurethanes; they are water sensitive; and, in after extended periods is
widely used as topcoats polyethers, they are not a major problem and is
over epoxy primers and repeated throughout the a primary advantage of
intermediate coats in most polymer chain without vinyl urethane systems.
nonchemical atmospheric separation by long water- Coatings based on these
environments. Many insensitive hydrocarbon resins are used on
water tanks, bridges, chains or aromatic groups. structural steel, ships,
railroad cars, aircraft, and Polyester polyurethanes tanks, and other steel
other highly visible are used as elastomeric structures for which
structures are coated with urethane coatings, for coal corrosion resistance
these light-fast, glossy, tar urethanes, and for other flexibility and abrasion
aesthetically appealing urethane coatings that are resistance are important.
coatings. sheltered or protected from
light. They frequently are (8) Moisture-cured
(4) Polyester used as pipeline coatings polyurethanes.
urethanes. As a result or for below grade Isocyanates can react with
of their high isocyanate corrosion protection, and the hydroxyl group in
demand when coreacted, coatings for minimum water (H-OH) to form a
polyester urethanes form service. unique class of coatings
relatively hard, chemical- known as moisture-cured
resistant poly films. (6) Epoxy urethanes. Single package
Because they are tightly polyurethane. Epoxy moisture-cured urethanes
crosslinked, they have urethanes are use an isocyanate
great chemical and considerably more prepolymer that, when
moisture resistance; but expensive than applied, reacts with the
they are not as flexible conventionally cured humidity in the air to form
and tough as the acrylic amine or polyamide a tough, hard resinous
4-29
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

film. Because of their nonmoisture-cured

rapid rate of reaction, aliphatic polyurethane to
aromatic isocyanates are minimize yellowing and
used almost exclusively in darkening.
moisture-cured urethanes.
The pigments must be i. Vinyl ester
essentially nonreactive (crosslinking
with the isocyanate. copolymer).
Although it is possible to
use a number of pigments, (1) Strictly speaking,
aluminum leaf is common. vinyl esters can be called
Properly formulated and vinyls because of the
applied, urethanes have vinyl unsaturation (-
excellent adhesion to C=CH2) on the epoxy
blast-cleaned structural
steel surfaces. When spray
applied, urethanes form a
tough, glossy, highly
protective chemical and
solvent-resistance film.
Because of their high
crosslink density, the
recoat window of some
formulations is less than
24 hours, or it may be
more than a month in
exterior environments.
Sufficient solvent
hardness and permeability
does not occur in 24
hours, and topcoating is
considered safe.
Topcoating is also safe
after a month or more of
exterior chalking and
weathering to remove the
slick, glossy surface that
often occurs shortly after
curing. However, within
the range of 24 hours to
a month or more,
subsequently applied
polyurethane topcoats may
exhibit disbonding or poor
adhesion. Moisture-cured
urethanes are used as
primers under some
epoxies, used as full
system coating on steel
and nonferrous metals,
and as primers on
marginally cleaned steel.
Frequently, the moisture-
cured polyurethane primer
and/or intermediate coats
are topcoated with a
4-30
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

4-31
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
backbone chain; actually,
they are manufactured
from and are closely
related to acrylics.
Methacrylic esters of
bisphenol-A or other
epoxies, such as novalacs,
are prepared by reacting
methacrylic acid with
terminal oxirane groups of
the epoxy. The resins
have high viscosity at
room temperature and are
mixed with monomeric
styrene, which acts as a
reactive diluent to reduce
viscosity. Crosslink
curing is by free radical
initiation generated from
peroxide degeneration
using benzyl peroxide,
methyl ethyl ketone
peroxide, or peroxide
blends.
(2) Compared to
normal unsaturated
polyester resins, vinyl
ester resins have better
chemical resistance
because of the stability of
the epoxy backbone and
the presence of stable
methyl groups on the
methacrylate terminations.
Compared to a polyester
resin, there are fewer
points of unsaturation on
the backbone, and even
these are effectively
shielded by methacrylate
terminations. Vinyl esters
have excellent resistance
to acids and alkalies,
bleaches, and other
oxidizing agents. Vinyl
esters are used as thick
film (1.02 to 1.52 mm [40
to 60 mils]) tank and
chimney linings when
great strength and high
chemical resistance are
required. They most
commonly are applied by
spray, have a short potlife,
4-32
and build readily to
thicknesses approaching
0.50 mm (20 mils) per
coat. Because of their
short potlife and high
chemical and solvent
resistance, topcoating after
even a short period of time
(as little as 3 or 4 days)
may be a problem with
some formulations.
Because the coatings are
applied so thick and
because of high inherent
shrinkage stresses on
curing, a deep anchor
pattern (0.10 to 0.13 mm
[4 to 5 mils]) is required
for most applications.
Care must be taken to
ensure that the coating is
not applied excessively
thick, or cracking may
occur.
(3) Vinyl ester
coatings can be applied
as highly pigmented,
sprayable coatings or with
a fiberglass veil
reinforcement as fiberglass
reinforced plastic
laminants. Vinyl ester
coatings have excellent
abrasion and wear
resistance, and these
attributes combined with
their chemical resistance
lead to application as high
build monolithic concrete
floor systems and tank
linings. Because of their
high volume solids
content and because
styrene is used as a
reactive diluent (combined
thinner and coreactant),
little thinner is required in
a formulation. Thus,
vinyl ester coatings are
VOC compliant.
4 adding driers) result in an
- increased oil viscosity that
4 occurs as a result of auto-
. various chemical
compounds that make up
D the oil. Specifically, the oil
r must have polyunsaturated
y fatty acids, commonly
i ethylenic carbon double
n bonds (-C=C-). When
g combined with oxygen and
accelerated by metallic
O driers, auto-oxidative
i polymerization occurs and
l transforms the oil from a
s liquid to a solid. Some
vegetable oils (e.g.,
a. If a drying oil is cottonseed, rapeseed,
reduced or dissolved in a peanut, and coconut oils)
solvent and pigmented, a are not drying oils. Fatty
drying oil coating results. vegetable oils that exhibit
Not all oils are drying oils. proper drying oil
An oil is classified as characteristics and can be
drying if, when spread out formulated into paints or
in the air as a thin layer, it protective coatings include
changes from a liquid to a linseed, tung, soybean,
solid film with a great dehydrated castor,
strength, toughness, and oiticica, and fish oils.
hardness. This drying Linseed oil, one of the
ability depends on the most widely used drying
molecular structure of the oils, is obtained from
pressing the flax seed.
Raw linseed oils dry too
slowly for most purposes;
therefore, they require
processing and the
addition of driers to
hasten the hardening rate.
b. Processing usually
consists of heating the raw
oil and dissolving mixtures
of manganese and cobalt
drierswhich are soluble
in the oil at ordinary room
temperaturesin the raw
oil. The oil can be further
treated by bodying, which
consists of blowing gasses
(oxygen and/or hydrogen)
through the oils to
increase viscosity and
reduce drying time. All
of these treatments
(heating, blowing, and
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oxidative crosslinking the drying oil. The

polymerization and addition of driers to the oil
oxygen absorption into the aid in the formation of the
oil film. In general, solid film. The
bodied oils (those that characteristics of these
have been thickened by oleoresinous paints are
heat treating and blowing determined primarily by
air through them) dry the characteristics of the
more quickly, are tougher, drying oil, and to a lesser
and have better water, degree by the pigments
chemical, and after- incorporated into that oil.
yellowing resistance than Because these paints have
untreated, unbodied oil. a high
However, bodied oils do
not wet and penetrate as
well. Even if blown or
bodied, drying oils may
have their properties
enhanced considerably by
the addition of a synthetic
resin. When added to the
processed and treated
drying oil, synthetic resins
(e.g., alkyds, phenolics,
epoxy esters, or urethanes)
enhance the chemical and
moisture-resistant
properties of the drying
oil.

c. Animal oils,
principally menhaden fish
oil, have properties similar
to drying vegetable oils,
except they are somewhat
slow drying, become tacky
in humid weather, and
give off an unpleasant
odor in confined spaces.
Animal oils are not
recommended for interior
use, and they frequently
are combined with other
drying oils.

d. In a strict sense, oil

paints consist of a
pigment, a drying oil, and
an aliphatic solvent used
to thin the pigmented oil.
The oil is not modified
with any synthetic resins.
The coating initially dries
by solvent evaporation;
this is followed by auto-
oxidative crosslinking of
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oil content, drying times reach this advanced state obvious purpose of contribute significantly to
are slow with 2- to 3-day of oxidation. In thick pigmentation in a coating the viscosity and
recoat periods over the films an uneven hardening is to provide color and application characteristics
soft film. However, long will cause wrinkling; opacity, proper of the wet coating and,
oil paints were formulated therefore, through driers formulation of pigments ultimately, properties of
for use over poorly should be used in into a protective coating the dried, protective
prepared, rusted, and/or conjunction with surface does far more than that. coating.
mill scale surfaces; so for driers. Through driers are For corrosion-protective
these situations, long oil metallo-organic coatings, pigments a. Inhibitive pigments.
paints may be the best compounds of lead, function by providing A select few pigments
paints. cadmium, zinc, or inhibition or passivation provide active corrosion
zirconium. When used in of a metal surface, inhibition to metal
4 conjunction with surface preventing corrosion; substrates when
- driers, through driers help reinforce the paint film; formulated into a coating
5 cause auto-oxidative act as a barrier to provide composition. These
. crosslinking through the water impermeability to pigments are slightly
cross-section of the film. the dried paint film; and water soluble; and, when
D Driers may lose their with zinc-rich coatings, the paint film is exposed
r effectiveness with sacrifice galvanically to to and permeated by
i prolonged storage. This protect the underlying moisture, the water in the
e storage problem affects the steel substrate (refer to film cross- section
r primary surface driers Chapter 2). Certain partially dissolves
s (cobalt and manganese) pigment types enhance constituents of the pigment
and, to a lesser degree, heat, abrasion, acid, or and carries it to the
Driers are materials that secondary driers (calcium alkali resistance to underlying metal surface.
promote or accelerate the and zinc). The loss of coatings. Pigment particle The dissolved ion species
curing or hardening of dryer effectiveness is size and shape, ease of react with the metal
drying oil paints. Drying believed to result from the wettability by the binder, (commonly steel or
of oil-based paints by absorption and and bulking or aluminum) to form a
auto-oxidation is affected deactivation by certain properties relating to reaction product that
considerably by pigments, notably carbon specific density passivates the substrate
temperature and the black. If an oil-based paint and reduces the rate of
presence of certain is aged, it may be best to underfilm corrosion.
catalysts. Driers act as test its ability to dry by
a catalyst to aid in both applying some of it to a (1) Chromate.
surface and through drying nonabsorptive surface to Chromate-containing
of drying oil paints. see if it dries properly. pigments (e.g., zinc and
Driers are considered lead chromates) partially
metallo-organic materials 4 solubilize, liberating the
that can be classified as - chromate anion that, when
surface driers and through 6 carried by moisture to the
driers. The metal . underlying steel or
constituent is lead, cobalt, aluminum substrate, reacts
zinc, or manganese; the P to form a chromate film
organic radical of the i on the metal surface.
metallo-organic dryer is g This chromate film
usually a naphthenate m strongly passivates the
derived from naphthenic e metal surface and prevents
acid. Surface driers are n establishment of
compounds of cobalt and t electrochemical corrosion
manganese. The use of s cells by reducing electron
these materials will cause transfer. Additionally,
a surface of the drying oil Virtually, all protective this passivating film is
paint to rapidly set to a coatings used for corrosion slightly alkaline, which
near solid, but the protection contain further inhibits underfilm
underlying paint does not pigments. Although the
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corrosion. To a lesser the substrate. However,

degree, molybdate and some pigment types are
borate pigments also specifically formulated as
provide active underfilm barrier pigments, or
passivation, but not nearly alternately impart barrier
as well as the chromate- properties to the paint
containing pigments. film. Most notable of the
barrier pigments is flaked
(2) Lead and zinc. aluminum.
Lead and zinc also may
disassociate partially on
moisture permeation into a
paint; these elements also
provide inhibitive
protection, but in a
different fashion. When
pigmented into oil-based
coatings, lead and zinc
react with acidic
degradation products that
occur as a result of
oxidation and UV light
exposure. If these
complex organic acids
reach the underlying steel,
under-film corrosion may
be hastened. However,
the lead and zinc cations
react with the acids
complexing,
insolubilizing, and/or
neutralizing them. Lead
and chromate pigments
are considered hazardous
paint ingredients, and
many coating formulators
are restricting or
eliminating these materials
from their formulations.
Although substitute
pigments may be safer,
they may not offer the
inhibitive properties of the
pigments they replace.

b. Barrier pigments.
Barrier protection is
offered to a greater or
lesser degree by all
inorganic pigments
formulated into a coating.
Any permeating moisture
must migrate around the
pigment particle and, by
so doing, increase its
permeation path length to
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(1) Aluminum flake. oxide or carbonate both the rutile and anatase inorganic, frequently are
Aluminum flake, in the contamination, is the only forms is the most used in combination with
form of a leafing sacrificial pigment used in popular white pigment titanium dioxide to add
aluminum (coated with a paint manufacture. These because of its high color. Natural iron oxides
stearic or other fatty acid zinc dust pigments consist refractive index and range in color from a
to cause it to be displaced of particles that are of a excellent hiding power yellow to a bright brown
to the surface by the relatively large (1 to 3 ) (the ability to render a red, to a greenish brown,
coating binder) or diameter and are paint opaque). Rutile and a deep rich brown.
nonleafing flake essentially pure zinc. If titanium has the highest Synthetic iron oxides
(noncoated), is specifically the zinc pigment refractive index and the range in color from yellow
added to many types of particles are in contact best tinting strength of all and red to brown and
coatings, particularly oil- with both each other and other pigment types. black. Red chromate
based coatings and epoxy the underlying steel (Tinting strength is the pigments with sulfate, and
mastic coatings to enhance surface when incorporated ease by which color sometimes molybdate
UV light resistance and with a binder into a dry pigments can be mixed additions, range in color
reduce moisture paint film, galvanic with another pigment to from a light yellow to a
permeation. No other protection results. On the color the paint.) bright orange or scarlet
pigments can provide the galvanic series zinc is Other pigments, both red. Because of their
leafing properties that anodic to steel and organic and bright, clean color, lead
aluminum flake does. becomes the anode in a chromate pigments
Leafing aluminum zinc-steel galvanic couple. frequently are used in
pigments are widely used The zinc anode corrodes highway striping paints
in alkyd finish coats to and dissipates, and the and in safety color
provide a bright, shiny underlying steel cathode paints. Even though
appearance and for remains galvanically lead chromate is
resistance to atmospheric protected. This considered hazardous, the
weathering (UV) and phenomenon occurs for all pigments in these paints
moisture. zinc coatings, including will be difficult to replace
those deposited by hot dip because no other pigments
(2) Micaceous iron galvanizing and thermal have a similar light
oxide. Micaceous iron spraying. Thermally fastness and brightness.
oxide, commonly used in sprayed aluminum The purpose of organic
Europe and to a lesser coatings (both aluminum pigments is primarily to
degree in the United powder and wire) also are provide paint color.
States, has lamellar believed to have sacrificial Originally, organic
(platelike) particles. Any capability when applied to coloring pigments were
relatively large sized blast-cleaned steel. extracted as colorants
pigment particle, even if it However, this sacrificial from insects and
is not plate shaped, will capability may last for vegetables. Synthetic
increase the permeating only a short timewithin organic pigments now
path of moisture and result a few days after have been developed, but
in a barrier-type application until the few of these have
protection. Some aluminum oxidizes technical or commercial
recently manufactured sufficiently to insulate the importance in corrosion-
pigments consist of hollow aluminum from the steel. preventative coatings.
glass spheres that have Galvanic protection ceases Compared with inorganic
been developed to aid in after a sufficient thickness pigments, organic
VOC compliance and to of intact aluminum oxide pigments generally are
fill a coating and make it forms on the sprayed brighter colored, have less
more moisture aluminum coating. hiding, are more prone to
impermeable. bleed, have much poorer
d. Color pigments. A heat and light fast
c. Sacrificial number of inorganic resistance, and are
pigments. High purity pigments provide color to substantially higher in
zinc dust, with little zinc paint. Titanium dioxide in price. The most important
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30 Apr 95

class of organic color pigments reduces

pigments are called azo shrinkage stresses within
pigments and are the paint film, giving it
manufactured from strength, and extending
aromatic hydrocarbons, the pigment volume
which are available content at relatively low
from coal tar or cost. Extender pigments
petroleum distillates. include those based on
These pigments are carbonates, silicates,
characterized by the sulfates, barytes, and mica.
presence of a Each of these types of
chromophore consisting of pigments is somewhat
one or two azo groups (-N different, but they all are
= N-). relatively low cost
materials that can be
e. Hiding pigments. added in finely divided
Pigments with a high form to a paint to aid in
light refractive index its
provide the best hiding.
Rutile titanium dioxide,
followed by anatase
titanium oxide, zinc
sulfide, and zinc oxide
have relatively high
refractive indices.
Conversely, silica,
whiting, and barytes all
have relatively low
refractive indices and do
not provide good hiding
when formulated into
paints.

f. Extender pigments.
Certain types of pigments
do not provide inhibition
or have good barrier or
sacrificial characteristics.
They do not have a high
refractive index and do
not impart good color or
hiding to a paint film.
However, as reinforcing
pigments and flow control
pigments, they are
important in coating
formulation. As a class,
these pigments can be
called extender pigments
because they are relatively
inexpensive compared to
most other pigments; they
are used in conjunction
with more expensive
pigments to reduce costs.
The use of extender
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4-40

rheological properties
(viscosity and flow
control) and to reinforce
the dry film strength.
4-7. Solvents
a. In a true sense, a
solvent is defined as a
substance, usually a liquid,
that will dissolve and
change a solid to a liquid
state. In the coating
industry, solvents are
considered any volatile
liquid formulated into a
paint, even though it may
not have solvency power.
Some liquids are diluents
and, even though the
diluent may not have
solvency power, it may
enhance the solvency of
other solvents in the paint.
Water is the universal
solvent, except for its use
as a dispersant in emulsion
coatings, but it is not used
as a paint solvent in
durable coatings. Water-
soluble resins are
susceptible to softening
and swelling by water;
therefore, coatings made
from them will not be
addressed in this manual.
However, water-soluble
resins should not be
confused with water-
emulsified resins, which
were discussed earlier in
this chapter. Organic
solvents impart low water
sensitivity and are the
solvents of choice when
dissolving solid resins.
b. The purpose of any
solvent is to dissolve solid
paint constituents, reduce
viscosity, and render the
paint fluid enough that it
can be satisfactorily
applied. The solvent is
undesirable after
application and must
evaporate from the drying
coating film. In addition
to enabling application of
the coating material,
solvents must be able to
wet the substrate being
coated and penetrate into
and help the coating seal
any crevices, voids, or
depressed irregularities.
Also, the solvent must
volatilize fast enough to
prevent runs and sags in
the drying coating film.
However, a solvent that is
too volatile can cause
solvent pops, loss of gloss,
dry spray, poor surface
wetting and penetration,
and poor film flow and
inhibit cure. Virtually all
coating formulations use a
blend of solvents to
achieve optimum
properties. Some solvents
within the blend will
evaporate fast, enabling
the drying paint to set
quickly. Other solvents
may dry slower and
provide wettability and
penetrability. Ultimately,
all solvents should
evaporate to allow the
coating to achieve
hardness, cure, and final
properties. Solvents can
be categorized according
to their chemical
composition. The most
commonly used
categorization subdivides
solvents into classes called
turpentines, hydrocarbons,
ketones, esters, alcohols,
and glycol ethers.
c. Turpentines.
Turpentine solvents are
actually hydrocarbon
solvents; they are
categorized separately
because they are derived
from southern pine trees
as opposed to solvents
fractionated from
petroleum and coal tar
refining. Turpentine is
used infrequently today in
manufacturing corrosion-
protective coatings,
although it is widely sold
in retail paint stores for
field thinning of oil-
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
based house paints and
varnishes. Gum-spirits
turpentine is distilled from
crude gum rosin obtained
by tapping southern pine
trees. Wood turpentine
has a somewhat different
composition from gum
turpentine and is obtained
by distillation of the crude
rosin extracted from the
ground wood from
southern pine stumps.
Sulfate turpentine is
obtained as a by-product
of the Kraft paper industry.
Turpentine has good
solvent power for most oil
and oleoresinous binders,
but its use is limited in
modern paint technology
because of its relatively
high price and slow
evaporation rate. Other
turpentine-like solvents,
such as dipentene and pine
oil, also are obtained from
southern pine trees and
have specialized uses.
d. Hydrocarbon
solvents. Hydrocarbon
solvents are obtained from
both petroleum and coal
tar sources. Petroleum
hydrocarbon solvents are
the lighter (more volatile)
fractions from the
distillation of crude oil.
Coal tar hydrocarbons are
distillation products from
coke oven by- products.
Hydrocarbon solvents may
be classified as aliphatic
or aromatic.
(1) Aliphatic
hydrocarbons. Aliphatic
hydrocarbons are straight
or cyclical carbon-
hydrogen containing
liquids that are nonpolar in
character and exemplified
by mineral spirits,
varnish makers and
4-41
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

painters (VMP) naphtha, are good solvents for oils,

and other materials such oleoresinous binders,
as hexane and heptane. alkyds, bitumens (asphalts
For the most part, these and coal tars), and some
solvents have poor to synthetic resins. Aromatic
moderate solvency for all solvents can be blended
but oil-modified coatings. with more powerful
Their solvency can be solvents to enhance their
increased by blending power of solvency.
them with various
amounts of other, more
powerful solvents such as
aromatic hydrocarbons or
ketones. Aliphatic
hydrocarbons are
generally the least
expensive of all solvents
and can be obtained in a
wide range of evaporating
rates. Aliphatic solvents
are considered the least
toxic of any of the solvent
classes, althoughas with
any other solventgloves,
respirators, and protective
clothing should be used by
individuals applying paints
containing these solvents.
Naphthenic hydrocarbons
are aliphatic hydrocarbon
solvents, but with a
cyclical ring molecular
structure. The naphthenic
solvents are midway
between the aliphatic and
aromatic solvents in
solvency power.
Naphthenic solvents are
used in alkyd and epoxy
ester coatings and
asphaltic and coal tar-
containing coatings.

