XV International PhD Workshop
OWD 2013, 1922 October 2013
Structural Health Monitoring of Overhead Power
Transmission Lines
ukasz Skarbek, Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdask University of Technology
Arkadiusz ak, Faculty of Electrical and Control Engineering, Gdask University of Technology
Abstract
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is a novel
and continuously developing branch of science and
technology that draws attention of scientists all over
the world. It creates opportunities to detect, localize
and identify structural damage of various types such
as: line breakage, permissible sag, bolt loosening,
fatigue cracking or insulator contamination. On the
other hand the methods used to estimate the
remaining operational time and self-healing are still
at the proof-of-concept level. All these issues should
be addressed by the Smart Grid Technology and also
are pointed out by the Electric Power Research
Institute [1]. The authors of this paper carried out a
wide literature review related to structural health
monitoring of overhead power transmission lines
and their supporting structures. Based on this
devices existing in the field are also presented and
discussed. Last, but not least, authors concept of an
electric power line monitoring system based on fibre
sensors is introduced. The authors suggest the
application of distributed sensing networks with
Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors or Brillouin
sensors to measure strains induced by icing,
temperature or current loads. Based on the data
collected various useful safety factors can be
calculated, i.e. the icing level or remaining current
load related with the permissible safety distance
between power lines.
1. Introduction
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) of
transmission towers and lines is a problem that is
directly linked with the expansion of the
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) System.
Operators willingness to expand their services onto
new land areas results in building more overhead
lines and erection of new towers. Many of them are
placed in hard-to-reach areas, where various
weather-related-condition factors affect them, i.e.
high humidity, strong winds or even vandalism.
Monitoring of electric power T&D systems has
always been a hard nut to crack due to several issues.
First of all, it is a widely distributed system covering
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almost every part of the country, even mountains,
swamps and forests. Its maintenance or simple
periodic tests force service groups to travel long into
distant and remote areas. Next, electromagnetic
noise surrounding high voltage (HV) lines may
damage or even destroy fragile electronic devices, if
placed too close to the lines, or can influence their
operation due to lack of electromagnetic
compatibility. It should be noted that from the
scientific point of view structural health monitoring
systems cover many disciplines not only
mechanical, civil and electrical engineering, but also
aerodynamics and meteorology. For this very reason
it is extremely hard to find specialists in all
demanded fields therefore joined-up effort of many
research teams is highly desirable.
Reasons for monitoring of T&D systems are
simple. The main of them is the reduction of costs
related to unnecessary maintenance due to periodic
tests that give usually positive results. This also
includes the costs of service team delegations as well
as the increase of T&D system reliability from early
warnings about risks and hazards. Another reason is
the increasing electric power demand, so more and
more energy is transmitted using the same
infrastructure. It results in higher line current loads,
however operators are limited by the system and line
ampacity. The last issue is related with lines heating
and sag. During winters conductors can be loaded
with higher currents and their influence will be
compensated by lower ambient temperatures. This
will change however during summers.
Having in mind the issues mentioned it can be
assumed that monitoring systems that could provide
all the services can be divided into several levels:
1. Detection damage presence is detected.
2. Localization localization of damage is
found.
3. Identification type of damage is identified.
4. Quantification severity of damage is
assessed.
5. Prediction remaining lifetime of the whole
structure is estimated.
Other authors group together some of these
levels or divide some of them into sublevels [2].
Moreover, an additional level concerning self-healing
methods is sometimes included, but to authors best
knowledge it stays on the laboratory level
development stage.
2. The state of the art
One of the most promising monitoring
techniques is the vibration-based state monitoring
[2]. Its main idea concerns calculations or
measurements of frequency response functions of
objects under investigation. In this case the presence
of damage results in the resonance peak shift.