(2) Aromatic
hydrocarbons. Aromatic
hydrocarbon solvents
contain a benzene ring
structure. The most
common solvents of this
type are toluene (toluol),
xylene (xylol), and high-
flash naphtha. Aromatic
hydrocarbon solvents have
a greater solvent power
than aliphatic hydrocarbon
solvents. They generally
4-42
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4-43
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
e. Ketone solvents.
Ketones such as acetone,
methyl ethyl ketone,
methyl isobutyl ketone,
and diacetone alcohol
have varying evaporation
rates and relatively strong
solubility parameters.
These solvents exhibit
strong hydrogen bonding
and high polarity. When
retained in a paint film,
they may attract and draw
moisture into the coating.
As with all other solvent
classes, each of the
ketone solvents has a
different evaporation rate;
care should be taken when
using ketone solvents with
slow evaporative rates to
minimize solvent
entrapment within the
coating. As a class,
ketones are polar materials
characterized by
exceptionally strong
solvency for many resins
used in protective
coatings. They are used
extensively as solvents for
vinyls, urethanes, epoxies,
and acrylics. Ketones
usually are more
expensive than ester-type
solvents, but they are
cost effective because the
use of ketones allows for
greater use of inexpensive
aromatic diluents. As
with all solvent families,
solvency decreases as
molecular weight and
branching increase.
f. Ester solvents.
Ester solvents contain the
acetate functionality (-C-
O-R). Ethyl acetate,
isobutyl acetate, ethylene
glycol, and monoethyl
ether acetate are examples
of ester solvents. They
have solvency power
between the aromatic
4-44
hydrocarbons and ketones,
but they have a high
hydrogen bonding index
and a relatively high
polarity. Care should be
taken to avoid solvent
entrapment when using
ester solvents. Ester
solvents are strongly
polar and are used as
solvents for similarly polar
resin film formers. The
esters are characterized by
a sweet, pleasant, strongly
fruity odor. Ester
solvents are used in
cellulosic lacquers,
urethanes, vinyl, epoxy,
and acrylic coatings.
Slow- volatilizing ester
solvents are used as tail
solvents in waterborne
acrylic emulsions to aid
coalescence and as tails in
solvent-borne coatings to
maintain solvency and
reduce resin precipitation.
Tail solvents are designed
to be the last solvents to
evaporate from a coating.
g. Alcohols. Alcohols
are water miscible, and
care should be taken when
using them so water is not
introduced into the
coating. Alcohols are
highly polar with a strong
affinity for the water
molecule. They are used
to dissolve polar materials;
and, when formulated into
a coating, care should be
taken to ensure that all
alcohol will volatilize.
Water miscibility and
hydroscopisity are
reduced as the alkyl
group increases, and few
alcohols above butanol
(CyHgOH) have high
miscibility with water. An
exception is tertiary
butanol, whichbecause
of the compactness of the
alkyl structureretains
complete water miscibility.
The three most important
alcohols are ethanol
(denatured), isopropanol,
and n-butanol. Methanol
is toxic and is used only as
a polar additive in paint
removers because its low
molecular weight serves it
well as a penetrant.
Alcohols are used as
solvents for resins such as
polyvinyl acetate, some
phenolics, vinyl butyral
wash primers, most
epoxies, and inorganic
zinc-rich coatings based
on ethyl silicate vehicles.
Because of reactivity of
the alcohol hydroxyl
group, alcohol solvents
cannot be used as solvents
in polyurethane coatings.
Alcohol is a solvent
common to many epoxies.
Chlorinated solvents such
as 1,1,1, trichloroethane,
chloroforms,
dichloroethane and
dichloroethylene, and
methylene chloride,
although used infrequently
in paints, are good paint
strippers, especially for
epoxies and polyurethanes.
Chlorinated solvents are
nonflammable and VOC
compliant because they
generally are
nonphotochemically
reactive. However, they
are toxic to humans and
are environmental
contaminants. These
solvents should not be
stored in, or used with,
aluminum containers or
equipment.
h. Glycol ether
solvents. Glycol ether
solvents, such as ethylene
glycol monoethyl ether
and ethylene glycol
monobutyl ether, are a
specific subcategory of the
ester solvents. The most
important solvent of this
type has been ethylene
glycol monoethyl ether
(Cellosolve1) acetate.
However, because of
toxologic considerations,
this solvent largely has
been replaced by
propylene glycol
monomethyl ether acetate,
which appears to be less
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

toxic. Glycol ethers are us

tail solvents for epoxies, A
vinyls, and urethanes. dd
Glycol ether solvents are iti
water-miscible and will ve
attract moisture in buried s
or immersion conditions;
therefore, care must be A number of
taken to ensure they miscellaneous compounds
completely volatilize from are added by the paint
coatings to be used in formulator to paints for
immersion or below grade specialized purposes.
service. Anhydrous These include antiskinning
solvent grades are agents, fungicides,
necessary if glycol ethers thixotropes, UV light
are used in urethane absorbers, plasticizers,
formulations. Glycol flow agents, and emulsion
ethers are particularly aids.
good solvents for epoxy
resins.
1
i. Solvent safety.
Safety should be a
U
consideration at all times n
when using solvents i
because all solvents are o
n
combustible and some are
highly flammable.
C
Solvents with lower a
molecular weight or faster r
evaporating rates usually b
i
are more flammable. Fast d
volatilizing, flammable e
solvents can lead to ,
explosions, especially
within confined spaces. I
n
All solvents are d
heavier than air and i
tend to flow downward; a
n
so, unless adequate a
ventilation and air p
movement are used, o
solvent vapors will collect l
i
and concentrate in low- s
lying spaces. Safety ,
considerations are
discussed in detail in I
n
Chapter 10. d
i
4- a
8. n
a
Mi .
sc
ell
an
eo
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4-46
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

a. Antiskinning carbamates, fibrated minerals, calcium thickener based on

agents. Skinning benzothiazoles, sulphonate derivatives, ethoxylated polyether-
sometimes occurs on alkylisothiazolinone, and others. Each of these based urethane block
storage of coatings chlorinated classes has specific copolymers. The nonionic
containing drying oils. isophthalonitriles, and advantages and thickeners give the most
The surface of a paint chlorinated adamantane disadvantages with each of improved flow and
dries and forms a skin on complexes. However, the the binder systems in leveling characteristics to
the paint surface in the new materials have not which they are water emulsion coatings,
can. When used attained the effectiveness incorporated. Similarly, providing better gloss and
excessively, driers have a of the older materials. thixotropes are important semigloss paints. In
tendency to aggravate Fungicides function in the for waterborne systems to roller applications, the
skinning. To avoid can to kill organisms that provide the same nonionic thickeners result
skinning, antioxidants might upset paint stability, properties. The more in a significantly reduced
such as certain phenols which is particularly common waterborne roller spatter. Thixotropes
and oximes can be added. important in latex system thixotropes are prevent hard settling of
The oximes, characterized emulsion paints that can nonionic cellulosic many heavy pigments,
by the reactive group (- become rancid if thickeners, polyacrylic such as zinc. Most
C=N-OH) are by far the microbiological growth is acids and salts, anionic thixotropes deteriorate on
most commonly used not stopped. polycarboxylic acid-based aging, which causes
antiskinning agents. thixotropes, and, more variations in viscosity of
Skinning is the result of c. Thixotropes. recently, a nonionic the paint in the can.
the drier functioning Rheological coating associative Some paints have
properly, and it usually is properties such as film increased viscosity; others
not a problem in unopened build, sag control, flow may suffer a viscosity
or full cans. Antiskinning and leveling, and pigment decrease.
agents are volatile and settling properties can be
accordingly, when using adjusted through the use of d. Flow agents. The
some of the paint in a thixotropic additives. addition of flow agents
can, close it tightly after Thixotropes can enable a enhances the freshly
use. rapid increase in the applied paint film's ability
viscosity of a liquid to flow out after
b. Fungicides. coating material and allow application, eliminating
Fungicides or mildew it to build thicknesses over brush marks, roller
inhibitors are added to edges and plane surfaces patterns, orange peel from
paints to prevent mold and to resist sag. spraying, and other film
growth. Mildew feeds on However, when mixing irregularities and defects.
some components of a and applying the coating, The flow rate of paint is
paint film, particularly shear stresses can affected by the rate of
oleoresinous vehicles, break down the solvent release and solvent
most latex paints, and coating thixotropy rapidly, system evaporation.
some polyamide epoxies enabling it to be applied as Surface tension and the
that offer a source of if it were low in viscosity. coatings viscosity, which
food. Mildew spores are Thixotropy recovers after vary as a function of
omnipresent in air, will application, and film build temperature, also affect
deposit on the paint, and, and antisag resistance the rate of flow or leveling
under the right conditions, again occur. There are of the applied paint film.
will begin to grow. In the a number of thixotropes Depending on the type of
past, compounds based on that can be added to flow problem encountered,
phenyl mercuric and solvent-borne coating the generic type of
tributyl tin compounds systems, including castor coating, and the coating
were used as fungicides; oil derivatives, high formulation, different flow
but, because of their high molecular weight and leveling agents are
toxicity, they have been polyolefins, added in small amounts
replaced by complex montmorillonite and other (usually less than one
organics such as clays, fumed silicas, percent) to eliminate or
4-47
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

minimize problems. Most depending on cost,

flow agents function by solution, pH, and specific
increasing the viscous emulsion requirements.
force in the coating, Emulsion chemistry is
overcoming the paint's complex and, unlike
tendency to flow. formulating solvent-based
Surfactants also help to paints, often requires
overcome leveling considerable trial and
problems by reducing error.
surface tension.
f. UV absorbers. UV
e. Emulsion aids. light, particularly in the
Emulsion aids are used in actinic region of 280 to
waterborne paints and 315 nm, can degrade
often are called exterior paint films.
surfactants. Proper use of Incident UV light is
surfactants enable a absorbed by the paint,
waterborne emulsion to raising the paint
remain in suspension and
keep it from settling and
packing at the bottom of a
can during prolonged
storage. All surfactants
have a hydrophilic (water-
loving) group and a
hydrophobic (water-
hating) group, which is
water repelling. The
hydrophobic group is
usually in the form of a
long hydrocarbon tail
terminating in a simple
long polar alkyl group.
The hydrophilic group is
usually a charged species
such as an ammonia ion, a
polar organic group
(carboxylic acid),
hydroxyl, sulfate, etc.
The surfactant molecules
containing both the
hydrophobic and
hydrophilic ends orient
themselves around the
emulsion particles to
effectively separate them
and keep them apart.
However, prolonged
storage at elevated
temperatures, or freezing
the emulsion, may
destabilize it and cause
separation and possible de-
emulsification. A number
of different types of
surfactants can be used,
4-48
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30 Apr 95

4-49
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
to a higher energy state.
This causes bond cleavage
and release of free
radicals, which leads to
depolymerization, chain
scission, or, in some
instances, crosslinking and
embrittlement. This
surface effect ultimately
results in degradation of
the coating at either the
surface (as is generally
true with epoxies that
readily chalk) or the
coating interior, if the
coating is partially
transparent to UV light
energy. To prevent this,
UV absorbers are added to
the formulation at the rate
of approximately 1 to 3
percent, by weight,
depending on the type of
coating, the degree of
pigmentation, and the type
of surface. Zinc oxide is
an effective UV absorber,
but it sometimes leads to
embrittlement of oil-based
coatings and may not be
appropriate for other
generic types of coatings.
Most UV light absorbers
are complex substituted
aromatic compounds that
absorb UV radiation
strongly without being
degraded. Hydroxy
substituted benzophenones
and benzotriazoles are
used most commonly.
g. Plasticizers.
Plasticization is a process
of increasing the flexibility
and adhesion of an organic
coating film and
decreasing its brittleness,
cohesiveness, and glass
transition temperature (the
temperature at which a
polymer changes from a
flexible, rubber-like
material to one that is hard
and brittle).
4-50
Plasticization can be
achieved by chemically
modifying the resin
polymer or by adding
compounds to the coating
formulation. Chemical
modification of the
compound can be done by
reducing crosslinking or
by formulating resin
molecules with bulky side
chains to prevent parallel
orientation and
crystallinity. Alternately,
external plasticizers (such
as monomeric phthalates,
phosphates, adipates, and
septacates), chlorinated
paraffin, or biphenyls can
be added to a resin system
to soften it and lower the
glass transition
temperature. The
plasticizing materials
generally are relatively
low molecular weight,
slow-evaporating materials
that, when mixed with a
resin, soften it by
preventing crystalline
orientation and terminating
crosslinking sites. The
type of plasticizing agent
used depends principally
on the generic type and
molecular weight of the
resin system used in the
coatings formulation. In
time in some applications
or service conditions (such
as high
temperature/humidity),
low molecular weight
plasticizers may migrate to
the surface of the coating;
and the surface may
become sticky and attract
and hold dirt. More
importantly, the coating
often embrittles, becomes
less flexible, or shows
surface or through-
cracking.
4 water; others are not. The
- butyl, or urethane. After
9 the coating is applied to a
. thoroughly cleaned steel
substrate, the binder holds
Z the metallic zinc particles
i together and in contact
n with the steel. Thus, metal-
c to-metal contact of the two
- dissimilar metals is made
R and results in a galvanic
i cell. Zinc becomes the
c
anode in this cell and
h
sacrifices itself to protect
the underlying steel
C cathode. Properly
o
applied zinc-rich coatings,
a
zinc galvanized coatings,
t
and thermally sprayed zinc
i
n eliminate pitting and
g under-film corrosion
s even at voids, pinholes,
scratches, and abrasions in
Zinc-rich coatings, or zinc- the coating system. This
rich primers, are unique in cannot be said of any
that they provide galvanic other type of coating, and
protection to a steel this protective capability
substrate. As rich in the makes zinc-rich coatings
name implies, the binder unique and widely used
contains a large amount of (refer to Chapter 2).
metallic zinc dust pigment.
The binder can be an a. Inorganic zinc-rich
inorganic zinc silicate or binders. All inorganic
an organic resin such as an zinc-rich coatings require
epoxy, an extremely clean surface
(SSPC-SP 10 or SP 5), or
application over a clean,
pickled surface. Because
of their inorganic nature,
inorganic zinc-rich
coatings are highly
resistant to scuffing,
scraping, and mechanical
damage. They have
good dry heat resistance to
temperatures as high as
399 C (750 F) and good
resistance to immersion in
oil, petroleum distillate
products, solvents, fresh
water, and many other
neutral pH aqueous
solutions. Some
formulations are suitable
for immersion in salt
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

high conductivity of salt welding can be done

water enhances corrosion without removal of the
of both the zinc and zinc preconstruction zinc-rich
pigment particles within primer. Topcoating
the coating and the inorganic zinc-rich
underlying steel. coatings may be more
Therefore, the protective difficult than with any
life of zinc-rich coating in other coating because of
saltwater immersion may the inherent porosity of
not be as long as that in the zinc primer. The
freshwater immersion. In binder partially wets and
atmospheric adheres the zinc- dust
environments, inorganic particles together and to
zinc-rich coatings provide the underlying substrate,
long-term corrosion but it does not fully
protection in damp, humid encapsulate or seal the
environments and where surface. Therefore,
chemical attack does not
occur. Inorganic zinc-rich
coatings can be applied to
steel at thicknesses of
from 0.05 to 0.09 mm (2
to 3.5 mils) to provide
atmospheric and
immersion corrosion
protection and left without
a topcoat for long periods
of time. Salt
contamination may be a
problem in marine
environments; and
research and panel testing
done by NASA have
established that zinc-rich
primers, particularly
inorganic zinc-rich
primers, protect longer
without topcoats than the
same primers with an
organic topcoat.
However, other studies for
chemical and weathering
environments have
established that topcoating
with an organic topcoat
may increase coating
system longevity. Both
inorganic and organic
zinc-rich coatings can be
specially formulated as
preconstruction primers.
This type of primer is
applied to ships,
subassemblies, and other
prefabricated steel. When
the steel is fabricated,
4-51
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30 Apr 95

4-52

topcoats applied over the
porous surface may
displace entrapped air
causing pinholes, bubbles,
or voids within the topcoat
cross-section. This
problem is not nearly as
prevalent when using
organic zinc-rich coatings
because the organic
binder more thoroughly
wets, encapsulates, and
seals the porosity of the
highly zinc-dust-loaded
dry film. Inorganic zinc-
rich coatings may be one
of three major groups:
post-cured water-based
alkali metal silicates, self-
cured water-based alkali
metal silicates, and self-
cured solvent-based alkyl
silicates.
(1) Post-cured, water-
based alkali metal
silicates. Post- cured,
water-based inorganic
silicates come as a three-
package system: zinc
dust, silicate binder, and
curing solution all
packaged separately. The
binder is an inorganic
alkali metal silicate,
usually of the sodium,
potassium, or lithium
family. Zinc powder is
slowly mixed into the
alkali metal silicate binder,
and the resulting solution
is spray applied with an
agitated spray pot to keep
the zinc-dust pigment in
proper suspension. After
water evaporation and
hardening of the zinc
silicate coating, a acid, which in time is
phosphoric-acid- based
curing solution is sprayed
or brushed over the
surface to neutralize the
alkali metal binder. The
neutralization reaction and
subsequent interactions
with zinc and iron ions
further neutralize the
silicate alkalinity and
insolubilize the film. The
coating becomes insoluble
to water and resistant to
weathering exposure.
Post-cured, inorganic zinc-
rich- coatings are believed
to be the best performing
of the inorganic zinc-rich
coating materials because
of their relatively
complete, insolubilized,
hard cure attained after
application of the curing
solution.
(2) Self-cured, water-
based alkali silicates.
The most common of
these silicate binders is
based on potassium and
lithium silicates, or
combinations. Lithium
hydroxide- colloidal silica
and quaternary ammonium
silicate binders also can
be used. The alkali
silicate binder is
partially dehydrolized so
its high alkalinity is
considerably reduced in
comparison with post-
cured, inorganic silicate
vehicles. Therefore, after
application, initial water
evaporation, and
insolubilization, sufficient
neutralization and cure are
attained by further
reaction with atmospheric
moisture and carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide
in the presence of
atmospheric moisture
forms a weak carbonic
sufficient to neutralize the
alkalinity of the silicate
binder. If a more rapid
insolubilization or cure is
desired, heat or an acidic
curing solution can be
applied. When final
curing is attained, most
water-based, zinc-rich
coatings whether post-
or self-curedexperience
a color change, usually
from a reddish or light
gray to a darker blue-
gray.
(3) Self-cured, solvent-
based alkyl silicates. The
binders for these silicate
coatings consist essentially
of partially hydrolyzed
alkyl silicates of the series
methyl through hexyl or
glycol ether silicates. Of
these, the ethyl silicate
type is
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
the most prevalent. After
application and initial
solvent drying, the coating
system hardens; but to
cure, hydrolysis with
moisture from humidity in
the air is required. The
hydrolysis of the silicate
binder liberates ethyl
alcohol (or an alkyl
alcohol if other alkyl
silicates are used). The
alcohol volatilizes, makes
the hydrolysis reaction
irreversible, and hardens
and cures the binder. If
the silicate binder is
applied indoors or in an
arid exterior environment,
water may be sprayed
onto the surface with a
spray gun or a garden
hose with a fine
atomization. Two or
three applications may be
required over a 2- or 3-day
period to obtain optimum
curing of the binder. All
inorganic zinc- rich
coatings can attain VOC
compliance because of
their high solids content,
but the water-based post-
and self-curing alkali
silicates have virtually no
VOC release.
b. Organic zinc-rich
binders. Organic zinc-
rich coatings most
commonly are formulated
from epoxy polyamide,
urethane, vinyl, and
chlorinated rubber binders.
Alkyds have been used for
some air-dry formulations,
but they most commonly
are used with baking
formulations, notably in
the automotive industry.
Drying, hardening, and
ultimate curing of the
organic zinc-rich
coating is determined by
the type of binder used.
4-53
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

The hardening and curing have a less porous surface

mechanisms of the various and are more similar to
organic binders have been conventional organic
described previously coatings than the
(paragraphs 4-2 and 4-3) inorganic, zinc-rich
and are the same for coatings.
organic zinc-rich coatings.
The major difference is (1) Organic zinc-rich
that, with organic zinc-rich coatings frequently are
coatings, the pigment is used to touch up and
zinc dust in high repair inorganic zinc-rich
concentrations to attain a coatings because the
dry film pigment volume wettability of the organic
of 75 percent or greater. binder provides better
This high zinc loading adhesion to
enables the organic zinc-
rich coatings to provide
galvanic sacrificial
protection. The zinc-dust
particles within the coating
system must be in
electrical contact with the
thoroughly cleaned,
underlying steel surface,
and the zinc- dust pigment
particles must touch each
other for galvanic
protection. Usually when
formulated into organic
vehicles, the binder more
thoroughly encapsulates
the zinc and reduces the
sacrificial capability of the
applied film. However,
this encapsulation does not
prevent galvanic
protection by organic zinc-
rich primers. In fact, the
encapsulation of the
organic binder makes
organic zinc-rich coatings
more tolerant of deficient
surface preparation
because the binder more
readily wets and seals the
prepared surfaces where
residues of rust or old
paint may remain. Also,
topcoating with the same
generic type of topcoat
(e.g., a polyamide epoxy
zinc-rich topcoated with a
polyamide epoxy topcoat)
is more easily
accomplished because
organic zinc-rich coatings
4-54
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

4-55
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
the inorganic surface than
another coat of inorganic
zinc- rich coating.
Organic zinc-rich primers
generally are considered
to be easier to apply by
spray than inorganic zinc-
rich coatings, and they are
somewhat more tolerant of
poor surface preparation
because of the wettability
and penetrability of the
organic binder. Organic
zinc-rich coatings have
less of a tendency for mud
cracking at excessive
thicknesses (over 0.13 mm
[5 mils]) and are easier to
topcoat than inorganic
zinc-rich coatings;
however, they do not have
the heat and abrasion
resistance of the inorganic
zinc-rich coatings. Organic
zinc-rich coatings do not
provide the same long-
term corrosion protection
to steel as most inorganic
zinc-rich coatings.
(2) The VOC
characteristics of organic
zinc-rich coatings are
similar to those of the
nonzinc-dust-pigmented
binders. Organic zinc-rich
coatings are highly
pigmented, but this does
not substantially reduce
VOC because the pigment
has a high specific gravity
and is dense relative to its
volume. Generally there is
less organic binder per
gallon of organic zinc-rich
paint, and VOC emissions
are slightly less than for
nonzinc-rich-pigmented
coating systems using the
same binder.
(3) Properly applied
zinc-rich coatings, zinc
galvanized coatings, and
thermally sprayed zinc
4-56
eliminate pitting and top of the list. The air been of considerable
under-film corrosion even quality legislation was an concern to many coating
at voids, pinholes, attempt to reduce levels of manufacturers whose
scratches, and abrasions in ozone and other air products are sold
the coating system. This pollutants. Rules limiting nationally. A particular
cannot be said of any other the amount of VOCs in coating material may
type of coating, and this paint have been comply with the laws of
protective capability established since then, but one state but not with
makes zinc coatings they vary from state to those of another state.
unique and widely used. state and even regionally Even within a given
The binders of zinc- rich within a given state. Such state, the coating may be
coatings can be organic or variability in laws legal in most areas but
inorganic. regarding VOC emissions illegal in certain cities or
has regions. For years the
4-10. coatings industry has
Volatile pushed for national VOC
Organi legislation that will
c supersede and pre- empt
Compo local legislation regarding
unds VOC emissions.
However, national VOC
VOCs are in most legislation has not been
protective coatings. enacted, and permissible
Common paint solvents VOC emissions vary
such as aromatic widely, depending on the
hydrocarbons, aliphatic generic type of coating
hydrocarbons, ketones, and the location where it is
acetates, and alcohols are applied. VOC compliant
photochemically reactive. coatings are formulated
On evaporation into the principally by increasing
atmosphere, these paint the percent volume of
solvents react with nitrous solids, chiefly by
oxides (combustion minimizing solvent
compounds from content, use of relatively
automotive emissions and high volume low density
burning of fuels) and pigments, and the use of
sunlight to form ozone and lesser amounts of stronger
air pollutants. In the solvents. Additionally, the
1960s, air pollution alkyd resin is combined
problems usually were with other synthetic resins
handled by state and local (such as epoxies, phenols,
agencies. There was no and urethanes) and results
national goal to address in a more reactive higher
air pollution. In the solids coating system.
1970s, Congress passed Straight alkyd systems
the Clean Air Act and currently are formulated
established the U.S. with VOCs of 350 g/L (2.9
Environmental Protection lb/gal) or higher. Future
Agency (USEPA). The formulations probably will
Clean Air Act gave require a VOC as low as
USEPA the responsibility 250 g/L (2.1 lb/gal).
of identifying the most Chapter 11 discusses VOC
serious air pollutants and regulations in detail.
setting national air
qualities standards for 4
each. Ozone was at the
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

- at the same time as the

1 base powder. After
1 application, crosslinking
. occurs on melting.
Epoxy powder coatings
P are by far the most
o popular, although
w polyester, polyurethane,
d acrylic, and other resin
e types can be used.
r
a. Powder coatings do
C not readily give
o satisfactory films at
a thicknesses below
t approximately 0.05 mm (2
i mils); they require special
n application and heating
g
equipment. Powder
coatings form good-
Powder coatings are made
looking, thick, tough
by mixing resins,
coatings that contain no
pigments, and additives
solvent. Because they are
together and heating them
VOC compliant, they
to form a melt. The melt
comprise a technology that
is extruded, cooled, and
is of considerable interest
broken up by milling to
in the protective coatings
produce a powder with a
area. Currently,
particle size distribution of
powders are used mostly
approximately 10 to 100
in the coating of
m. The article to be
relatively small items that
coated usually is
can be
preheated to 204 to 260
C (400 to 500 F),
depending on the powder
to be applied. The
pigmented powder is
applied, either by
immersing the article in a
fluidized bed of the
powder (which is kept
mobile by the passage of
air through it) or by
electrostatic spray guns.
After application, the
article being coated is
heated to the melting point
of the powder so the
powder flows together.
The powder can be
thermoplastic or
thermosetting. With
thermoset powders,
crosslinking agents also
are made into a powder,
and this powder is applied
4-57
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

4-58

easily heated to the
melting point of the
powder being applied.
Fusion-bonded powder
coatings are applied to
preheated pipe surfaces
with or without primers.
The coating usually is
applied 0.30 to 0.63 mm
(12 to 25 mils) thick for
aboveground pipe
installations to eliminate
chalking and to maximize
surface life; topcoating
frequently is done with a
urethane coating system.
b. Thermally
sprayed organic
powders have been
applied to structural steel
and other large metal
objects. The process is
expensive and adhesion
sometimes is a problem
because the large item
being coated does not
attain a uniformly high
substrate temperature
when heated; and the
applied powder, even
though in a liquid melt, and nonmetallic polymers
does not have good
surface wetting properties.
Current furnaces or
heating ovens are large
enough to handle concrete
reinforcing rods, small- to
medium-diameter pipe,
small structural steel
pieces, and sheet piling.
c. Although of
considerable interest to the
protective coating
industry, powder coating
has not been used
commercially to protect
large steel surfaces or
heavy, massive structural
steel shapes.
4 CWGS 05036.
- conclusion of thermal
1 b.
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
2 most widely used metals aluminum also is
. for thermal spray, suitable. Aluminum is
corrosion-resistant preferable for aqueous
T coatings. These metals solutions above 60 C
h provide excellent (140 F).
e protection in a variety of
r marine and industrial c. Organic sealers or
m environments. After spray topcoats commonly are
a application, zinc is anodic used over the thermally
l to an underlying steel sprayed metal to extend
surface. Because of its the life of the system and
S aluminum oxide coating, provide color for
p aluminum exhibits decorative purposes.
r galvanic protection for Common sealers include
a only a short period of many of the synthetic resin
y time. Afterward, the coating systems, especially
oxidized aluminum vinyls, epoxies,
a. Thermal spray coating functions polyurethanes, and
coatings consist of a principally as a barrier phenolics. Sealers are
process by which an coat. In general, essential for most
organic powder or metal aluminum corrodes less immersion or severe
wire is melted and spray- rapidly than zinc in highly chemical corrosion
deposited onto a surface. acidic conditions, but zinc applications. Most sealers
In the past, metallizing performs better in alkaline are applied in at least two
was the term used to environments. Zinc coats, the first thinned for
describe wire flame frequently is the preferred penetration into the
spraying. However, metal for protection of porosity of the thermally
because of dramatic steel in fresh cold waters, deposited metal coating.
improvements in although The second and sometimes
equipment used to heat third coat of a sealer are
and spray the molten metal applied unthinned as build
coats.
onto a surface, the
term thermal spraying d. Because there are
is more descriptive. no solvents or volatile
Thermal spraying is a material in any metallic
process by which a thermal spray system,
finely divided molten VOC compliance is not a
metallic or nonmetallic problem. However, VOC
material is sprayed onto a compliance may depend
prepared substrate to on the organic sealer
form a coating. The coating used.
sprayed material is
originally in the form of a e. An advantage of the
wire or powder. The thermal spray system is
thermal spray-gun heats that essentially no startup
the wire or powder to a or cleanup procedures are
molten or plastic state, and involved. The wire or
compressed air or gases powder feed stock is fed to
propel it to the surface the spray gun, the heat
being coated and deposit source is ignited, and
it into a film. Refer to spraying of the molten
feed stock begins. On
Zinc, aluminum, spraying, the device is
and their alloys are the
4-59
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

shut off, and the process bond strengths, higher

stops, with virtually no porosity, a narrow working
equipment cleanup temperature range, and a
required. higher heat transmittance
to the substrate than
f. Blast cleaning plasma or electric arc
surface preparation to a spray coatings.
clean white metal,
preferably with an anchor
profile exceeding 0.08 mm
(3 mils) is required for any
thermal spray coating.
Thermal spray metal (and
plastic) coatings have little
wetting ability at the time
of application so cannot
penetrate, seal, or
encapsulate any
contaminates on the
surface to be coated. On
cooling after application,
the metal particles undergo
a thermal contraction that
applies a shrinkage stress
to the metallic film. A
minimum anchor pattern
of 0.08 mm (3 mils), and
preferably 0.10 to 0.13
mm (4 to 5 mils), is
required to withstand the
shrinkage stresses and to
dissipate these stresses
over a greater interfacial
area between the applied
metallic film and the
underlying steel substrate.

g. The common
methods of
thermospray are:

(1) Wire flame

spraying. Acetylene or
other common fuel gases
are combined with
oxygen and ignited in
the spray gun. A wire
usually zinc, aluminum, or
zinc- aluminum alloys but
sometimes nickel, stainless
steel, or another metalis
fed through the flame, is
melted, and is deposited
on the surface. Wire
flame sprayed coatings
generally exhibit lower
4-60
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

4-61
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
(2) Powder flame the melted metal is
spraying. A common fuel removed from the wires
gas is used with a metal or and propelled to the
plastic powder. The surface. Because of the
powder is stored in a high temperatures in the
hopper mounted on top of arc zone, the coatings have
a spray gun, and a small excellent adhesion and
amount of oxygen is high cohesive strength.
diverted from the gas Super heating of the
supply to carry the powder particles after impact may
by aspiration into the lead to a metallurgical
oxygen-fuel gas flame. weld bond with some
The melted powder is metals, substantially
carried by the flame to the increasing adhesion and
object being coated. An cohesive strength.
air/propane mixture is
used for polymer powders. (4) Plasma spraying.
The object to be coated Plasma is a hot gas
must be preheated to at issuing from the spray
least 79 C (175 F) prior gun; it resembles a bright
to the spray application of flame and is created by
the polymer powder. passing inert gas through
Because of the lower an electric arc within the
particle velocities gun. The arc heats the gas
obtained, the coatings to temperatures well above
generally have a lower the melting point of any
bond strength, a higher known substance.
porosity, and a lower Powder feed stock is
overall cohesive strength introduced into and melted
than the coatings produced by the plasma stream that
by any of the other also carries the molten
thermal spray methods. metal to the work piece.
The bond strength and The plasma system
other film properties can produces excellent quality
be improved coatings, but the
considerably by equipment is complex,
preheating the substrate expensive, and difficult to
to operate. Plasma spraying
49 C (120 F) or more is used when coatings
prior to application of the are needed to provide the
powder. utmost in corrosion
protection against
(3) Electric arc chemical or high
spraying. The spray gun temperature corrosion, and
used in electric arc when the work can be
spraying uses two feed done in a shop
stock wires as electrodes. environment.
An electric current is
applied across the wires so 4-13. Galvanizing
that an electric arc is
formed at the intersection. a. Hot dip galvanizing
Heat from the electric arc is the process by which a
melts the wires, a stream zinc protective coating is
of compressed air flows applied to steel by
across the arc zone, and immersing an object in a
4-62
molten zinc bath. Prior to
immersion in the zinc
bath, contaminants on the
steel must be removed.
Oil, grease, and other
surface deposits are
removed by immersing in
a hot water detergent
solution prior to pickling,
steam cleaning, or steam-
detergent cleaning the
steel. The steel surface water-rinsed or dipped to
also must be thoroughly
cleaned of mill scale and
processing.
there for a suitable time,
rust. This is usually done
by sulfuric acid or
phosphoric acid pickling.
The steel to be galvanized
is immersed in a hot acid
bath. The hot acid
aggressively attacks the
steel surface, cleaning,
etching, and roughening it.
After continuous strip or
batch pickling, the steel is
remove acid residues prior
to immersion in the molten
zinc galvanizing bath.
The immersion in molten
zinc may be done by one
of two methods:
continuous or batch
Sheet steel
may be hot dipped by
continuously passing the
metal through a molten
zinc bath. Continuous
processing is highly
automated and often is
associated with steel mill
operations. Batch
processing generally is
performed on fabricated
items that range in size
from large structural steel
objects to small items such
as nuts, bolts, and
fasteners. With batch
galvanizing, the objects
are submerged into the
molten zinc bath, held
then removed.
b. A major advantage
of galvanizing is that the
zinc coating alloys itself
with the steel. The extent
of the alloy is a function
of the heat of the zinc
bath (the bath is
generally maintained at a
range of 443 to 460 C
[830 to
860 F]) and the amount
of time the steel is
submerged in the bath.
The greater the
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

submersion time, the steel objects with a

greater the extent of the relatively low surface
iron-zinc alloying. The area-to-weight ratio,
item being galvanized thermal spraying and/or
must be at the bath painting may be more
temperature for optimum economical.
galvanizing adhesion.
This, however, has two d. Although almost
disadvantages. The any steel can be
object being coated must galvanized, steel chemistry
not undergo any can dramatically affect the
undesirable property thickness, structure, and
changes at the appearance of the
temperature required for galvanized coating.
galvanizing. Also Silicon, phosphorus,
enclosed or sealed cavities carbon, and manganese
in the object being may be present in steel
galvanized (particularly
with hot dip batch
galvanizing) must be
avoided by design or be
opened by drilling to
provide a vent hole to
allow release of entrapped
air that will expand when
heated in a galvanizing
bath.

c. Corrosion
protection afforded steel
by galvanizing is greater
than that provided by
thermal spraying zinc-rich
or organic coatings of
similar thicknesses. This
is a result of the smooth,
continuous nature of the
zinc coating deposited
during the hot dip process
and the iron-zinc alloying
that occurs at the interface
between the zinc coating
and the steel surface. For
small steel objects,
grating, small-diameter
piping, conduit, and other
configurations with a high
surface area-to-weight
ratio, galvanizing is
preferable to painting and
thermal spraying because
immersion in a molten
zinc bath readily coats all
surface areas quickly and
economically. Conversely,
when coating thick, heavy
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4-64
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

and affect the galvanizing ability to coat recessed or steels may become has not been added. The
properties. The most difficult-to-coat areas embrittled if the hydrogen freshly galvanized surface
influential steel constituent (such as corners and picked up during the should be roughened
affecting galvanizing is edges) with a sufficient pickling cleaning slightly by light brush
silicon, which is added to coating thickness. Also operation is not expelled blast cleaning or
steel as ferro-silicon to because the coating is during immersion in the mechanical means.
remove oxygen from the metallic and molten zinc bath. Steels Alternatively, vinyl butyral
molten steel before metallurgically combined of medium to high wash primers or other
casting. In high silicon with the steel, it has good strengths that have been pretreatment primers can
steels, an undesirable abrasion and corrosion severely cold worked may be applied that will etch
increase in coating resistance. When coating have local areas and adhere to the
thickness occurs because steel with a large surface susceptible to hydrogen underlying galvanized
of the accelerated growth area-to-weight ratio, embrittlement. As a rule, surface.
of the zinc-iron alloyed galvanizing is much more however, hydrogen
layers. This growth is economical than painting embrittlement as a result h. If coating after
caused by the formation of because galvanizers of cold working is not a weathering, the galvanized
loosely packed small charge by the weight of problem for steel subject surface will be eroded by
grains or crystals in the the object being to hot dip galvanizing. zinc corrosion and the
outermost alloy layer of galvanized and painters formation of insoluble
the coating that allows charge by the square foot g. Coatings can be zinc-corrosion products.
zinc from the bath to of surface area of the successfully painted The zinc corrosion
penetrate to the steel object being painted. A immediately after roughens the galvanized
surface. In general, steels major disadvantage is galvanizing or after surface and frequently no
with the following that the hot dip process extended weathering. A further mechanical
maximum impurity levels is not portable, and the white rust-preventative roughening or brush blast
are best suited to object being coated must oil or wax may be cleaning is required.
galvanizing: 0.05 percent be taken to the zinc- applied to the However, care should be
silicon, 0.05 percent coating facility for galvanized surface to taken to ensure that all
phosphorus, 0.25 percent galvanizing. prevent the formation of loose zinc- corrosion
carbon, and zinc- corrosion products products are removed by
1 f. Hot dip such as zinc hydroxides, scrubbing or power
. galvanizing causes no oxides, and carbonates that washing the surface prior
3 significant alteration in result in a white to painting. Wash
the bend, tensile, and discoloration on the primers, or primers
p impact properties of galvanized surface. If specially formulated for
e galvanized steel, so steel painting is to be done application over
r strength and ductility are immediately after galvanized surfaces,
c unaffected. Welded galvanizing, check to frequently are preferred.
e structures have higher ensure that a rust
n strength when galvanized preventative i. Galvanized steel can
t than when uncoated be topcoated with any
because hot dip nonsaponifiable alkali-
m galvanizing reduces weld resistant paint. Zinc dust,
a stresses by 50 to 60 zinc oxide- containing
n percent. For most steels, paints are particularly
g little reduction in fatigue recommended, as are zinc-
a strength occurs as a result rich coatings. Water-based
n of galvanizing. Steel does acrylic latex emulsions,
e not embrittle as a result of epoxies, vinyl copolymer
s hot dip galvanizing. paints, and chlorinated
e
Hydrogen embrittlement rubber and coal tar epoxy
.
does not occur when coatings all have been
ordinary carbon or low applied with good success
e. Hot dip galvanizing
alloy steels are over properly prepared
has a number of
galvanized. Hardened galvanized steel surfaces.
advantages, including the
4-65
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

or outer layer is a
4 monolithic polymeric
- material designed for
1 tensile strength,
4 mechanical strength,
. temperature, and electrical
resistance. Typical tape
T backings include
a polyvinylchloride,
p polyethylene, polyolefin,
e butyl, ethylene propylene
s diamine monomer
(EPDM), and,
a occasionally, nylon or
n glass fibers. Adhesives are
d usually butyl rubbers or
butyl chlorinated rubbers
W but can be petrolatum and
r petrolatum wax
a compounds.
p
s c. The tapes can be
cold applied, hot applied,
a. Protective tapes and cold applied with
and wraps are used subsequent heat
almost exclusively for application as a heat-
protecting pipelines and shrink material.
tubular structural shapes Multilayered tapes
from below-grade or frequently are used on a
(underground) corrosion. pipeline by applying a
Cathodic protection is one-tape system then
used in many situations to overcoating it
supplement corrosion
protection. The tape or
wrap must provide a
barrier resistance to the
below-grade environment,
have good adhesion, and
be able to act as an
effective electrical
insulator to aid in
effective cathodic
protection.

b. A tape is a
composite material
consisting of at least two
layers. The first or
innermost layer is usually
a soft, elastomeric
material formulated to
adhere to an underlying
substrate. The substrate
can be either primed bare
metal or another tape
layer. The tape backing
4-66
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4-67
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
with a different tape
system. When this is
done, the inner layer is
designed primarily for
corrosion protection, and
the outer layer is designed
to resist moisture, soil
stresses, UV light, or other
environmental influences.
d. Most tape systems
are applied over a blast-
cleaned surface, usually
SSPC-SP 6 or better.
This standard generally is
a requirement for all
adhesives except those
based on petrolatum
wax, which can be
applied over a lesser
prepared surface because
of its wettability and
softness. Most tapes
perform better when
applied over a primer,
which commonly is an
epoxy. The primer
provides a bonding surface
for best adhesion of the
subsequently applied tape
coatings.
e. Tape systems are
applied by hand or,
preferably, by a hand-
assisted tape wrapster that
is pushed and pulled
around a pipe by as many
as four or five workers per
machine. Powered
wrapsters provide the best
application and allow for a
more constant tension,
uniform overlaps, fewer
wrinkles, and a lesser
clearance underneath the
pipe (as little as 304.8
mm [12 in.]). Tape
wrapping machines are
available that will
simultaneously apply two
tape layers to a pipe.
These tape wrapping
machines are most useful
for over-the-ditch
4-68
applications.
f. For tape
applications in the pipe
mill or fabricating shop,
surface preparation by
blast cleaning is the most
common, usually to an
SSPC-SP 10 quality.
Application of a primer
and two or more tape
layers applied by
automatic pipe-coating
equipment under constant
tension of 10 to
14 psi results in a tight,
wrinkle-free coating. The
coating is inspected by
automated high voltage
holiday inspection
(minimum 6,000 V).
After mill application of
a tape system, careful
handling is required to
avoid damaging or
stripping the applied tape
system.
g. In the pipe mill,
hot-applied plastic tapes
also have been used. The
pipe surface is cleaned to
an SSPC-SP 10 and heated
to approximately 121 C
(250 F) to melt the tape
adhesive to provide a
good bond. Mill-applied
tape coating systems
require careful handling
and installation, and over-
the-ditch application
eliminates the need to
repair shipping and
handling damage.
However, over-the-ditch
application generally is
more labor intensive and
is subject to weather
variables and adverse
application conditions.
During installation of any
pipeline systemwhether
coated by a tape wrapping
system, fusion bonded
system, or extruded high
density polyethylene
wrapscare is necessary
during backfilling
operations to prevent rock
and stone damage and
impact into the coating.
Insulating mats and/or
blankets are sometimes
wrapped around a pipe to
prevent backfilling
damage or, alternatively,
specially conductive
backfilling earths are
initially placed around the
pipe layer
prior to filling the ditch.
Another tape system,
extruded polyethylene, is
relatively new and is
gaining acceptance in the
United States. This coating
system generally consists
of blast cleaning to SSPC-
SP 6 followed by the
application of an epoxy
primer to approximately
0.05 mm (2 mils) dry
film thickness. The pipe
then is heated to
approximately
135 C (275 F) and
approximately 0.20 mm (8
mils) of a polyethylene
copolymer adhesive is
extruded around the pipe,
followed by 3 mm (118
mils) of a polyethylene
outer wrap extruded
spirally over the adhesive.
The preheating melts the
adhesive and provides
wetting capability.
Additionally, the
polyethylene extrusion to
the hot pipe shrinks to
form a tightly adhered,
thick, seamless coating
with high resistance to
mechanical damage,
moisture permeation, and
UV light.
h. During pipe-laying
operations in the field, the
joints must be protected by
application of paints or
protective coatings or,
more commonly, a tape
wrapping system.
(1) Polyvinyl chloride
tapes. Tapes with a PVC
backing can be used with a
variety of adhesive
materials, including butyl
rubber and petrolatum
wax. The greatest
advantage of PVC-backed
tapes is that they have an
ability to conform to
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

regular substrates and usually nylon or glass

provide a good barrier to fiber. Inert fillers are
penetrating moisture. added to improve
However, because of thixotropy. The resulting
plasticides and migration, coating possesses a low
sometimes the backing water vapor transmission
material separates from rate, is relatively
the adhesion. PVC moisture impermeable,
backings are suitable for and is nondrying,
temperatures up to 60 C
(140 F).