Generally, when investigated objects lose their
stiffness due to cracking their resonant frequencies
decrease in the same manner as when they gain mass
due to icing. Such changes can work as damage
indicators and after simple signal processing one can
be able to localize damage. However, both detection
and localization need accurate numerical models to
simulate vibrations of investigated objects. In the
area of transmission towers and lines the work of Al-
Bermami and Kitipornchai is significant [3]. They
applied thin-walled elements with lumped plasticity
and the yield surface in the force space to model
angle members of the tower. Their dedicated
software was validated on two towers located in
Australia. They introduced a zero-length two-node
element to model flexible and semi-rigid joints. The
element was represented by a set of torsional
moment-rotation relationships. They also reviewed
the tower design practices up to 1990s that are
currently out-of-date [4]. However, the infrastructure
created in accordance to those standards is still
exploited, but due to climate changes it should be
strengthened up. Al-Bermani used the diaphragm
bracings to deal with this task and he simulated it
both numerically and experimentally [5]. The best
result obtained was next used and implemented in
the case of a TV tower. The same authors used a
non-linear methodology to predict structural failure
[6]. They proved that their approach greatly
correlates with experimental results. This clearly
shows that tower modelling can predict weak joints
and may also significantly shorten the design time
saving both money and time.
Da Silva et al [7] proposed an alternative method
for structural analysis that was based on actual forces
and moments with combination of three
dimensional beam elements. In comparison with the
classical theory of the finite element method their
strategy gave better results. The developed
methodology is still waiting for applications in the
field of power transmission towers.
Yasui et al [8] analysed tower vibrations due to
wind loading on the basis of two case studies. They
used a model of towers coupled by transmission
lines showing that the type of tower (tension or
suspension) strongly affects its dynamic
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characteristics. Also the presence of lines may
significantly change the behaviour of towers.
Wind loading is one of the most important types
of line loads as it may lead to line vibrations. It
becomes a serious issue in Poland due to recent
twister incidents (8-15 per year). Jia et al [9] analysed
the influence of wind loading on a windage yaw of a
500 kV span. This work showed how the span
influences the load, introduces additional factors that
could be included in the design code. An interesting
work was presented by Fei et al [10], who
investigated the structural stability of transmission
tower-line systems. They proposed a method for
stability evaluation based on dynamic and static
analysis. Their main conclusion was that low order
modal frequencies decreases before the instability is
reached and this can be used as a good early warning
indicator.
Davies noted in his report [11] that 31% of tower
failures is due to construction errors, 29% due to ice,
while special winds are responsible for 19% and
aircrafts for 11%. He also investigated many
interesting cases of tower failures and analysed their
causes. Rao et al [12] reviewed failures, their causes
and compared two standards ASCE and British
standards with each other. Both of them revealed to
be very conservative in relation to experiments.
Calculated member forces obtained by the use of
non-linear theories were much higher when
compared their values calculated by classical linear
theories.
Damage detection problems were raised by Yin et
al [13] who presented a method based on dynamical
finite element model reduction technique. The
proposed method was positively validated on various
damage scenarios but only at the simulation level.
The method allowed the authors to reduce the
required number of sensor. Lam and Yin [14]
extended this concept and investigating a problem of
optimal sensor placement providing interesting hints
for engineering practice.
A novel technique was introduced by Xiao et al
[15], who used close range photogrammetry in order
to create a 3D load-deformation diagram. Artificial
markers were pasted to tower members and photos
of them were taken during tower loading. However,
this methodology required a lot of computational
power in order to transform the taken photos into
valuable data, but the accuracy of strain assessment
was about 1 mm/m and this meets the transmission
towers loading test standards.
Next to tower monitoring problems lay issues
closely related the state of lines. The most important
factor there is the sag. Its safe values come from the
required isolation distance from surrounding objects
such as: trees, buildings, chimneys, etc. One of the
devices that are used to calculate the sag was DOL
System created to increase ampacity of 110 kV lines
[16]. It measured the current and temperature of a
line, ambient temperature, insolation, wind direction
and speed. The system was communicating with a
central server using a GSM/GPRS network sending
there all collected data.
Another and very similar device was proposed by
Nazare and Werneck [17]. They used the Rogowski
coil to measure the current and a simple temperature
transducer to measure ambient temperature. The
collected data were transmitted to a server using
optical fibres in Optical Ground Wire (OPGW). The
authors encountered many problems with
microelectronic circuits and their electromagnetic
compatibility due to the proximity of HV lines.
Ramachandran et al [18] applied IEEE Standard
738-1993 to calculate the sag using various variables:
air density and thermal conductivity, wind direction
and speed, ambient temperature and tension on both
sides of a span. Based on these data and the actual
current, the sag and mechanical state were assessed.