(2) Polyethylene tapes.

Polyethylene-backed tapes
most commonly are used
with butyl or chlorinated
rubber adhesives. These
tapes are used as outer
tapes to provide increased
mechanical strength and
UV light resistance. They
can be used over primed
steel as an inner tape wrap
because of their excellent
adhesive quality.
Polyethylene tapes are
considered suitable for
use in cold climates
because they retain their
flexibility at temperatures
as low as -40 C (-40 F).
The polyethylene backing
generally ranges from 0.25
to 1.27 mm (10 to 50 mils)
thick; adhesive ranges
from 0.08 to 0.30 mm (3
to 12 mils) thick.

(3) Petrolatum tapes.

(a) Petrolatum wax,

obtained from the
refining of petroleum, is
purified and used as a
corrosion-protective
material. The petrolatum
is a soft, viscous to
semisolid waxy-like
material with excellent
wetting properties.
Petrolatum tapes are
fabricated by
impregnating the
petrolatum into a woven
or nonwoven, cellulose-
free synthetic fiber fabric,
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EM 1110-2-3400
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4-70
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

nonhardening, usually a synthetic fiber of The adhesive of these a

nonhazardous, and nylon or woven glass tapes is usually a butyl or t
nontoxic. fiber. These tapes have chlorinated rubber, and i
good resistance to water this type of tape is noted n
(b) Petrolatum tapes penetration and, when for good adhesion and g
have some moisture- properly applied, have resistance to mechanical s
displacing capability and excellent adhesion. They damage.
often are applied over usually are used for over- Any listing of coating
hand- or power tool- the-ditch application and (6) Heat shrink systems cannot be all-
cleaned surfaces (instead for the protection of polyolefin tapes. A inclusive. There always
of blast-cleaned surfaces welded joints. crosslinked polyolefin will be specialized
as required by most other backing is combined with coating systems that are
tapes). Because of the (5) Butyl or EPDM a high shear strength not widely used or are of
high conformability of vulcanized rubber tapes. crystalline adhesive to little interest to USACE.
petrolatum tapes, they are Butyl or EPDM form a heat shrinkable Some of these systems
suitable for use over vulcanized rubber-backed pipeline tape. Prior to tape may include
irregular surfaces, on tapes have excellent wrapping, the steel is fluoropolymer coating
pipelines, and to protect flexibility, mechanical usually hand- or power systems, used principally
valves, flanges, and other resistance, and moisture tool-cleaned and preheated for high heat, corrosion-
irregular shapes. resistance. to approximately 60 C resistant surfaces; silicone
Petrolatum tapes are soft (140 F). The tape is resin coating systems,
and they are susceptible to wrapped around a pipe used as thin film, high
mechanical damage. A with a 50 percent heat systems or in
polyvinyl chloride outer overlap and heated with combination with metal or
wrap or membrane is a propane torch after ceramic frits for high heat,
applied over the wrapping. Heat from the abrasion-resistant
petrolatum tape to torch causes the crystalline corrosion service;
improve mechanical adhesive to melt and flow, chlorinated rubber,
properties, particularly filling surface neoprene, and other
during handling and irregularities. coating systems that are
backfilling. This exterior Additionally, the backing not widely manufactured
wrap also keeps the shrinks tightly to the steel and have been replaced by
petrolatum from oxidizing substrate to provide good other generic-type coating
and drying out. adhesion and systems; and variations or
conformability. There are combinations of systems
(c) Petrolatum calorimetric heating that are not different
formulations have been indicators in the backing enough to warrant a
developed to allow use at to indicate when the separate category.
temperatures as high as 82 proper temperature has
C (180 F). These tapes been reached.
are well suited for
protecting metal 4
couplings and valves and -
other pipeline 1
irregularities and for 5
coating repairs on existing .
pipes when the existing
coating has deteriorated or O
failed in service. t
h
(4) Coal-tar and e
asphalt tapes. Coal-tar r
and asphalt mastic tapes
are used as hot-applied C
systems. The backing is o

4-71
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-1
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

C application. Other which are thermoplastics, coating systems

considerations such as would not be used in performance will be
h
VOC concerns, coating locations subjected to high described briefly here.
a heat or strong solvents
cost, supplier Picking the correct coating
p recommendations, ease of because they would for painting projects might
t application, and quickly dissolve or soften. be described as a process
e maintainability are If alkyd enamels were of elimination rather than
r discussed. used in an environment one of selection.
with, for example, Probably the most
b. After a coating caustic conditions, they important step in coating
5
system is selected, would soften, swell, and selection is to evaluate the
Co quickly disbond as a result
alternative methods of conditions under which
ati surface preparation and of saponification. the coating must perform.
ng application are explored. Chemistry, experience, This cannot be a
Sy Special sections are and the coating system superficial evaluation but
st devoted to the performance history have must consider all the
e advantages/disadvantages illustrated these facts. The conditions that may exist.
of shop versus field Paint Systems and Painting Even small and seemingly
m Schedule section of
cleaning/painting, difficult irrelevant factors may
Se to coat areas, and the use CWGS 09940 and the affect coating system
le of cathodic protection Supplementary performance. In most
cti alternatives in those areas. Application Instructions situations, a combination
on The balance of this chapter contained therein show of two or more service
is devoted to reviewing paint systems that will environments act together
existing systems, candidate provide satisfactory, cost- to create a hostile
5 maintenance, and new effective performance environment. Chapter 4
- coating systems options based on given service provides detailed
1 for given USACE environments. information on the
. structures service Characteristics of the environmental resistance
environments. Also, environment that the qualities of various generic
I special concerns or coating system will coating types and should
n cautions associated with encounter must be well prove valuable when used
t these coating system identified. Once the in conjunction with this
r choices are discussed. environmental exposure chapter.
o has been properly
d 5-2. Criteria for determined, the process to (1) Temperature
u Selecting a select coatings systems extremes. Most applied
c Coating System that have a known history coating systems are
t and track record of subject to temperature
i No single coating or successful use in these variances within their
o coating system can identified environments applied environments.
n satisfy every service may begin. For the most part, these
condition or environment fluctuations are moderate
a. A systematic a. Identifying the
that may be encountered (normal atmosphere
approach to coating service environment(s).
in a given civil works fluctuations). Even
selection for new Exposure environments
facility. Selecting normal atmospheric
construction and that have the greatest
candidate coating systems temperature variations
maintenance painting is impact on coatings and
for an exposure have an effect on coating
described in this chapter.
environment depends on performance (i.e., piling
The first section details the
identifying and studies performed by
criteria for selecting a
understanding how each of USACE show a
coating system based on
the environments impact significantly higher rate
the service
various coatings. For of coating failure on
environment(s), surface
example, chlorinated pilings off the coast of
preparation requirements,
rubber or vinyl coatings, South Florida than in the
and options for coating
5-2
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

Cape Cod area. moisture laden

Additionally, in many environment is often
instances, unique considered to be in a state
processes or system of constant immersion. A
operations may generate water molecule is
adverse (cold or hot) extremely small and can
temperatures outside the pass through the molecular
normal. Extreme cold or network of even the most
heat can cause brittleness, moisture-resistant
poor impact resistance, protective films. Each
shrinkage, or loss of coating and resin type has
adhesion and may alter the a unique moisture vapor
corrosion-prevention transfer rate. Obvious
characteristics of the coatings for such
coating system. High continuously moist
temperatures also tend to environments should
aggravate the corrosivity exhibit low moisture
of the environment vapor permeability
severely (i.e., many acids (MVP) and water
become increasingly absorption
aggressive with
temperature increases).
Curing mechanisms
involved with
conventional coatings
frequently are temperature
dependent. With high
heat, the curing process
may occur too rapidly or,
conversely, in cold
temperatures curing may
not occur at all. Coatings
to be applied in extremely
cold environments must
have excellent adhesion,
resiliency, and plasticity.
Likely candidates for heat-
resistant coatings are those
modified with silicone
and/or metal flake (i.e.,
aluminum, stainless steel).
Some inorganic, zinc-rich
coatings can be applied
at temperatures as cold
as -18 C (0 F) and
provide excellent
corrosion protection in
the extreme cold.

(2) High humidity.

High humidity
frequently is
accompanied by
condensation.
Consequently, such a
continuously wet, heavily
5-3
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-2
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

rates. Industry practice
generally has found that,
the lower the moisture
vapor transfer rate, the
better corrosion protection
the coating provides.
Commonly used coatings
with typically low
moisture vapor transfer
rates are formulations of
two-part epoxies, vinyls,
coal tars, and respective
modifications of these
coatings. Coatings
pigmented with metallic or
glass flake have been
found to improve moisture
resistance and lower the
MVP rate of some
coatings.
(3) Immersion.
Immersion service
coatings are exposed to
water solutions ranging
from highly pure
deionized water to water
containing high
concentrations of various
chemicals, acids, or alkali
solutions. Specific
immersion linings may be
subject to the effects of
storage of petroleum or
solvents. Primarily
though, water is the main
exposure element in
immersions. Coatings for
immersion service must
exhibit good adhesion,
moisture resistance, vapor
transfer, ionic penetration,
cathodic disbondment,
osmosis, and variances in
temperature. Examples of
coatings that traditionally
have performed well in
immersion are: coal tar
epoxies (CTE), vinyls,
untopcoated zinc-rich
coatings, and
modifications of epoxy
coatings.
(4) Oxidizing-
reduction. Oxidizing these by-products will pH environments are
environmentssuch as have a tendency to fail vinyls, chlorinated
atmospheric service or because of cathodic rubbers, and epoxy
areas of ozone generation disbondment. This failure modifications. However,
and strong oxidizing can result in additional alkyd or oil-containing
agents such as bleach or undercutting of the coating coatings tend to have a
nitric acidare more and the spreading of poor resistance to
common than reduction underfilm corrosion. alkalinity and should not
environments. Most Substrates such as be used in such an
coatings are more concrete typically have a environment.
susceptible to oxidation high alkalinity; therefore, a
than to reduction. coating system chosen for (6) Solvent exposure.
Oxidation may cause a concrete substrate also The function of solvents
coating film brittleness and must exhibit good alkaline in coating formulation in
loss of cohesive strength; resistance. Formulations relation to the application
a common example of this of coatings that have a properties of the coating is
is an old, weathered alkyd good history of well known. However,
that can oxidize to an performance in extreme solvents often become an
almost powdery state after exposure environment to
many years. Generic the dry-cured coating
coating types that system. The effects of
historically have the solvent on the coating
performed well in system generally will vary
oxidizing environments by solvent type and the
are: CTEs, chlorinated resistance of the generic
rubber, and formulations type of coating that has
of epoxies and been applied. There are
polyurethanes. numerous types of
solvents. Typical solvents
(5) Extreme pH. frequently can be
Extremes of pH, such as classified into two
strong acid or alkaline categories: hydrocarbons
environments, can have a and oxygenated solvents.
dramatic effect on coatings A less important group of
systems selection. The solvents are called the
degree of impermeability terpenes. Hydrocarbons
of the chosen coating to are so named because
the environment is of their molecules contain
primary importance. The only hydrogen and carbon
coating film essentially atoms. The molecules of
must be inert to prevent a oxygenated solvents also
reaction with the contain oxygen atoms.
environment or But some commonly used
permeation of the solution oxygenated solvents may
into the coating film. contain atoms of other
Alkali resistance is vitally chemical elements such as
important to a primer nitrogen. Hydrocarbon
coating. Chemical solvents more commonly
reactions that take place in are found than oxygenated
the corrosion process solvents. Oxygenated
produce strong alkaline solvents and hydrocarbon
products that are deposited solvents frequently are
on the substrate. blended for use in
Subsequently, any primer lacquers, catalyzed
that is not resistant to coatings, and synthetic
5-5
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

resins solutions. As with include some of this

many other exposures, a information in technical
high degree of product data sheets.
impermeability is Specific facility coatings
necessary for the coatings histories, manufacturers'
to resist solvents. The performance history, and
coating system chosen published coating system
must not be dissolved or service life data are
softened by the solvent in particularly helpful.
the exposure environment. When searching for such
For example, USACE information, the exposure
vinyl systems are environment must be
resistant to solvents of accurately assessed to
the aliphatic variety and select only those coating
most often can tolerate systems with a high
spills from aromatic probability of success
hydrocarbons. However, and/or a proven track
the stronger oxygenated record. When a process is
solvents will readily new and the exposure
attack, soften, and environment is uncertain,
dissolve the vinyl film. field test patches of
Therefore, it is necessary candidate products can
to make a good system be applied in
selection because the
binder may be dissolved
easily and softened by
various levels of solvency
strength. Historically,
two- component highly
crosslinked coatings, such
as formulations of epoxy
and urethane coatings,
have exhibited good
solvent resistance.
Therefore, the blend and
type of solvent in the
exposure environment
should be identified so
the appropriate coating
system can be chosen.
When all pertinent factors
have been identified,
coating manufacturers can
be consulted for system
recommendations. The
major manufacturers of
high performance
protective coatings have
an excellent understanding
of the temperature and
chemical exposure
limitations of their
products. In fact, many
publish tables of
chemical resistance for
various coatings and
5-2
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-7
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

that environment and are found as a blend of rates, and good corrosion (8) Thermal cycling.
evaluated. If a new aliphatic and aromatic and undercutting Thermal cycling
environment can be components and are resistance. Although a naturally generates the
identified and simulated, readily available in an significant number of forces of expansion and
screening and testing of extensive range of solvent coatings will perform contraction. For a coating
candidate materials can be strengths and evaporation satisfactorily in a cycling system to provide
performed by qualified rates. environment, coating maximum protection to the
labora- tories using system selection mainly substrate, it must have the
specially designed test (b) Oxygenated will depend on other in- ability to expand and
apparatus. However, the solvents. Oxygenated service elements that contract with the
key to success for any solvents are manufactured impact this environment. substrate. For the most
situation rests with by a variety of processes. part, thermal cycling is
thorough, accurate Those most commonly associated with normal
identification of the known of these solvents atmospheric weathering.
exposure environment. are: alcohols, ethers, For example, a metallic
ketones, and glycol-ethers. substrate may heat up
(a) Hydrocarbons. Typically, there may be a rapidly when exposed to
There are two types of blend or combination of the sunlight; however,
hydrocarbon solvents: these solvents in the when the sun sets or if it
aliphatic and aromatic. exposure environment. becomes cloudy, the
Special blends of these Examples of alcohol temperature can rapidly
solvents have been solvents are: methanol, decrease. Such stresses
developed to form solvents ethanol, isopropanol, and must be withstood by the
called semi- aromatics. butanol. Examples of coating system without
Aliphatic and aromatic ether solvents are: ethyl loss of adhesion or
hydrocarbons differ in the acetate, isopropyl acetate, checking and cracking.
way in which the carbon butyl acetate, and butyl Acrylics, vinyls, and
atoms are connected in the cellusolve acetate. inorganic zinc coatings
molecule. This Examples of ketones are: have proven exceptionally
characteristic structural acetone, methyl ethyl resistant to fluctuations in
difference leads to a sharp chloride, methyl isobutyl temperature.
difference in the chemical ketone, and
and toxicological cyclohexanone. Examples (9) Ultraviolet
properties. The aromatic of glycol-ethers are: exposure. Resistance to
hydrocarbons are the cellusolve and butyl ultraviolet (UV) radiation
stronger solvents for cellusolve. is extremely important.
coating film formers. Sunlight can rapidly
They also are more (c) Terpene solvents. degrade a coating and will
irritating to humans in These solvents are derived cause a complete loss of
both liquid and vapor from the sap of pine trees; film integrity, resulting in
forms. Typical aromatic examples are terpene, chalking, loss of gloss,
hydrocarbons are: dipentent, and pine oil. fading, and brittleness in
benzene, toluene, and a rather short period
xylene. Typical aliphatic (7) Wet/dry cycling. of time. Such
hydrocarbons are: Alternate wet and dry degradation may result in
hexane, heptane, and cycling, such as that an aesthetically
odorless mineral spirits. associated with unacceptable coating
Ordinary mineral spirits atmosphere and weather, appearance. Specific
are mostly aliphatic may have a significant generic coating types
hydrocarbons. Aromatic effect on the performance exhibit better resistance to
and aliphatic hydro- of a coating system. UV light than others.
carbons generally are Coating subject to wet and For example, a two-
derived from heat dry cycling must exhibit component epoxy coating
distillation of petroleum strong adhesion, low will chalk rather rapidly
products. They generally moisture vapor transfer under exposure to UV
5-2
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light, but formulations of must resist rupturing from

acrylic aliphatic the rapid expansion of a
polyurethanes remain metal as it is deformed
stable on UV light from a sudden impact. To
exposure. Inherent in most resist this type of impact,
alkyd and oil-based coatings must have a high
products is poor resistance degree of flexibility such
to UV exposure, which as most formulations of a
results in chalking, loss of vinyl coating.
gloss, and loss of color. Formulations of epoxies
However, modifications and polyurethane coatings
with silicone (i.e., silicone are excellent choices for
alkyds) can greatly abrasion resistance, but
enhance the performance the inherent brittle
characteristics of surfaces qualities of the
exposed to UV light.
Modifying alkyds with
silicone combines the
workability of the alkyds
with the durability, gloss
retention, general weather
resistance, and heat
resistance of the silicones.
Silicone alkyds are widely
used as a maintenance
upgrade finish over
conventional alkyd
coatings because of these
improved properties.
Silicone alkyds are used
rather extensively for
stack coatings and similar
areas where moderately
high temperatures are
involved. USACE
structures at which alkyds
are used and improved
gloss retention, weather
resistance, and durability
are desired should be
considered for upgrades
with silicone alkyd
products.

(10) Impact/abrasion.
Impact and abrasion
resistance are extremely
important characteristics
in coating selection.
Although impact and
abrasion resistance
frequently are discussed in
the same breath, they can
designate two different
exposure environments.
For example, a coating
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5-4

coating would cause it to
fracture easily on impact.
These coatings perform
best where abrasion may
be in the form of heavy
equipment movement,
foot traffic, or even
scouring by tools and
equipment. Abrasion also
may be a result of
naturally occurring
phenomena, such as
windblown sand or sand
carried by waves of water.
Consequently, it is
extremely important for
the coating specifier to
determine if the exposure
environment necessitates
a coating that will
withstand constant
abrasion, sudden impact,
or a combination of the
two.
(11) Special exposures.
Special exposure
environments such as
food processing and
potable water may be
subject to regulations of
the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) and
the National Sanitation
Foundation (NSF). In
addition to mixed
exposure conditions, there
most certainly will be
extraneous circumstances
such as inaccessibility and
limitations on surface
preparation methods.
These situations could
have a significant effect on
coating system selection
and should be thoroughly
investigated prior to
choosing a coating system.
Sources of help for
making decisions about
these situations are
discussed in the ensuing
paragraph.
b. Identifying areas
that cannot be
properly coated.
(1) Many times due
to design or
configuration, structures,
items, or areas to be coated
do not readily lend
themselves to proper
surface preparation and
coating application. This
is particularly true with
items designed with back-
to-back angles or cavities
and crevices that can result
from riveted or bolted
connections, weld
undercutting, overlapping
plates, skip welds, lap
welds, etc. Essentially,
any area that provides
cavities or crevices in
which air, moisture, dirt, or
debris can become
entrapped is a candidate
for premature coating
failure, unless properly
sealed and/or caulked.
Some initial design
considerations such as full
seal welding or alternative
construction materials (i.e.,
fiberglass) could be used
to avoid such problem
areas. However, most
structures are already
built, and it would not
be cost effective or
practical to institute design
changes. Consequently,
caulks and sealants are
widely used in many areas.
For example, caulking
compounds perform well
when immersed in fuel
oils, water, and
chemicals. However,
caution should be used
when selecting caulks and
sealants for immersion
environments. Previous
successful use in a given
immersion environment
should be an essential
selection factor. Coating
suppliers and manu-
facturers can be a good
source of information
about whether a particular
caulk or sealant will
provide good protection in
atmospheric or immersion
service environments.
(2) Recently,
technological
developments in the use of
low viscosity, penetrating
epoxy sealers make them
practical for use in areas
that are difficult to coat.
These two-
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
component products are
tolerant of poor surface
preparation, produce
minimal stress in the
curing process, and are
100 percent solids. These
products work with
wicklike action, which
penetrates and effectively
seals off the hard to reach
areas; and they can be
applied by flooding the
surface (with a garden-
type low pressure sprayer),
much like using a
penetrating oil, and
allowing the epoxy
product to wick in and
seal back-to-back angles
and cavities. Products
such as these are proving
to be viable alternatives in
lieu of, or in conjunction
with, caulking compounds
in atmospheric exposure.
c. Identifying
regulated requirements.
In addition to performance
restrictions on coating
types in various service
environments, there are
regulations on the type and
amount of VOCs that can
be emitted into the
atmosphere. These
regulations vary from state
to state and even from
county to county.
Compliant coatings are
being formulated with a
higher solids content, less
solvent, and with water as
the solvent. Prior to
specifying a coating, it is
important to investigate
national, state, local, and
corporate regulations
regarding the use of non-
VOC-compliant coatings.
The Clean Air Act and the
Clean Air Act
Amendments of l990 are
affecting the coatings
industry by requiring the
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U.S. Environmental limitations are determined,

Protection Agency the coating manufacturers
(USEPA) to restrict can be consulted to
emissions of VOCs into determine the specific
the atmosphere. brands that are suitable for
(Chapters 4 and use. Note that when
11 investigating acceptable
pro coatings, it is the VOC as
vid applied that counts rather
e than the VOC in the
ad can. For example, a
diti solvent-based coating
on containing 419 g/L (3.5
al lb/gal) VOC in the can
inf that must be thinned 10
or percent for application
ma will exceed the 419 g/L
tio (3.5 lb/gal) threshold at
n.)
the time of application. If
the local regulations
(1) Because of the
restrict the use of
emissions from coatings
materials to those
(solvents in particular can
containing
contribute to the
419 g/L (3.5
formulation of ozone at lb/gal), this coating
low atmospheres), the could not be used.
USEPA has been directing
the use of VOCs.
Nationwide regulations
are being developed to
restrict the VOC content
in architectural and
industrial maintenance
coatings for field
applications. These
restrictions list the
maximum VOC per gallon
of paint, and they vary
according to the category
of coating and its usage.

(2) Before specifying

coatings for marine,
architectural, or industrial
use, the state and local
bureaus of air pollution
control should be
contacted to determine the
specific restrictions that
may apply. Regulations
may specify the
maximum allowable VOC
per gallon or the total
number of gallons
permitted to be applied
per day or year. After the
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30 Apr 95
d. Identifying surface
preparation alternatives
for new construction.
Coating selection is
influenced by the degree
of surface preparation that
can be achieved as well as
by the method of coating
application that may be
allowed. Surface
preparation usually is
determined by the severity
of the service environment
(i.e., immersion, normal
weathering, dry interior),
the type of substrate, and
the coating system. As a
general rule, the more
aggressive the
environment is
surrounding the item to be
coated, the higher the
degree of cleaning
required. Cleanliness has
a direct influence on
adhesion and long-term
service life. For example,
in immersion service, a
minimum acceptable
surface cleanliness is
generally in conformance
with SSPC-SP 10,
although SSPC-SP 5) is
preferred. Cleanliness is
only one factor in surface
preparation. Profile or
surface roughness also is a
factor. A rule of thumb
for profile or anchor
pattern is that the depth of
profile should be from one
fourth to one third of the
total coating thickness, up
to a thickness of 0.30 mm
(12 mils). For example,
a coating system of
0.30 mm (12 mils) should
be applied over a profile
of from
0.07 to 0.10 mm (3 to 4
mils). The purpose of the
profile is to allow for
mechanical bonding of the
coating to the surface.
Profile actually increases
5-8
the total amount of surface
area wetted by the coating
system. In new
construction, there
generally are few logistical
limitations of blast
cleaning, if the substrate is
to be shop-prepared.
However, because of the
proximity to sensitive
areas in the field, abrasive
blast cleaning may not be
allowed. The relative
advantages and
disadvantages of each
procedure are discussed
below. (See Chapter 7
for additional details on
surface preparation.)
(1) Total field blast
cleaning and painting of
new steel. Blast cleaning
and painting of new steel
may be performed entirely
in the field after erection,
or they may be
accomplished entirely in
the shop. The primary
advantage to total field
blast cleaning and
painting is that damage to
the paint system prior to
service is essentially
eliminated. Total shop-
applied systems may be
damaged by handling and
the installation/erection
process or onsite repair
procedures.
Uncontrollable variables,
such as weather and
climate, often adversely
affect field operations and
eventually shop allocation
if the shop is poorly
equipped.
(a) Neither field blast
cleaning nor painting
may be performed during
high humidity, rain, fog,
haze, etc. Typically, paint
specifications prohibit any
work when the surface
temperature of the steel is
less than -15 C (5 F) mixing with the freshly
above the dew point. The
influence of the dew point
is more of a concern on
coastal sites or in the
cooler northwest and
northeast sections of the
country. If work is
performed when the dew
point is too high, the
consequence may be flash
rusting of the freshly
cleaned steel, moisture
entrapment between the
paint and the substrate
causing poor
adhesion, or moisture
applied paint inhibiting
proper curing.
Conversely, extremely
dry, arid conditions can
present problems if the
coating specified requires
a certain amount of
moisture in the air to
properly cure (i.e.,
moisture cured urethanes
and ethyl silicate type
inorganic zinc-rich
primers).
(b) Wind also may
interfere with the field
work by causing clouds of
blast cleaning waste and
overspray to drift onto the
roadways, neighborhoods,
and rivers. The liabilities
incurred from drift on
automobiles or into nearby
residential neighborhoods
may be substantial.
Many specifications
prohibit spray painting
where wind speeds exceed
a certain level or blow in a
specific direction.
Furthermore, on some
days the wind is too strong
to work from staging for
safety reasons. Paint
application by brush or
roller can prevent drift; but
it is slower, more labor
intensive, and more
expensive. In addition,
not all paints readily lend
themselves to application
by brush or roller. This is
especially true of some
formulations of the high
performance coatings such
as vinyls, inorganic zinc-
rich, acrylic urethanes, and
other high-build high
solids coatings.
(c) Temperature is
another factor that may
interfere with field work.
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

The temperature of the staging or scaffolds. Such

steel after overnight limitations decrease the
cooling is less likely to be amount of work
at least -15 C (5 F) performed and the
above the dew point. production quality.
Many paints, especially Limited accessibility
epoxies, cannot be applied hampers the applicator as
when the steel temperature well as the inspector.
is below 10 C (50 F),
because the curing process (e) There is a
is temperature dependent. greater opportunity
Few paints can be safely for surface
applied at or near 0 C
(32 F). Because low
temperatures restrict
coating application, it is
impossible to blast clean
or paint for months at a
time in the northern areas
where winters are severe.
High temperatures, above
32 C (90 F), also can
present problems by
reducing coatings pot life
or by causing solvents to
flash off too rapidly. This
results in incomplete film
formation, poor wetting,
dry spray, loss of gloss,
and poor adhesion to the
substrate because of poor
wetting. Also, topcoats
applied over inorganic
zinc primers are more
likely to bubble and
pinhole at high
temperatures.

(d) To blast clean and

paint a structure in the
field, the erection of
extensive scaffolds and
staging may be required.
Staging may be an
additional expense, and a
subcontractor may be
needed to erect the staging
and coordinate scheduling
arrangements. Staging
may have to be moved a
number of times before the
job is completed. Blast
cleaners and coating
applicators have limited
mobility and accessibility
when work is done from
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 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

contamination when all of of overhead cranes to stored for months with In one known case, shop-
the blast cleaning and manipulate pieces of steel concave surfaces up has on coated steel was stored at
coating are performed in reduces manpower occasion deteriorated and the construction site for
the field. Uncoated beams requirements and virtually rusted appreciably during more than 18 months, and
generally receive less care eliminates the need for storage as a result of water the provision to
and may be dragged across scaffolding during the standing in the periodically touchup and
the ground and/or be blast-cleaning and coating depressions. This is an repaint was not enforced.
subjected to dirt or road operations. However, the understandable reaction Consequently, at the time
salts in transit, and the shop cleaning and priming because linseed oil paints of erection the steel was in
beams may be exposed to procedure has drawbacks. are entirely unsuited for such poor condition that it
coastal or industrial A major drawback is that extended immersed required extensive
atmospheres at the full-time inspection is exposure in a storage area. cleaning and the
jobsite. Contamination rarely available, at least on The guide specification application of a new
may occur on the steel small- and medium-sized additionally states that primer coat, for which the
or in between field- fabricating jobs. Thus, shop-coated steel shall be contractor put in a claim
applied coats of paint. shop inspection may be cleaned and repainted or for additional payment.
Steel contaminated with limited. Little can be touched up whenever it This raises the question
corrosive salts or anions is determined concerning becomes necessary to about what criteria should
difficult, if not impossible, surface preparation and maintain the integrity of be used by field inspection
to thoroughly clean later. paint application after the the coating paint film; this personnel in determining if
work is done. Another requirement also is the shop coat needs
(f) Health and major drawback is that important. touching up or a complete
environmental shop coating results in a renewal. (Chapter 6 will
considerations related to lengthened waiting period be particularly helpful to
blast cleaning in the field between priming and inspection personnel in
also must be evaluated. subsequent application of determining what type of
Current Occupational field coats. During this corrective action is
Safety and Health period the primer coat necessary.)
Administration (OSHA) becomes hard and
guidelines require the weathered, and it can (a) Other shop
contractor to take become contaminated with problems and mishaps
precaution to protect dust, grease, and other also have been observed.
workers from exposure to surface soils that are Air in heated shops warms
free silica and nuisance detrimental to the adhesion more quickly than the steel
dust during blast-cleaning of any subsequent coats. surface; and, because the
operations. (See Chapters Long field storage periods relative humidity increases
10 and tend to increase the as the air warms,
11 for opportunity for marring condensation on the steel
detailed and scratching of the is possible. Paint is
information primer coat and, in sometimes stored in a
on these extreme cases, may lead cold, unheated room and
subjects.) to its general under such cool
deterioration. The paint conditions can become
(2) Total shop cleaning application section of very viscous. The
and painting. Greater CWGS 09940 requires resultant cold, thick
control over the working shop- coated steel to be coating may cause the
environment and easy stored out of contact with applicator to thin the
accessibility to the entire the ground and in a material excessively to
surface are the principal manner that will reduce the viscosity and
advantages to performing minimize the formation make it more sprayable.
work in the steel of water- holding pockets. Excessive thinning
fabrication shop. This provision is reduces the volume solids
Accessibility to all areas considerably important. of the coating and results
of the structural steel is The shop coat of curved in a lower dry film
greatly improved in the tainter gate sections field thickness and inadequate
fabrication shop. The use
5-
11
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

substrate protection. welds, nuts, bolts, and

areas around bolted
(3) Shop primed plus connections also must be
field topcoated. A addressed. Surface
compromise may be found preparation is vital. Some
between accomplishing coatings (such as alkyds)
the work entirely in the may require only hand-
field or entirely in the tool cleaning; other
shop. This entails coatings (i.e., zinc-rich
performing blast cleaning coatings) require the type
and applying the prime of surface preparation that
coat in the fabrication can be achieved only by
shop. The topcoat and abrasive blast cleaning.
any intermediate coats are Experience has shown that
applied in the field. This as much
compromise includes the
advantages from
performing the work in
the fabrication shop and
the advantages with field
application.
Unfortunately, although
there are advantages, such
compromise is also not
without shortcomings.

(a) The most obvious

advantage to a
compromise procedure is
that the steel arrives at the
jobsite with at least some
degree of protection.
Contamination of the steel
substrate has not been
eliminated because the
prime coat may become
contaminated while the
steel is in transit to the
site, in storage, or during
construction. This is
especially true if the steel
is exposed to an industrial
or coastal environment.
Solvent wiping or high
pressure washing of the
prime coat prior to the
application of further
coats of paint may be
specified to remove
contaminants.

(b) Touchup of the

prime coat generally is
required to repair damage
incurred in transit or
during construction. Field
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5-
13
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

as 30 percent of the Prior to general surface at less than [20,000 to 40,000 psi])
surface area of water tanks preparation, any grease 34,450 kiloPascals (kPa) with abrasive injection, or
often needs touchup, and and oil contaminating the (5,000 psi), high pressure brush-off blast cleaning
some bridges may require surface should be removed water jetting with using fine sand and low
only 10 percent touchup. by solvent cleaning in detergent (34,450 to abrasive blasting
Occasionally, the question accordance with SSPC-SP 137,800 kPa [5,000 to pressures.
arises about whether the 1. General surface 20,000 psi]), high
responsibility for touchup preparation techniques pressure water cleaning (b) Glossy, hard,
lies with the fabricator or such as abrasive blast (34,450 to smooth, or slick existing
the contractor in the field, cleaning and hand- or 137,800 kPa [5,000 to coating systems may
and how much touchup the power-tool cleaning have a 20,000 psi]) with abrasive require roughening to
responsible party should tendency to spread and/or injection, ultra-high promote adequate
be required to perform. redistribute grease and oil pressure water jetting adhesion. Hand- or
Accordingly, adequate on the surface rather than (137,800 to 275,600 kPa power-tool roughening of
field touchup should be removing it. Spot removal the existing coating may
clearly outlined in the of loose coating, loose be done by using hand- or
project specification and rust, and loose mill scale power-tool methods such
understood by the parties can be accomplished by as sanding. The surface
responsible for the work. hand- or power-tool gloss must be removed
cleaning or spot abrasive and the visible surface
e. Identifying surface blast cleaning. roughened after
preparation alternatives preparation. Brush off
for maintenance. Based (2) Spot priming blast cleaning (SSPC-SP
on the decision to followed by full 7) also may be used to
maintenance paint an item overcoating. clean and roughen the
or structure, several existing coating using
maintenance recoating (a) The mechanisms of the methods outlined
alternatives may be spot surface preparation here.
considered: spot priming given in the previous
only, spot priming paragraph can be used if (3) Complete removal
followed by full this recoating alternative is and replacement. If the
overcoating, or total chosen. However, the recoating decision process
removal and replacement. method of preparing has found that the most
This paragraph will intact, well adherent economical and practical
discuss the alternative coatings for overcoating option is complete
methods of surface must be addressed. The removal and replacement
preparation that can be primary concern in of the existing coating, the
used in conjunction with overcoating an existing following surface
these maintenance coating system would be preparation methods may
recoating methods. (See system compatibility. be used. These
Chapters 6, 7, and 8 for The compatibility of alternatives in conjunction
additional information.) recoating systems could be with the desired surface
assessed by preparing a cleanliness will produce a
(1) Spot priming test patch. After an substrate that essentially
only. Prior to spot overcoating system is can be recoated as a
priming, the mechanism found to be compatible new surface. Standard
of spot surface with the existing coatings, abrasive blast cleaning,
preparation and the methods should be used to high pressure water jetting
cleanliness to be achieved remove surface dirt, with abrasive injection,
must be determined. Spot chalk, grease, oil, and ultra-high pressure water
preparation is required to other surface jetting with abrasive
remove localized areas of contaminants. These injection, or wet abrasive
visible corrosion and/or methods include solvent blast cleaning to the
loose, deteriorated, or cleaning, pressure desired cleanliness may be
poorly adherent coatings. cleaning with detergent used to completely remove
5-14
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

the existing coating. protection frequently is

When blast cleaning used in conjunction with
cannot be used, power- coating systems and
tool cleaning to bare immersion service where
metal (SSPC-SP 11) can breaks and holidays in the
be used to remove old coating expose an
coatings. unprotected metal
substrate. Protecting
f. Identifying coating some structures in these
application alternatives. environments may be
In addition to surface difficult, if not impossible,
preparation alternatives, with
coating application
alternatives should be
explored. Local
regulations on spray
application of coatings
(proximity to
roads/highways, parking
lots, residential areas) may
restrict the application
method used. Brush or
roller applications may be
required, which may
restrict the choice of
coating system used
because certain coating
systems do not lend
themselves to application
methods other than spray
(e.g., vinyls, inorganic
zinc-rich primers).
Some coatings (referred to
as dry falls) are
formulated so the
overspray during
atomization dries prior to
landing on an undesirable
resting place.

g. Cathodic
protection system as an
alternative. The primary
function of cathodic
protection and coatings is
to prevent corrosion. As
corrosion protection has
become more critical, a
marriage of the two
processes has occurred.
Experience has shown that
damage to organically
coated surfaces is almost
unavoidable during
construction and in
service. Cathodic
5-
15
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5-16
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

coating systems alone, manufacturers of coatings such a system. Therefore, maintenance, it is

especially on complex, and coating systems ease of application should imperative that they be
configurated structures. typically have invaluable be an important familiar with any
Thus, the combination of information on application consideration during specialized equipment or
coatings and cathodic parameters of their coating coating system selection. application techniques and
protection actually systems, both in terms of properly trained in their
provides good, reliable temperature restrictions c. Maintainability. use. The surface
corrosion protection. and chemical resistance. The maintainability of a preparation that will be
USACE has found Therefore, the suppliers of coating system is another required during
cathodic protection coating systems should be factor to be considered, maintenance painting also
systems in conjunction asked about information and how it will be must be considered. It
with CTE systems to be on the types of products maintained (by outside may be as simple as a
excellent choices in this that will perform in the contractor or by plant solvent wipe (SSPC-SP 1)
regard. (Detailed service environment(s) personnel). If plant and reapplication, or
information on cathodic identified. However, personnel are as extensive as
protection is given in most manufacturers do not responsible for coating scarification (SSPC-SP 3
Chapter 2.) have exhaustive system or SP 11) or abrasive
information on every blast cleaning of the
5-3. service environment that surface followed by
Coa may be encountered; and application of the repair
ting previous experience with a system.
Sel given coating system in a
ecti certain environment may d. Cost. Appropriate
on not always be available. coatings systems selection
Crit Also, some suppliers may must take into account
eria not have information paint performance as well
because they are not as paint economics and
The final selection familiar with Government balance performance
criterion is to determine specification paints unless against total cost. Top
how effective the coating they are actual producers quality coatings should be
system will be in of them. In these compared generically, but
preventing corrosion of instances, a test patch identification by generic
the underlying surface in applied and evaluated in name in itself is no
the service environment. accordance with ASTM guarantee of quality.
Clearly and accurately D5064 at the location of Coatings should be
defining the service intended service is highly purchased on
environment, soliciting recommended prior to specifications from
coating manufacturers' large-scale application. reliable coating
recommendations, manufacturers. A
applying test patches of b. Ease of protective coating should
candidate coating systems application. The ease with not be purchased unless
in the service which the coating can be its volume solids content
environment, and applied will impact and the resin content of the
obtaining a successful applicator productivity and solids are known.
field history of a generic coating film integrity. Economics plays a key
coating system in an That is, if a coating part in selecting a
identical or similar service material cannot be applied coating system. In fact,
environment will enable without complicated under some circumstances,
the coating specifier to equipment and specialized economics may determine
select the coating system techniques to produce a the system choice.
that will provide long-term continuous, void-free film, Therefore, coating costs,
protection of the plant it may not be cost effective in most instances, should
and/or facilities. to apply such a system be less important than the
unless, of course, the coating properties that
a. Supplier service exposure demands provide the basis for long-
recommendation. Major
5-
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30 Apr 95

term, effective coating length of time required for

protection. Costs should refurbishment may be less
be considered only after in some environments than
the coating or coatings in others. The cost and
have been selected that difficulty of refurbishment
will satisfactorily or replacement must be
overcome the corrosion assessed to arrive at the
problem for which they appropriate coating or
will be used. For construction material.
example, during the
selection process, two or (3) Surface preparation
three coatings all may required/allowed. Most
have the necessary coating
qualifications. Cost then
can determine which of
the coatings that entirely
satisfy the conditions
involved will be the most
economical choice.
Additionally, the cost of
the coating system
depends on the generic
type, the spread rate, the
ease of application,
maintainability, and
projected service life of
the system. When
choosing the most
economical coating
system, factors for
determining this
suitability may include
the following.

(1) Environmental
resistance. Coatings
will be cost effective
only if they are used
within the limits of their
environmental resistance.
If an environment is too
severe for a coating, that
coating will require
expensive maintenance,
and a different coating
material or construction
material should be used.

(2) Duration of
protection desired.
Most coating materials
will deteriorate because of
their organic or sacrificial
nature, and they will
require maintenance and
periodic renewal. The
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systems must be applied (7) (a) Coating material costs may be considerable
over a relatively clean Mobilization/demobilizati costs. Coatings are usually on a large job; and, as a
substrate such as that on. There are costs supplied in 1-, 5-, or rule of thumb, they range
obtained by blast cleaning, associated with bringing sometimes 55-gallon from 10 to 15 percent of
grinding, or acid etching. equipment, material, and containers, and they the cost of the total jobs.
If the required surface labor to a jobsite. The generally are invoiced at However, the coating
preparation is not costs for transportation a dollar cost per gallon. material cost may be a
economical, the use of and setup of equipment are These substantially higher
other construction commonly called percentage of the total cost
materials may be more mobilization costs. The if other costs (i.e., surface
cost effective (i.e., costs to remove equipment preparation) are minimal.
stainless steel, plastics). and material from a jobsite Rather than the cost per
are called demobilization gallon, some specifiers
(4) Application/curing costs. These costs can be consider the system cost
conditions. If ambient considerable on large per square foot (i.e., the
conditions cannot be projects, and they must be cost to cover a given
made suitable for the considered in assessing the area at the required film
application and/or cure of costs of a coatings thickness). Thus, a
the coating system, other operation. For fixed-site coating system that builds
means of corrosion coating facilities (i.e., to a greater thickness in
protection must be paint shop) the item to be one coat, or has a higher
considered (i.e., cathodic coated must be transported percent solids by volume,
protection). to and from the shop. ultimately may be
These costs may be cheaper even if the cost
(5) Availability of significant and should be per gallon is higher than
labor/material. The included in cost estimates. another material. In this
application of coatings is case, application labor
labor-intensive, and if (8) Access costs. The would be saved because
sufficiently skilled cost of rigging, fewer coats would be
equipment or labor is not scaffolding, or otherwise required to attain a given
available, the cost gaining access to the work thickness. Other
effectiveness of using area can be expensive, specifiers consider cost per
protective coatings may particularly when coating a year of service life. The
be reduced. large bridge, water tank, or evaluation incorporates the
elevated structure. expected service life of the
(6) Health and safety coating system in the
considerations. Solvents, (9) Preparation costs. assessment of its cost.
resins, and certain Prior to actually starting Therefore, a coating that
pigments in coatings may surface preparation and/or costs
be hazardous to personnel coating work, certain $10 per gallon and lasts
applying the protective preparation costs must be for a year will be more
coating or the safety and assessed. The cost to expensive than a coating
health of personnel in the mask or otherwise protect that costs $20 per gallon
surrounding area. Safety, items not to be painted, to but lasts for 5 years. The
health, and environmental grind or round sharp most comprehensive
considerations at the edges, to enclose the work assessments consider the
time of original area, or to protect adjacent system cost square foot
application and during work areas or the per year and try to
touchup and repair may be environment can all be optimize both application
sufficient to reduce the considered preparation savings and service life
cost effectiveness of costs. longevity.
coatings compared to
other construction (10) Coating system (b) Coating
materials. installation costs. application costs. Labor
time associated with the
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30 Apr 95

actual application of The cost of wear and

the coating must be tear on surface
considered. The number preparation equipment and
of coats required is a application tools and
major factor in equipment (including
establishing this cost as operational and
each coat application is maintenance costs) must
a separate operation. The be considered. Rental
cost of application labor is rates that can be used as a
a major expense on most guideline for equipment
jobs, usually second only costs frequently can be
to the surface preparation. obtained from equipment
rental companies.
(c) Surface preparation
costs. The labor cost of
surface preparation is a
major consideration for all
coating work. The costs
for surface preparation can
vary considerably,
depending on the method
and the extent of surface
preparation requirements.
As a general rule, when
blast cleaning or using
other thorough degrees of
surface preparation, the
costs of labor and
equipment may approach
40 to 50 percent of the
entire cost of the
project. The surface
preparation required
usually is determined by
type of coating system
chosen for application.
Some coating systems
(i.e., vinyl, inorganic zinc
rich) require thorough,
labor intensive surface
preparation such as that
by blast cleaning to
White or Near
White metal cleanliness;
other coating systems are
more tolerant (i.e., epoxy
mastics) and may not
require as thorough, or as
expensive, a degree of
surface preparation.
However, the service life
of virtually all coatings is
increased by a greater
surface cleanliness.

(d) Equipment costs.

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(e) Curing/drying comparison to another an estimation of the man- doors, windows, floors,
considerations. Some construction material or hours required, and an pieces of equipment (e.g.,
coatings require an another means of estimate of the materials tanks, pump housings,
extended cure time prior to corrosion protection. and equipment costs. fans, and motors),
being placed in service. Compliance may be easier structural steel, and
Heat curing may be during painting in the shop (a) Surface area to be overhead truss work, the
required for certain as opposed to painting in painted. The surface areas total surface area of each
coatings used as tank the field. Compliance of each item to be painted of these items would be
linings. If required, considerations ultimately are measured or estimated or measured.
special curing conditions may be among the most estimated, and the cost of Books and tables are
may increase the cost of important cost painting per unit area (i.e., available for estimators to
the coating system. considerations. a square foot) is then use when making unit area
Environmental protection applied to achieve a total (square foot) calculations.
(f) Trade or craft costs can be as much as, or painting cost. For The Painting and
interference/downtime. more than, all of the other example, if an area to be Decorating Contractors of
The coating application costs combined. (Chapters painted has a number of America (PDCA)
process (e.g., surface 10 and 11 provide pipes of various estimating guide provides
preparation) is time additional information on diameters, tables for calculating unit
consuming and may this subject.) areas in square feet as well
require traffic control, as labor rate figures for
stoppage of operating (h) Indirect costs. coating each of these unit
equipment, or downtime in Painting projects, as is true areas. After the square
the immediate vicinity of with most other footage has been
the work area. Also, construction or calculated, the time
nearby workers may object maintenance projects, required to conduct
to the noise, odors, and must be properly planned surface preparation and/or
potential hazards and require specifications, paint application also must
associated with the coating proper management, and be calculated for each unit
operations. Those adequate inspection to area for each category of
indirect costs also should ensure specification work (i.e., speed at
be evaluated when conformance. Although which a wall or floor
considering coating work these costs also must be can be coated might be
costs. considered when entirely different than the
evaluating other methods rate for coating a series of
(g) of corrosion protection, 76-mm [3-in.] pipes).
Environmental/health they are vital Thus, appropriate labor
and safety costs. considerations for all rates for each work item
Environmental, health, and coating projects. should be applied to the
safety factors are unit area of that work
extremely important and (11) Cost estimation item. The cost for unit
may be difficult to assess, and decision making. area multiplied by the
but potentially they can be Preparing accurate total area within each
expensive. The Federal estimates of the cost of category provides the total
Government, most states, painting is not easy, and cost of painting when all
and many local even professional categories are summed.
communities have strict estimators working for
environmental laws that painting contractors (b) Man-hour
must be obeyed. sometimes estimate estimates. Many
Similarly, in the area of inaccurately. Most cost nonpainting operations are
worker protection, OSHA estimates are based on one part of the overall costs of
requirements must be or more of the following: coating work. For
obeyed on any painting an estimation of the example,
job. The cost of surface area to be mobilization/demobilizatio
compliance during field painted, an estimation of n, rigging and scaffolding,
painting may be high in costs per unit surface area, time for inspection, time
5-
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30 Apr 95

for cleanup, and time for estimating guides;

equipment maintenance all however, most painting
must be considered when contractors and
estimating costs. These experienced coating
costs usually are estimated estimators know by
in man-hours or man-days experience what work
by the estimator. By productivity rates are.
knowing the particulars of Most painting contractors
the project, including its and professional
size, shape, completion estimators use their own
date, and areas to be labor rates and do not rely
coated, the estimator can on estimating guides.
approximate the size of the However, most specifiers
crew and the equipment use the labor rates
required. With this presented in estimating
information, a guides.
knowledgeable estimator
will prepare a schedule
sequencing a work order
for the job. The work
order will indicate when
moves must be made from
one area to another during
the course of the work.
The nonproductive costs
associated with each move
(i.e., transported
equipment, rigging, or
scaffolding) then can be
estimated for each move
and applied to the total job
costs. Similarly, during
the painting operations,
other costs (for inspection,
cleanup, touchup of
defective or damaged
areas, maintenance of
equipment, etc.) also
should be included.
These costs usually are
estimated in man-hours
per unit operation. The
estimator evaluates the
work to be done and
estimates the man-hours
needed to complete it.
The surface area being
painted is not calculated.

(c) Wage rate. The

wage rate of most
workers usually is known,
but the speed at which they
work is difficult to
estimate. Estimates of
labor rates are in
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30 Apr 95
(d) Cost of materials
and equipment. The
number of gallons of
paint, thinner, cleanup
solvents, etc., must be
estimated, based on the
square footage of the areas
being coated and
estimated loss factors
during the course of
application. Material loss
factors, including
overspray and materials
remaining in the can,
generally range from 20
to
50 percent of the total
paint purchased,
depending on weather
conditions and the type of
surface being coated.
Based on these estimates,
the total amount of paint
to be ordered and used on
a job can be calculated.
The cost of the equipment
used on a job also must be
estimated and might
include charges for the use
of compressors, spray
guns, airless or
conventional spray pots
or guns, air and paint
hoses, etc. Fuel costs for
diesel compressors and
electrical generators (if
required) also must be
estimated. Most painting
contractors have
developed standard cost
estimates for items such as
diesel fuel and electrical
consumption and can
estimate these rates on a
daily, weekly, or monthly
basis. These
equipment/material costs
must be factored into the
cost of painting. The cost
of consumable supplies
and equipment must be
estimated; abrasives,
cleaning rags and cloths,
respirators or respirator
cartridges, overalls or
5-26
protective clothing, construction or (c) Contractor
masking tape, and small maintenance painting estimatesitems or areas
tools such as scrapers or only a certain amount of to be painted are
wire brushes are all funding is set aside for determined, then one or
considered expendable coating work. No real more painting contractors
consumable items. The budget estimates are are asked to provide a cost
cost of these items must be made, and work is done by estimate to conduct the
estimated and applied to either a contractor or in- painting work.
the total cost of the job. house plant painting force
When each cost category until the funds are (d) Single-source
is properly estimated and depleted. painting programs
totaled, the comprehensive some coating
budget estimate for the manufacturers and
painting job can be made. independent coating
Costs for overhead, consultants have
insurance, licenses, taxes, established single source
etc. must be added to the painting programs
direct cost to arrive at a whereby a contract is
total cost. extended to the plant or
facility owner (usually at
(12) Alternate ways to a certain cost per year over
prepare coating budgets. a multiyear period). For
Rather than taking the the contracted cost, a
time and making the effort complete painting program
to detail the costs of a is established, and all
painting project as painting work is
described here, many conducted. Detailed
estimators budget coating budget estimates are made
work by other means. by the single-source
These estimates are contractor rather than the
generally less accurate facility owner. The
and may be subject to facility owner is given an
some bias. The accurate annual cost amount for
determination of painting painting to include in his
costs is important to maintenance budget.
management's decision to
provide budget funds for (e) No budget estimate
painting operations. Some some owners do not
commonly used budgeting prepare budgets but
techniques are given here: contract with a friendly
local painter or use their
(a) Budget estimates own work force to paint
for the current year based on an as needed basis.
on the cost of painting Costs are invoiced, usually
conducted in the previous on a monthly or weekly
year. Budget estimates basis. At the end of the
may be allocated on a painting season, the
total funds concept amount expended for
whereby a certain painting work can be
percentage of maintenance totaled.
funds are attributed to
maintenance painting. (13) Life cycle costs
of coating systems.
(b) Funding Accurate budget estimates
allocationswhether new should be made for each
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

of the corrosion protection provide management with

methods to be considered. the proper tools to make a
The budget estimates prudent decision. Thus,
should include costs for there are many
the initial work as well as alternatives available to
for all future maintenance the informed engineer to
activities to obtain a life protect a structure.
cycle cost. For example, Ultimately, however, the
initially the cost of economic selection of a
installing a stainless-steel- particular system
clad lining to a tank may involves two criteria:
be twice as much as
painting the tank, but over
a 20-year expected life
there may be no
maintenance costs. So
although it may cost half
as much to paint the tank
interior as to use a
stainless-steel lining, the
tank will need to be
repainted every 5 years.
Thus, over a
20-year-life cycle of the
tank, it will cost twice as
much to paint the tank as it
would to protect it with a
stainless-steel cladding.
However, when cash flow
is slow, painting may be
the most economical
means of corrosion
protection. If a decision
to paint is made, a hope
may be that future cash
flow or profitability will
improve and enable the
payment of expected
higher future maintenance
costs. Factors involved in
decision making are
complex and specific, and
they vary considerably
because of return on
investment strategies, tax
considerations, cash flow
availabilities, potential for
technological
advancement, legislative
restrictions and marketing,
or sales analyses.
However, the costs of
corrosion prevention
alternatives (including
painting) must be
estimated properly to
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5-28

duration of effective
protection and costs to
obtain effective protection.
(14) Estimating the
duration of protection.
(a) The length of
protection of a properly
selected and applied
protective coating system
will depend on the
corrosive environment.
Specific coating
recommendations for a
given environment can be
subclassified as subjective
and objective. The
problem with subjective
recommen- dations is one
of credibilitywhom to
believe. The experience
and biases of a person
making the statement
must be considered prior
to accepting a solution to
the problem. A subjective
recommendation may be
satisfactory for most small
painting jobs or industrial
application for which little
money will be expended.
However, for large jobs
when substantial funds
will be expended, or the
consequences of failure
will be serious,
misinformation may be
costly. As a result,
evaluation of protective
coatings using an objective
approach may be desired.
Objective evaluations of
the protective life of a
coating system are based
on the observation of
actual performance of
coating systems in a given
environment. If properly
conducted, empirical
evaluations generally are
considered more accurate
and usually provide the
basis for knowledgeable
recommendations.
Objective empirical testing
for convenience can be
subcategorized into
laboratory testing and field
testing.
(b) Laboratory testing
consists of standardized
tests involving various
atmospheric or immersion
test chambers and devices
for measuring flexibility,
extensibility, adhesion,
scratch or impact
resistance, and other
coating characteristics.
Field testing involves
coatings exposed in a
nonlaboratory corrosive
environment; examples are
test sections on a bridge or
water tank or coated test
panels placed in various
corrosive environments.
Generally, laboratory
testing precedes any field
testing. During the course
of either laboratory or field
testing, the coating being
tested is observed to
determine its mode and
rate of failure.
(c) Laboratory tests
frequently are designed to
accelerate failure
conditions found in the
field to reduce the time of
coating failure to a
reasonable period (usually
about 30 to
60 days). Acceleration
usually is accomplished
by increasing the exposure
extremes or increasing the
frequency of exposure to
corrosive elements (such
as salt fog cabinets and
weathering cabinets in
which a cycling exposure
of water and UV light
repeats every hour or so).
Both the exposure extreme
and the frequency of
exposure may be
combined in one test (such
as reagent or immersion
tests for coatings that in
service are not expected to
withstand strong chemical
or immersion conditions).
These tests will give a
ranking of performance field testing is often the
and provide a screening,
but not necessarily a
duration of protection. provide an estimate of
Generally, the best
service environment in
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
performing coating
specimen in a laboratory
test series will also
perform well in actual use.
However, this is not
always a valid
assumption. Actual
preferred and most
accurate method to
duration of protection,
which is generally
expressed in months or
years.
(d) Most field tests
are not accelerated tests
but are coating exposures
in the actual (or similar)
which the coating is
expected to be used.
Therefore, failure is not
accelerated. Coating
systems being tested will
deteriorate at the same rate
as the coating will be
expected to deteriorate in
actual service under the
same conditions. Field
tests may not be fully
representative of field
conditions if there are
environmental changes,
mechanical or flexural
influences, and other
factors that are not
adequately induced into
the test protocol. Because
coating systems for
atmospheric exposure
protect for
15 years or more, real
time testing to failure
is not practical. However,
close observation of
candidate coatings and
their comparative rate of
degradation will enable
selection of the best
coatings prior to complete
failure. This observation
is commonly done in field
testing and when using test
5-
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30 Apr 95

panels. Suitable important as the

selection criterion can be aggressiveness of the
obtained within 6 to 24 exposure environment
months for many systems. increases. When properly
The best method of applied, a coatings rate of
determining the extent and success is directly in
duration of protection is proportion to its adhesive
to observe and record bond strength. As a
the failure history of a result, various USACE
given system in actual use. exposure environments
If care is taken and proper will be discussed below
records are kept, this with regard to the
determination can and minimum surface
should be done for every preparations required to
protection system in use. provide adequate adhesion
Unfortunately, for the various exposures.
information thus obtained Four exposure
often becomes obsolete as environments can be used
superior coatings and to categorize a vast
protective methods majority of
become available and
technology advances.

5-4.
Service
Environme
nts for
USACE
Structures

Of primary importance in
coating selection is the
degree of surface
cleanliness. Proper
surface preparation is
necessary to create a
satisfactory level of
adhesion between the
applied coating system
and the substrate.
Adhesion is a key
characteristic affecting
coating performance.
Various generic coating
types may achieve
adhesion by different
methods. For example,
the coating may form a
protective thin film by
merely lying on the
surface, or there may be a
chemical reaction with the
substrate. Good coating
adhesion is an essential
coating characteristic and
becomes even more
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5-
31
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USACE painting projects:
interior; atmospheric,
normal weathering;
atmospheric, severe
weathering; and
immersion or frequent
wetting by splash, spray,
or condensation from fresh
or salt water. Although
immersion and frequent
wetting initially may
appear to be different
exposures, experience
shows that, generally, the
same generic coating
systems are successfully
used in both exposures.
The information on
selecting a coating system
discussed earlier in this
chapter will be particularly
helpful in identifying
coatings that will perform
well in these exposures.
a. Interior exposure.
Interior surfaces are
classified as those that are
located within weather-
tight structures and are not
exposed to atmospheric
elements. Although the
majority of these
exposures are mild, there
may be circumstances
under which conditions
may alter an environment
and a more corrosion-
resistant coating may be
required. For example,
unanticipated leakage or
equipment malfunctions
may result in added
environmental stresses,
such as condensating
moisture or high humidity
within an otherwise
normal environment.
Additionally, areas or
items that, for various
reasons, may become
inaccessible after
installation or construction
should be carefully coated
to assure that a coating
5-32
system for adequate long- constantly cool or cold environment or a heavily
term protection is applied. climates. Therefore, a contaminated industrial
Interior exposure is the coating system capable of exposure is extremely
mildest exposure withstanding a variety of corrosive. Coatings with
environment a coating will exposure conditions is increased resistance to
encounter. Products used essential. With strong these environmental
on interior surfaces may adhesion qualities, the conditions are required.
be used for aesthetics or coating can withstand most These types of exposure
decorative purposes only. environmental stresses that conditions are considered
However, in some otherwise would affect its to be moderate to severely
instances a coating system integrity. corrosive to a coating
must be able to perform in system, and coating
areas of frequent cleaning c. Atmospheric, systems must be selected
and scrubbing (i.e., high severe exposure. A accordingly.
traffic areas, restrooms). salt-laden marine
Generally, there are (1) When a
restrictions on the type weathering environment
of preparations that becomes further
can be performed complicated by the
indoors. There are few, if addition of severe
any, extraneous influences exposure elements (e.g.,
that could stress a coating corrosive chemicals, high
under circumstances to humidity, severe abrasion,
adversely affect adhesion. or salt conditions), more
However, care must be sophisticated surface
taken to choose coating preparation techniques
systems that are must be used. These
compatible with each other added exposure elements
and the substrate to which will stress the coating
they are applied. system at the point of
Particular assistance in weakest adhesion. The
this regard is discussed in coating must exhibit good
Chapter 4. adhesion, and a high
order of coating
b. Atmospheric, resistance will be
normal weathering. required (e.g., a two-part
Weather resistance is the epoxy or urethane
key variable in coating). As the service
atmospheric exposures, but demands on a coating
this environment can be system become greater, so
extremely complex. A does the need for more
coating in atmospheric thorough surface
exposure must be capable preparation. Abrasive
of withstanding a variety blast cleaning is required
of conditions that include to achieve optimal
cyclic heating and cooling, cleanliness and adhesion.
airborne contamination,
alternate wetting and (2) New generation
drying, UV resistance, and two-part surface tolerant
maximum exposure to the epoxy mastic coatings are
deteriorating effects of gaining rapid acceptance
oxidation. Exposures also in severe atmospheric
may vary from hot, dry exposures. Technological
climates and humid, advances within the
tropical environments to protective coating industry
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

have brought about Therefore, no one coating

development of coatings system can be effective
that exhibit excellent under all water conditions.
surface wetting For example, dam gates
characteristics, rust and trash racks may
inhibition, abrasion require a coating system
resistance, and chemical different from that of the
resistance. These mastics flume bringing water into
can be applied to the dam. Additionally,
marginally prepared different types of water
surfaces, such as hand- may be encountered, such
tool or power- tool as deionized acidic or
cleaning, and show sulfide water. Highly
improved service life in conductive water, such as
situations in which seawater, leads to rapid
abrasive blast cleaning formation
may not be feasible.
Although epoxy mastics
provide improved
performance, they do not
perform as well as
equivalent paints applied
to a higher degree of
surface preparation. As a
general rule, the more
severe the environment
encountered, the more
resistant the coating must
be; consequently, the more
precise the surface
preparation requirement
becomes.

d. Immersion or
frequent wetting
exposure.

(1) Most immersion

or frequent wetting of
USACE structures
involves exposure to fresh
water or seawater. The
effect of water on most
coating materials is
extremely severe.
Resistance to water is
perhaps the most
important coating
characteristic because all
coatings come into contact
with moisture in one form
or another. Water, which
affects all organic
materials in some way, is
actually close to being a
universal solvent.
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5-34

of anode/cathode areas on
the steel that result in
severe pitting. The rate of
corrosion is proportional
to the amount of oxygen in
the water; water with a
high oxygen content will
create similar anode
cathode corrosion areas.
Therefore, no single type
of material will provide
a universal answer to
coating problems. The
water molecule is
extremely small and has
the ability to penetrate into
and through most
inorganic compounds.
The water molecule
passes through the
intermolecular spaces of
the organic material and
either can remain there in
an absorbed state or can
pass through the
compound. Moisture
generally will come to an
equilibrium, with as many
water molecules passing
into the organic material
as evaporating out of the
surface. So a relatively
constant water content is
maintained in the organic
material, depending on the
moisture vapor at any
given time.
(2) Because of this
highly penetrating
characteristic, water has
more of an effect on
organic compounds than
any other material.
Because most coatings are
organic in nature, they
must have the highest
possible moisture
resistance to maintain their
properties and provide
their structure with a long
period of corrosion
protection. For a high
performance, corrosion-
resistant coating to have a
water resistance, it must
withstand continuous
immersion in water or
seawater, and it must do so
without blistering,
cracking, softening,
swelling, or loss of
adhesion. It also must
withstand repeated cycles
of wet and dry conditions
and abrasion from floating
ice and debris. Coatings
tend to absorb and retain
water in their molecular
spaces, and each coating
has a level of water
absorption. If a coating is
strongly adhesive and
there is no interface
between the coating and
the substrate, the moisture
will remain in a relatively
inert state. At any given
moisture pressure, as
many molecules leave the
coating as enter it. Thus,
the best corrosion-resistant
coatings generally have the
lowest water absorption
rates (e.g., CTEs, vinyls,
and inorganic, zinc-rich
coatings).
(3) The moisture vapor
transfer rate is the rate at
which moisture vapor
transfers a protective
coating when there is a
difference in moisture
vapor pressure on one side
of the coating compared to
the other side. Each
coating also has a
characteristic moisture
vapor transfer rate.
Generally, the lower the
moisture vapor transfer
rate, the better the
protection provided by a
corrosion-resistant
coating. The transfer of
moisture through a coating
depends on the difference
in pressure between the
two sides of the coating.
There is no difference in
pressure from one side to
the other if the coating has
excellent adhesion, and the
coating soon comes to
equilibrium with the
moisture in the air or the
water in the surface of
the coating. The water
molecules penetrate into
the coating and are
absorbed while an
equivalent number are
evaporated from the
coating, so the amount of
moisture in the coating
remains constant.
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
(4) If the coating has
poor adhesion, either
inherently or because it
has been applied over a
contaminated surface,
there is an interface
between the coating and
the steel (as in dam gates
and trash racks) and
moisture vapor can
transfer into this area.
Soon after the coating is
applied, there is little
moisture vapor pressure on
the interface area, so there
is a tendency for
moisture to pass in the
direction of the poor
adhesion. Moisture can
condense in this space or,
if the temperature of the
coating increases, the
moisture vapor within the
void can develop sufficient
pressure to create a blister.
With poor adhesion, the
moisture vapor can
penetrate between the steel
and the coating, expanding
the blister.
(5) The primary
requirements for coating to
be used for immersion are
good adhesion and
resistance to moisture
vapor transfer, ionic
penetration, osmosis,
chemicals, cathodic
disbondment, and
variations in temperature.
Snow water, distilled
water, or deionized water
are close to if not the most
penetrating of all the
chemicals in which a
coating is immersed. But,
as the content of the
water is increased it
becomes more aggressive;
primarily because it is
much more conductive and
corrosion can take place at
a much more rapid rate.
Although it is commonly
5-
35
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

known that seawater is formulated with

aggressive, polluted fresh exceptionally long service
water may be more lives, primarily because
destructive to coatings they are used to prevent
than some seawater. marine organisms from
When choosing a coating fouling on smooth and
system for an immersion regular surfaces of ships at
environment, the rest. Since ships are
conditions should be frequently dry docked, and
precisely determined prior cleaning and repainting
to selection. Even operations can take place,
solutions with minor the need for antifoulant
contaminants that were coatings with an extended
scarce enough to be service life is not
deemed unimportant necessary. Initially,
have caused many antifoulants would appear
coating failures in to be a logical system
immersion conditions. choice for USACE
structures with similar
(6) Protecting metallic exposures.
structures immersed in
fresh water is a complex
problem. However, when
the additional corrosive
elements in seawater
become apparent, the
destructive magnitude of
this exposure environment
becomes considerably
more intricate and
complex. Structures
immersed in seawater, like
their freshwater
counterparts, naturally
experience multiple
exposure environments.
The salinity of seawater
and its associated high
electrical conductivity,
along with the surface
growth organisms, greatly
contribute to the overall
corrosivity of seawater.
These organisms become
destructive when they
attach themselves to, and
physically penetrate into, a
coating film. This growth
process is commonly
known as fouling;
coatings developed to
prevent or inhibit this
process are called
antifoulants.
Unfortunately antifoulant
coatings are not
5-36
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30 Apr 95

5-
37
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
However, on closer
examination and through
experience with
questionable performance
of antifoulants applied to
irregularly shaped fixed
structures (such as gates),
this system option has not
proven to be highly
successful. Therefore,
choosing antifoulant paints
as a coating system for
some USACE structures
should be carefully
considered. A discussion
of coating systems for
structures immersed in
seawater would be remiss
if it did not also reference
splash zone or surfaces
continually wet by well
aerated seawater.
Experience has shown that
paint films normally
deteriorate more rapidly in
splash zones than in other
zones, primarily because
the abundance of oxygen
fuels the corrosion
process.
(7) Coating systems
applied in such
environments as
immersion or frequent
wetting exposures require
a high degree of surface
preparation. The
minimum requirement is
generally that presented
in SSPC-SP 5. All forms
of surface contamination,
including possible chloride
contamination from salt
water, must be removed,
and coatings formulated
for the required immersion
resistance need to be
used. Coatings that
typically perform well in
immersion or frequent
wetting exposures are
discussed in Chapter 4.
5-5. Coating
5-38
System would be new formulations of alkyd
Selection for technology versions of generic coatings would
Ferrous direct-to-metal (DTM) 100 perform satisfactorily.
C percent acrylic waterborne
o industrial coatings and (2) Candidate
m higher solid VOC- maintenance systems.
p compliant alkyd primer Candidate maintenance
o systems. systems would be high
n solids VOC-compliant
e b. Ferrous metal lead- and chromate-free
n components subject to versions of alkyd primers
t atmospheric weathering
and finish coats. Most
s normal.
existing alkyd systems can
be successfully recoated
i (1) Current coating with long oil alkyd resin
n systems. Current alkyd
systems. Additionally,
coating systems required DTM waterborne, 100
F in CWGS 09940 (systems percent acrylic primers
r 1 and 2) are: linseed oil and finishes are successful
e primer/phenolic aluminum
in overcoating existing or
s (two coats) and linseed oil
aged alkyd systems. New
h and alkyd primer/phenolic
generation acrylics
aluminum (two coats). In provide more superior
W this normal atmospheric
gloss retention, color
a weathering exposure,
retention, flexibility, and
t many
weatherability than
e
r traditional alkyd systems.
Water-reducible alkyd
a. Ferrous metal systems also have found
components. market acceptance;
however, their
(1) Current alkyd performance
coating systems characteristics do not rival
required in CWGS those of DTM acrylics.
09940 (systems 1 and 2)
are: alkyd primer/phenolic (3) Candidate systems
aluminum paint (two for new steel. Candidate
coats), rust-inhibitive systems for new steel
linseed oil and alkyd would be high solids
primer (two coats), and VOC-compliant versions
rust-inhibitive linseed oil of exterior alkyds both
and alkyd primer/alkyd waterborne and solvent
gloss enamel (two coats). reducible. Strong
Because these coating competitors to the
systems are for mild traditional alkyd systems
interior exposures and are the new generation
basically consist of primer waterborne acrylic
only formulations, they are industrial primers and
readily touched up. finish coatings. Much
Surface preparation may like their alkyd
be performed by hand- or counterparts, waterborne
power-tool cleaning. acrylic coatings are easy to
apply and relatively
(2) Candidate inexpensive, but have the
maintenance systems added advantages of
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

improved gloss retention, systems. Current alkyd

weatherability, and low coating systems required
odor. in CWGS 09940 (systems
1 and 2) are: linseed oil
(4) Special concerns primer/phenolic aluminum
and cautions. Portions (two coats) and linseed oil
of these alkyd coatings and alkyd primer/phenolic
applications will be done aluminum (two coats).
in the shop. Surface
preparation for a normal
atmospheric weathering
exposure is commonly
accomplished by
complying with SSPC-SP
1, SSPC-SP 2, or
SSPC-SP 3. Of
primary concern is that
these ferrous metal
components are often
shop-primed and placed in
storage for an extended
period prior to final
erection and finish
coating. Untopcoated,
these primers do not
possess good
weatherability; therefore,
appropriate precautions
must be taken to properly
protect the structure while
in storage. Adequate
protective coverings to
protect from moisture and
debris accumulation on
the substrate are
necessary. Additionally,
proper blocking and
stacking techniques
should be used to avoid
ground contact in storage.
Prior to erection and
before finish coating, a
careful inspection will be
necessary to identify
deficiencies (such as
prime coat handling or
erection damage) and for
preparation and touchup
as appropriate.

c. Ferrous metal
components subject to
atmospheric weathering
severe.

(1) Current coating

5-
39
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-40

Other systems would be additional coats of paint.
those as identified in 5- For example, applying a
5b above, with the second coat of primer or
special concerns and another finish coat would
cautions identified in improve the protective
item quality of the coating.
5-5c(4) below. Additionally, surface
preparation may be
(2) Candidate upgraded to abrasive blast
maintenance systems. cleaning per SSPC-SP 6.
Candidate maintenance However, there may be
systems would be those instances when a unique
described in 5-5b above, exposure will require a
with special concerns and change in a generic
cautions as identified in coating type. These
5-5c(4) below. situations can be addressed
on a case-by-case basis.
(3) Candidate systems
for new steel. Candidate (b) There is no clear-
systems for new steel cut parameter to describe a
would be those previously marine- exposure
described in 5-5b above, environment. Although
with the special concerns corrosion is accelerated by
and cautions as identified the moisture- and salt-
in 5-5c(4) below being laden air, the degree of
applicable. corrosivity varies from
mild to severe.
(4) Special concerns Generally, corrosion is
and cautions. intensified or decreased in
proportion to the distance
(a) The anticipated from the shore, with a
difference between rapid decrease in
normal weathering and corrosivity as the distance
severe weathering from the shore increases.
environments generally As with other severe
does not necessitate atmospheric exposures, a
changing the coating mild marine environment
systems. Traditionally, can be adequately
systems that perform well protected by improving
in Atmospheric surface preparation
WeatheringNormal cleanliness or adding
environments also will coating film build as
perform under these previously described in 5-
Atmospheric Weathering 5c(4)(a) above. Because
Severe exposures. corrosion and film
However, the longevity of undercutting, especially at
the system may shorten. points of discontinuity in
Consequently, several the coating film, are
options can be used within greatly accelerated in the
these normal and/or severe presence of salt, locations
atmospheric weathering close to salt water require
environments to improve special attention. Chlorides
system service life, e.g., (salt) are often invisible
improving the surface contaminants, and their
cleanliness or applying presence may go
undetected. Salts can
present complex problems
in surface preparation if
they are not successfully
removed. Specialized test
methods assure that
chloride contamination has
been adequately removed
(see Chapter 9).
system is coupled with an
inhibitive zinc-rich primer.
immersion and frequent
wettingfresh
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
Because the salts are water
soluble, common methods
of removal are by steam
cleaning or pressure water
blasting. The methods
should be accomplished
prior to general surface
preparation to prevent the
redistribution of chloride
contamination. In highly
contaminated
environments, the
complete removal of salts
and the upgrading of
surface cleanliness are
extremely important.
(c) Alkyd systems
generally have been found
to provide adequate
protection in mild-marine
environments, with
corresponding
improvements in surface
preparation or added film
build, as the severity of
the exposure increases.
In more severe exposures,
as on complex structures
in proximity to seawater,
consideration must be
given to choosing a
generic coating of
superior resistance.
Experience has shown that
vinyl systems perform
well in these situations.
Improved protection is
noted when this vinyl
d. Ferrous metal
(inland
waters) or prolonged
wetting by splash, spray,
or condensation.
(1) Current coating
systems. Metallized
systems requirements are
specified in CWGS 05036.
Current vinyl, CTE, and
epoxy polyamide coating
5-
41
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

systems specified in structures that cannot be

CWGS 09940 are: taken out of service for
long periods of time.
Vinyl (four to five Proper spot repair can
coats)
Zinc-rich
vinyl/vinyl (three
coats) 1

CTE (two Du
Po
coats)/CTE (two coats) nt
Zinc-rich epoxy Co
(two coats)/CTE (two mp
coats) an
y,
Epoxy polyamide Wi
(two to three coats) lm
Zinc-rich epoxy ing
ton
(two coats)/epoxy ,
polyamide (two to De
four coats) la
Systems which wa
re.
have performed
well in
Immersion and
Frequent Wetting
Fresh (Inland
Waters) or
Prolonged

Wetting by
Splash, Spray,
or Condensation
environments
which are not listed
in CWGS 09940
are formulations
of phenolics, coal
tars, asphalts,
1
Neoprenes ,
inorganic zinc-rich,
and organic zinc-
rich coatings.

(2) Maintenance
painting. Maintenance
painting, such as spot
touchup, frequently is
required to repair smaller
failing or damaged areas
on a structure. This
process further lengthens
the service life of a
structure with an
otherwise intact coating
system. These
maintenance repairs
frequently are made to
5-42
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-
43
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

permit the structure to enacted. of their exceptional (b) Zinc-rich epoxy

remain in service until it hardness, they are prone to and zinc-rich vinyl
is feasible to shut down (4) Special concerns intercoat delamination coatings, in addition to
for complete maintenance and cautions. Special problems if critical recoat being somewhat difficult
repainting. Obviously, concerns and cautions with times are not observed. to apply, require constant
surface preparation existing systems are When overcoating for agitation to prevent heavy
techniques are limited and straightforward. The maintenance purposes, metallic zinc particles
are generally on the order coating systems listed in CTEs can present special from falling out of
of those given in SSPC-SP CWGS 09940 for surface preparation suspension in the
2 or SSPC-SP 3. Viable Immersion and Frequent difficulties. When container. If not properly
candidates for such WettingFresh (Inland overcoating is required, agitated, the resultant
nonpermanent repairs are Waters) or Prolonged the manufacturer should be spray-applied film will not
solvent-based coal tars and Wetting by Splash, Spray, contacted for special be homogeneous in regard
surface tolerant, two- part or Condensation all surface preparation to proper zinc particle
immersion-grade epoxy require a high degree of requirements. Generally, distribution throughout the
mastic coatings. Keep in surface preparation, the minimum requirement dry film. Consequently,
mind that these repairs are generally, a minimum of would be brush-off blast the galvanic protection
considered only temporary abrasive blast cleaning cleaning. properties of the zinc
to preserve the structure per SSPC-SP 5. coating are inhibited.
until proper blast cleaning Because high
and recoating with a performance systems are e. Painting of
system shown in CWGS generally spray applied, penstocks, spiral cases,
09940 can be highly skilled applicators spiral case extensions,
accomplished. are required, particularly and draft tube liners.
on detailed and intricate
(3) Candidate systems. structures. Vinyls are (1) Interior water
Candidate coating systems solvent deposited so they contacting surfaces.
for new steel are recent are easily cleaned and
technological softened by higher solvent (a) Preferred systems.
developments in strength aromatic Of the existing systems
formulations of epoxies, hydrocarbons and ketones, listed in CWGS 09940 for
such as epoxy novalacs such as methyl ethyl painting penstocks, spiral
and ketone (MEK). Properties cases, spiral case
100 percent solid epoxies. such as ease of cleaning extensions, and draft tube
Additionally, 100 percent and resoftening with liners, CWGS 09940
solid versions of solvent allow vinyls to be system
polyurethane coatings are easier recoated and 6, based on CTE, has
rapidly gaining provide good bonding provided a good history of
recognition. between cleaned coats. corrosion protection and
Unfortunately, as with Also vinyls, as a result of would be considered the
some new technologies, their curing mechanism, preferred coating option.
specialized methods of often can be applied at CWGS 09940 vinyl
application are much cooler temperatures. systems of the 4, 5,
necessary. The Unfortunately, the and
100 percent solid manufacture of VOC- 6 series have also
coatings often require complaint formulations of proven successful when
complex plural vinyls is progressing rather painting penstocks, spiral
component spray slowly, and the future use cases, spiral case
equipment. Therefore, of these coatings may extension, and draft tube
skilled applicators are become more restricted. liners.
essential when using these
systems. Industry-wide (a) CTEs provide (b) Special
use of these systems will exceptional performance concerns/cautions. The
become prevalent as more but are inherently curing mechanism of CTE
restrictive VOC limits are difficult to apply. Because is temperature dependent.
5-44
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

Therefore, cool (surface, moisture). Therefore,

material, ambient CWGS 09940, system 3
temperatures <10 C (50 (vinyl) is the preferred
F)) temperatures would system of corrosion
slow the curing/reaction protection. Also, because
process and could vinyls dry rapidly by
negatively impact solvent evaporation, they
construction scheduling. are more readily adaptable
Conversely, vinyls, such to the difficult drying
as the 4, 5, and 6 series, condition encountered on
cure by the mechanism of exterior surfaces of
solvent evaporation, penstocks and
which permits application appurtenances than other
and curing. Where there generic types, such as
is severe abrasion or high epoxy or CTE.
water velocities with large
amounts of suspended
abrasive matter (debris,
ice, etc.), vinyls provide
comparable performance
to CTEs, but with the
added flexibility of
application at lower
temperatures and fast
dry/cure.

(2) Exterior surfaces

of penstocks and

appurtenances. (a)

Preferred system.

Because of variable

exposures of
items on the exterior
surfaces of penstocks
and
appurtenances ranging
from outside weathering
surfaces of penstocks to
penstocks in humid
tunnels, various systems
are needed to adequately
protect exterior surfaces of
penstocks and
appurtenances. Because
there may be considerable
variability in exposures, it
is necessary to choose a
system that will perform
in the most severe
exposure (high humidity
and condensating
5-
45
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-46
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

(b) Dehumidification f. Surge tanks. be used. Surface g. Crest gates.

equipment. Particularly in preparation would be
summer months, (1) Interior surfaces of sandblasting as outlined in (1) Existing exposures
condensating moisture and surge tanks. Surge tank CWGS 09940. If the on crest gates may range
humidity present difficult interiors are well protected exposure environment is from normal weathering
problems in the coating of by using CWGS 09940 not clearly defined, the exposure to areas of
penstocks. Warm, vinyl systems (3, vinyl system, which immersion and frequent
moisture-laden air passing 4, and 5 series) and CTE exhibits good resistance to wetting. Exposures
through the cool air system (system 6). When both exposures (normal such as immersion and
naturally causes painting surge tank weathering or high frequent wetting are best
condensating moisture on interiors, mixed exposure moisture), should be used. protected using CWGS
the surfaces. conditions necessitate 09940 system 3, 4, or 5.
Dehumidification coating systems Normal weathering
equipment will be formidable to the exposure areas of crest
necessary to create exposure. Although there gates would be well
ambient conditions more appears to be no clear protected using CWGS
favorable to coatings preference for CTE or 09940 systems 1 and 2 for
application. vinyl, a case- by-case steel in normal
consideration can aid in atmospheric exposures.
(c) Special concerns system selection. For
and cautions. In economic reasons and (2) Special
repair, replacement, or simplicity, it is advisable cautions/concerns in
new construction of to coat the surge tank coating crest gates may
penstocks, hydrostatic surfaces with the same include variable exposure
pressure testing usually is system as used in the environments impacting
required prior to placing penstocks. on crest gates and
the system in service. depending on whether the
Testing requires that (2) Exterior surfaces painting surfaces are
certain weld seams remain of surge tanks. exposed upstream or
uncoated until testing is downstream. The
complete. Field touchup (a) Exterior surge upstream side usually will
of welds may leave the tank surfaces can be receive the most severe
structure with an effectively protected with exposure (immersion,
aesthetically unpleasing CWGS 09940 system 2, abrasion, etc.). However,
patchwork appearance, linseed oil and alkyd depending on certain
and adjacent coating may primer/phenolic aluminum conditions such as high
be damaged in the repair or system 3, vinyl, with the tailwaters, downstream
process. Therefore, determining factor being surfaces also may
USACE prefers to the actual exposure. experience rather harsh
prepare and coat exposures. Therefore,
penstocks completely in (b) Special concerns the most long-term, cost-
the field. Unfortunately, and cautions are effective method of
field painting of completed necessary when painting coating would be the
penstocks presents surge tank exteriors. As exclusive use of CW
particular health, fire, and with many other USACE 09440 system 3 (vinyl
explosion hazards, which components, normal with aluminum topcoats);
must be carefully weathering predisposes the or, if superior abrasion and
controlled with properly use of system 2 when mar resistance to debris
engineered ventilation climatic conditions or and/or seasonal ice is
systems (see Chapter 10). reservoir temperatures desirable, use CWGS
Special concerns with produce frequent wetting 09940 vinyl system 4 or 5
spent abrasive recovery, or prolonged periods of series.
handling, and disposal also condensating moisture.
must be addressed. Under such conditions, h. Control gates and
vinyl (system 3) should valves of reservoir
5-
47
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

outlet works. Structures in low-to-

(1) Preferred systems.
Existing coatings listed
in CWGS 09940 for
control gates and valves
of reservoir outlet works
frequently are dependent
on the level of exposure.
CWGS 09940 systems 3,
4, 5, and 6 series,
vinyls, and CTE are viable
choices. Special attention
should be given to the
following concerns and
cautions when specifying
a coating system.
moderate water velocities
(45.7 to 61.0 mm/sec [15
to 20 ft/sec]) with abrasive
qualities are good
candidates for coating
with CWGS 09940 system
4 or 5 series or CTE.
However, if extremely
severe conditions can
exist, neither of these
systems are advisable,

(2) Special concerns

and cautions.

(a) Coating selection

may vary considerably
from project to project,
depending on the
following variables.
Whether the water control
device is operated fully
opened or partially opened
is important. If operated
fully opened, whether the
component is removed
from the flowing stream of
water should be noted;
the component may be
exposed to various
degrees of abrasive ice-
and/or debris-filled, fast-
moving, turbulent water.
If operated in the partially
closed position or if
exposed to flowing water,
the severity of erosion and
abrasion would be
magnified. Additionally,
the elevation and other
characteristics of the
service inlet may permit
abrasives (ice, debris
suspended matter, etc.) to
adversely impact the
system's service life.
With this in mind, the
following coating
recommendations should
be carefully considered.
5-48
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

5-
49
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
and one of the specially
reinforced systems (see
Chapter 4) may be
appropriate. Many types
of gates (slide gates,
tainter gates, tractor gates,
fixed wheel, etc.) can be
painted without difficulty;
however, special attention
is required when painting
tractor gates. Specifically,
the stainless steel roller
chain and track assembly
must be carefully
protected during field
painting. While in the
erection phase, the roller
chain most likely will not
be installed, the stainless
steel track will be bolted
to the gate. Care must
be taken to mask off or
otherwise protect these
track surfaces properly
from blast damage, and to
seal off bearings and other
rubbing surfaces from
abrasive blast particles.
(b) As previously
discussed in this
chapter and Chapter 2, a
strong potential for
galvanic corrosion can be
set up by the coupling of
dissimilar metals, such as
stainless steel roller chains
and tracks with tractor
gate carbon steel surfaces.
Therefore, a cathodic
protection (CP) system
frequently is used for
enhanced corrosion
prevention of the carbon
steel surfaces on these
gates. The specified
coating must exhibit high
dielectric strength, in
addition to being carefully
applied to avoid holidays.
In this regard (high
dielectric strengths), the
use of CTE is superior to
vinyl systems and is
recommended for use on
5-50
control gates and valves of coat trashracks. From
reservoir outlet works in i. Trashracks for a design standpoint,
conjunction with a CP water intakes. trashracks present
system. Discussions of numerous coating
total field painting (1) CWGS 09940 difficulties, such as sharp
procedures revealed that systems 4 and 5 series edges. Because of their
fewer holidays are noted (vinyl) with zinc-rich design and the fact that
when surface preparation primers provide the best they are subject to flowing
and painting are done protection to difficult-to- water with abrasive debris,
entirely after erection in seasonal ice, and
the field. Therefore, these mechanical raking
gates should be totally damage, coating service
field painted with CP life typically is shortened.
systems attached. Therefore, trashracks may
Alternatively, total shop best be left uncoated, with
painting with CTE and the possible exception of
attaching CP anodes prior those in environments of
to installation, with no severe corrosivity. If
field touchup, also has these items are coated, a
proven to be effective and periodic structural
economical. Also, CP is integrity inspection
particularly effective in program is highly
protecting bare steel recommended.
exposed as a result of Oftentimes, it is more cost
damage from impact or effective and easier to
abrasion which may occur fabricate new racks than to
while the structure is in attempt to refurbish
service. existing ones.
(c) If the foregoing (2) Special
preferred options are not concerns/cautions when
possible, careful coating these items are
consideration of the straightforward. When
difficulties with recoating the abrasive gouging
CTEs should be addressed. action of ice is present,
Specialized surface systems 4 and 5 series
preparations, such as brush (vinyl) perform well; the
blasting, will be required if zinc-rich primer systems
critical recoating times are provide the best
exceeded. performance. If the
outage period is short or
(d) Hydraulic lines on the weather is cool, the
control gates and valves faster dry, low-application-
of reservoir outlet works temperature (>2 C (35
also present unique coating F)) vinyl systems would
problems, particularly if be appropriate coating
they are immersed in water choices.
because hydraulic lines are
vulnerable to exposure j. Navigation lock
damage (from ice, debris, gates, valves, and
etc.). These hydraulic miscellaneous submerged
lines should be isolated metal. Lock gates and
with dielectric coupling valves are well protected
and cathodically in this exposure using
protected. CWGS 09940 vinyl
 EM 1110-2-3400
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(systems 4 and coating with vinyls.

5 series) and CTE (system
6). The massive lockwall l. Freshwater
armor and protection (including potable)
angles are not critical to tanks.
basic project functioning.
Painting on construction (1) Preferred systems.
(CWGS 09940 system Existing systems for
2) and possibly periodic freshwater
maintenance for aesthetic
purposes appears to be
practical.

k. Navigation dam
gates.

(1) Systems in
existence are CWGS
09940, vinyl systems 4
and 5.

(2) Special concerns

and cautions in painting
navigation dam gates
involve exposures unique
to the structure. Gates are
generally of the roller,
tainter, or vertical-lift
type. The exposure
environment is that of
turbulent water, physically
trapped abrasive debris,
drift materials, and
seasonal ice. The
abrasion-resistant qualities
of system 4 or 5 generally
are thought sufficient to
provide good protection.
However, in extreme
conditions, metallized
systems (see Chapter 4)
should be considered.
Roller and tainter gates
have interior and exterior
surfaces that require
painting. Because grating
protects the interior from
abrasion, CWGS 09940
system 3 will provide
adequate protection.
Vinyls are high in solvent
fumes and highly
flammable; therefore,
special care (see Chapter
10) is required for
ventilation systems when
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5-52

tanks are CWGS
09940 vinyl
system 3, 4, or 5
series. (2) Special
concerns and
cautions.
(a) Potable water tank
lining demands coating
systems free of harmful
toxic chemicals. Special
regulations, such as those
of the NSF, govern such
coating systems. Vinyls,
because of their inert
qualities, readily lend
themselves to immersion
in freshwater (including
potable) tanks. They are
neither toxic nor
physically harmful to the
person who drinks water
that has come in contact
with these coatings.
(b) Abrasion action
from ice movement is
often a factor in colder
climates. Systems 4 and
5 series should be used in
lieu of the less abrasion-
resistant system 3.
(c) In conjunction
with cool water stored
in a tank interior,
condensating moisture
frequently is found on the
exterior surfaces of the
vessel. If this
condensation becomes
commonplace, the use of
CWGS 09940 system 3
on the exterior surface is
advisable.
m. Equipment for
local protection
projects. The
equipment for local
protection projects (slide
gates, flap gates, etc.) and
the portion of pumping
units below the pumping
station operating floor
should be painted with a
cold-applied coal-tar
paint system, system
7 from CWGS 09940.
This system is used
because the
manufacturers of the
equipment involved are
not prepared to thoroughly
blast and apply the more
costly and less user-
friendly vinyl systems.
Moreover, local flood-
protection projects are
given to local authorities,
who are responsible for
the maintenance of the
completed project, and the
maintenance of surfaces
painted as advised here is
more within their
capabilities and
experience. In essence,
the recommended systems
are more user-friendly and
surface tolerant to the
inexperienced applicator.
Miscellaneous items of
fabricated steel should be
hot-dip galvanized after
fabrication.
Specifications for pump
discharge lines are given
in EM 1110-2-3105; they
are to be coated on the
inside with hot-applied,
coal-tar enamel; however,
this procedure is difficult
in coating operations in
small diameter piping. If
the lines are buried in
soil, the outside of the
lines must be coated
with hot enamel plus a
felt wrap, which is
applied in the shop in
accordance with the
American Waterworks
Association (AWWA)
Standard C203-91. The
CTE, CWGS 09940
system 6 or 6AZ, also
would be highly effective
on discharge lines but it is
not routinely available as
a shop-applied coating.
n. Floating plant
(steel construction)
operating in fresh water.
Varying surfaces and
exposure environments are
associated with the
painting of a floating
plant. Although this in
itself is not unique, the
additional color scheme
EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
regulations imposed by
ER 1125-2-303 often
require the specifier to
employ some alternative
system combinations.
Federal Color Standard
595 is used to dictate
many of the color schemes
for floating plants.
Certain of the smaller
crafts, such as skiffs,
rowboats, launches, small
boats, barges, and scows,
are exempt from color
scheme requirements.
The following paragraph
addresses coating
application to the
component.
o. Exterior surfaces of
steel hulls.
(1) Certain
modifications of CWGS
09940 vinyl systems
4 and 5 can acceptably
accomplish coating of the
entire hull. When special
color concerns as
identified in CWGS 09940
are necessary, such as hull
surfaces above the
waterline, substituting the
last two spray coats of
vinyl system 4 or 5 and/or
substituting two black
vinyl coats per V-103 is
appropriate to achieve the
special color. Also two
final coats of Fed. Spec.
TT-E-489 (black alkyd)
may be used to achieve
the special color.
(2) A garnet-reinforced
system has been used for
hull bottoms because
frequent running aground
results in severe abrasion
and gouging of the coating
system. Additionally,
abrasion protection can be
achieved by first priming
the hull bottom with 2 to
3 mil of vinyl zinc-rich
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primer VZ-108, and vessels. It is based on a

following with the garnet- durable alkyd-phenolic-
reinforced coating. type of vehicle and is
considered suitable for
p. Interior surfaces of either interior or exterior
steel hulls. Hull interiors use on floating plants
are subject to operating in fresh water.
accumulating water, This type of paint
condensating moisture,
and high humidity. Like
other exposures of this
type, these surfaces are
well protected using
CWGS 09940 systems 3,
4, 5, and 6 series.
However, these systems
necessitate sandblasting
and may prove costly. A
less expensive alternative
would be to use a cold-
applied, solvent-based coal
tar (MIL-C-18480A(3)) in
a two-to-three coat
application. The saving
is realized because of the
lesser degree of surface
preparation required by
the manufacturer and the
overall material costs. If
the hulls remain dry, there
are many less expensive
systems, such as alkyd
primers/alkyd topcoats,
that can be applied over
lesser degrees of surface
preparation (i.e., SSPC-SP
3).

q. Painting of steel
decks.

(1) Steel decks, if

painted, are prescribed
by the referenced
regulation to be deck red,
color 10076 of Federal
Standard No. 595. The
color requirement is
waived when special,
approved types of deck
coatings are to be used.
Red deck paint (Mil. Spec.
DOD-E-18210B), three
coats, is intended
primarily for use on
interior decks of naval
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EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95
should be used only on
well prepared surfaces that
are sandblasted to a
commercial or better
grade. Sand
reinforcement of the
second coat would be
desirable when a nonskid
surface is needed.
Substitution of an
inhibitive- type primer
instead of the first coat of
deck paint might be
beneficial to the three-
coat Mil. Spec. DOD-E-
18210B system, but it is
not considered essential
for plants operating in
fresh waters.
(2) Vinyl paint
system from the 5 series
having the V-106 topcoat
from CWGS 09940 is the
correct finish color and
will perform well as a
deck paint, although it
would be somewhat
difficult to sand-reinforce
for antiskid purposes
because of its fast-drying
characteristics. The
addition of fine garnet
directly to the finish coats
of this system will provide
added abrasion resistance
but minimal benefit in
improved antiskid
properties.
r. Exterior surfaces
of floating plant.
(1) The color scheme
for the painting of floating
plant surfaces is
prescribed in ER 1125-2-
303. The surfaces
involved are subject only
to atmospheric exposure;
although beneficial, blast
cleaning may not be
justified. If wire brushing
and scraping (per SSPC-
SP 2) are used, the
5-56
surfaces will have aluminum. The use of TT-E-529, will tolerate
corrosion products and special paints for these temperatures of up to
mill scale present. One or surfaces is determined by about 135 C (275 F) for
two coats of a primer with their maximum operating extended periods, as
good wetting properties, temperatures. Ordinary would an aluminum paint
such as an alkyd rust- alkyd black paints, such made with an alkyd
inhibitive primer, is as those included in Fed. vehicle (Fed. Spec. TT-V-
advisable. Primed surfaces Spec. TT-E-489 or 109). Black paints (Fed.
then could be finish coated Spec. TT-E-496) will
with two coats of a withstand temperatures of
semigloss enamel up to 204 C (400 F).
conforming to Fed. Spec. For temperatures higher
TT-E-529 (2) Class A. than
Enamel conforming to 204 C (400 F), paints
Fed. Spec. TT-E-489 made with silicone or
Class A, or TT-V-1593 modified silicone binders
(silicone alkyd) should be must be specified. Fed.
used if a high gloss Spec. TT-P-28 covers a
finished surface is desired. modified silicone-
Both of these aluminum paint with a
specifications include a heat- resisting capability to
range of gray, ivory, black, temperatures up to 649 C
and red from which those (1200 F). MIL-P-14105C
suited to the floating plant formulated products will
color scheme may be resist temperatures as high
selected. The finish coat as 760 C (1400 F) and
enamels are relatively fast- are available in some
drying materials and colors. However, these
should not be applied to products are expensive and
surfaces primed with slow- frequently are available
drying, alkyd primers on a special order basis
without proper drying only.
times.
5.6. Coating
(2) If an upgraded System
system is desired, the Selection for
surfaces subject to Ferrous
atmospheric exposure S
could be cleaned by u
blasting to at least the r
commercial grade, and f
one or two coats of an a
alkyd rust-inhibitive c
primer should be applied. e
Finish coats of enamel s
conforming to Fed. Spec.
TT-E-489 or TT-E-529 i
then could be used to n
comply with the required
color scheme. S
e
(3) Stacks of floating a
plants are required to be w
a
painted black with trim
t
colors of red and
e
 EM 1110-2-3400
30 Apr 95

r coating system. These

maintenance repairs may
a. Ferrous metal be made to structures that
surfaces of fixed cannot be taken out of
structures. service. Proper spot
repair can permit the
(1) Current systems. structure to remain in
Current systems service until a time that is
found in feasible to shut down for
C complete maintenance
W repainting. Surface
G preparation techniques are
S limited and generally are
on the order of SSPC-SP 2
0 or SSPC-SP 3. Viable
9 candidates for nonperma-
9 nent repairs are solvent-
4 based coal tars and surface
0 tolerant two-part
immersion-grade epoxy
a mastic coatings. Keep in
r mind that these repairs
e are considered only
: temporary to preserve the
structure until the time
CTE (two to three proper blast cleaning and
coats). recoating can be
Epoxy zinc-rich accomplished.
primer/CTE (two
coats).
(3) Candidate systems
Epoxy polyamide
for new steel. Candidate
(two to three coats).
coating systems for new
Epoxy zinc-rich
steel are recent
primer (two
coats)/epoxy polyamide technological
developments in
(two to four coats).
formulations of epoxies,
such as epoxy novalacs
Other existing systems
and
(not listed in CWGS
100 percent solids
09940), which have
epoxies. Additionally,
performed well, are
100 percent
formulations of coal tars,
asphalts, Neoprenes,
and organic zinc-riches.

(2) Candidate
maintenance systems.
Maintenance painting,
such as spot touchup,
frequently is required to
repair small failings or
damaged areas on a
structure. This process
further lengthens the
service life of a structure
with an otherwise intact
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 EM 1110-2-3400
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solid versions of there are many questions unique surface preparation as originally believed. In
polyurethane coatings are about steel piling painting. coating difficulties, addition, this is the
rapidly gaining particularly the grooved thickest part of the piling,
recognition, and inorganic (2) Special concerns areas. Even the best and corrosion will have
zinc-rich coatings and cautions associated applied coatings to these little effect on structural
topcoated with organic with the coating of steel interlock areas were integrity. A suggested
paints also have performed pilings include the fact that believed to be damaged in remedial action is to
well. Specialized no method of corrosion the driving installation minimize corrosion
methods of application protection is used on process. However, the through the use of
may be necessary and certain portions of steel damage is not as severe galvanically protecting
most commonly require piling. Studies have zinc-rich primer and
complex plural component shown that the corrosion periodically monitoring
spray equipment. rates of piling driven into the corrosion rate and
Therefore, skilled undisturbed soil on the structural integrity.
applicators are essential ocean floor corroded at Experience has shown
when using these 100 slow rates mainly that, although corrosion
percent solid epoxy and because of the lack of will occur, it usually is of a
polyurethane systems. oxygen. Obviously, as the localized nature and not
Industry-wide use of pilings emerge from the critically harmful to
these systems will ocean mud floor, the structural integrity.
become prevalent as more presence of oxygen and However, corrosivity can
restrictive VOC limits are consequent corrosivity vary from site to site, and
enacted at the Federal, increases. Moving soils, periodic monitoring is
state, and local level. basic saltwater immersion, considered vital.
Contemplated systems tidal movement, abrasives,
must all be evaluated contaminated waters, and (c) In cool
individually and aerated splash zone environments, the
specifically in this activity rapidly accelerate temperature-dependent
seawater immersion corrosive forces. cure times of CTE and
environment. scheduled coatings
(a) The installation of operations (in shop and/or
(4) Special concerns pilings by driving them field) must be observed.
and cautions. Special into the sea floor is Because exposure
concerns and cautions for believed to be particularly environments of pilings
immersion service in abrasive to a coating may vary (i.e., buried,
seawater were discussed system. Initially, it was immersion, splash zone), it
in paragraphs 5-2a(3) and not known whether a seems proper to coat the
5-4d. Additionally, the coating system could pilings as outlined here.
coating systems listed in withstand this installation
CWGS 09940 for without irreparable (d) Underground
exposure to seawater all damage. However, it has portions of steel piling,
require a high degree of been demonstrated that, which are a moderate
surface preparation when properly coated with distance below the
abrasive blast cleaning to CTE coatings, damage is groundwater table (or
white metal. limited to a few inches on below the water-mud line
the leading edge of the if driven through surface
b. Steel piling. piling and relatively minor water) do not seriously
scratching in the corrode. Therefore, the
(1) Existing CWGS interlock area. The coating system may not be
09940 CTE systems for addition of proper CP can necessary 5 to 10 ft below
coating steel piling are protect these areas from these indicated levels.
systems 6 and 6AZ (CTE). corrosion. Sections of pilings subject
Systems 6 and 6AZ are to weathering and aerated
suitable for protection of (b) Interlock areas on splash zone activity would
steel pilings. However, sheet piling present some also be adequately
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protected using CWGS hydrogen gas and alkalies

0 that are generated at the
9 paint-metal interface. The
9 desirable coating quality
4 of high dielectric strength
0 essentially forces the CP
current along the painted
s film to breaks or
y discontinuities in the
s coating where it is
t needed for protection of
e the bare steel substrate.
m When choosing a CP
system for a structure that
6 is partially seawater
immersed and partially
o atmospher- ically exposed
r in the splash zone, CP
may not provide adequate
6 protection to the splash
A zone portion. The highly
Z oxygenated splash zone is
. severely corrosive and
requires higher CP rates
c. Cathodic protection that could be detrimental
(CP) and immersion in to the submerged CP-
seawater. protected areas.
Additionally, coating
(1) Certain inherent choices must be resistant
characteristics of seawater to these forces when used
make it of greater with CP.
corrosivity than fresh
water. Because of this
heightened corrosive
nature, the use of CP in
conjunction with
immersion coating
systems frequently is used
for structures in seawater.

(2) High dielectric

strengths, or the ability of
the coating to withstand
the additional stresses of
the CP current is
extremely important.
Because the CP current
forces water through the
film in a process called
endoelectrosmosis, a
coating that can withstand
this stress, such as CTE, is
an important choice in
conjunction with CP-
induced stresses, of
cathodically produced
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5-
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5-7. Coating System coatings specially when the galvanization

for Iron and Steel formulated for itself may readily react
Pipe galvanization are useful in and rapidly deteriorate by
this regard. The zinc-rich galvanic action.
a. Black iron or coatings are abrasion,
steel pipe. Existing chemical, and moisture
systems for coating black resistant. Consequently,
iron and steel pipe are they frequently are used
alkyd inhibitive primers, without a topcoat, even in
with ready-mixed severe exposures.
aluminum and alkyd Adhesion to this substrate
topcoats. CWGS 09940 may be variable because
also specifies the use of of the galvanizing process,
vinyl systems in some and care must be taken in
exposures. A clear, the surface preparation
varnish-like coating process to assure that all
sometimes is present on galvanizing process oils
black and steel pipe. In are totally removed before
nonsevere exposures, the painting. This normally
coating generally is can be accomplished by
compatible with alkyd solvent or detergent
coating systems. Solvent cleaning.
cleaning and hand-tool
cleaning generally are (2) Threading and
adequate for coating with welding of galvanized
alkyd systems. However, pipe after production
if the exposure leave exposed steel, which
environment becomes requires touchup. Epoxy
more severe, a zinc-rich primer coatings
corresponding upgrade in are extremely effective in
surface preparation and this regard. These
coating choices, such as coatings have good
a vinyl (CWGS 09940 adhesion qualities to
system 3), is appropriate. existing galvanized
The required spray surfaces and, in
application of vinyl on themselves, provide
piping in place can prove similar galvanic
to be labor intensive. protection to the touchup
Upgraded surface areas.
preparation and protection
with additional coats of (3) Thinly applied
alkyd or phenolic topcoats vinyl wash coats (0.0076
may prove to be a viable to 0.013 mm [0.3 to 0.5
alternative. mil] dry film thickness
[DFT]) also have proven
b. Galvanized pipe. to be an effective tie coat
on galvanized pipe that
(1) Coating systems provides a sound base
for galvanized pipe are coating for high
generally for appearance performance barrier-type
purposes or for the topcoats. Primarily
refurbishing of damaged though, these systems are
galvanized components. used only in frequent
Zinc-rich epoxy condensation and
polyamides and moderate corrosivity,
5-62