Unfortunately, the authors presented only numerical
results and their technique was left as unverified on
existing power transmission lines.
Malhara and Vittal [19] calculated the line sag on
flat terrain based on the data obtained from
inclinometers placed on both sides of a span. The
sensors measured the actual tower tilt due to wind or
ice load. They used two techniques during their
calculations Finite Element Method (FEM)
implemented in the software Structural Analysis for
Power and Communication Systems that provided
information about longitudinal forces in the lines
and the Least Mean Square Method to estimate the
sag.
Gangopadhyay et al [20] collected data for two
years from a 400 kV line, where the line sag and
temperature were observed. Their created line
monitoring system was based on FBGs and the
sensor readings stated as foundation for mechanical
and electrical state monitoring. Due to authors best
knowledge this gave an opportunity to increase up
the power transmission by 25% 30%.
Balorda and Suhel [21] created a simple device
that transformed the current flow into light intensity
using a light emitting diode. The light emitted was
transmitted to a receiving station by an optical fibre
in OPGW. However, the authors faced many
problems, like the diode non-linearity or phase error
due to load effects, but all of them can be
successfully eliminated. Another similar idea was
introduced by Nishiyama et al [22], who used a
similar transducer, but hid the whole device in a drill
hole in an insulator.
An interesting method for sag estimation was
proposed by Sun et al [23]. They postulated the
application of magnetoresistive sensors placed under
the line on the ground. The resistance of such
elements varies according to the magnetic field
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intensity. However, the authors remained
unexplained the problem how to distinguish between
the sag level and a greater current flow in a line,
since both of them affect the sensor in the same
manner. This problem also refers to the line
inclination angle due to wind loading. Another idea
introduced by Mensah-Bonsu et al [24] postulated
the application of Global Positioning System (GPS)
sensors for sag direct monitoring [24]. Although the
idea seems interesting the resolution obtained in this
way reach only 19.6 cm and two GPS antennas were
necessary to achieve that. It should be mentioned
here that such devices need to be designed in order
to minimize corona discharge effects.
Among many mentioned hardware issues, the
problems concerning sensor networks are also very
important. Various network topologies were under
consideration. Hung et al [25] tackled a problem of
the topology of a linear sensor network pointing out
how important is this issue. They noted that the
topology they investigated was the simplest one and
further work on their others concepts (i.e. double
ring) is much more important as a certain level of
redundancy is there required.
Another interesting load is the ice accreted on
power lines. It was the main cause of a huge
blackout in north-eastern Poland in 2008 [26]. Rime
accreted on power lines exceeded design catastrophic
values for at least tens of percent. In addition, heavy
rain made soil boggy that further weakened the
foundations of towers resulting in their massive
structural failures and downfalls. The total financial
loss due to the blackout exceeded 55 million PLN.
A prototype of a device for wind speed
measurements was proposed by Ma et al [27] who
created a small anemometer using a beam and a FBG
sensor bonded onto it. Due to wind loading, the
beam bending was sensed by the FBG sensor. After
simple signal processing strain data were
transformed into the wind speed. Temperature
influence was only 5 ppm/C, the lowest measurable
wind speed was 3 m/s and the measurement error
smaller than 0.5 m/s. Certain design optimization
was required in this case to improve the
performance, e.g. doubling the number of FBG
sensors. Ma et al [27] also created an overhead line
tension sensor based on FBG sensors, which
performance was impressive: strain accuracy was
0.04903 pm/m and tension accuracy 20.4 N.
Temperature influence small and lower than 0.175%.
Whats more this device performed very well during
hard environmental conditions.
Shehata et al [28] also investigated wind loading
mainly in the case of extremely strong winds. Their
analysis of a line damaged by downburst winds
shown that axial forces in such cases can exceed
design values over 3 times.
 In recent years China has built the spine of their
electric system, which is a 1000 kV overhead power
line. This ultra-high voltage line causes many
problems as it centralized the whole power
distribution system. Huang and Ou Yang [29]
proposed a device to monitor the state of the line
using various sensors: wind speed and wind
direction, rainfall, temperature, pressure, including
video cameras and others. The device could clearly
indicate the ice level on the line as well as other
hazardous conditions. The authors pointed out the
communication problem using GSM/CDMA/3G.
However, this technology needs further
development and the existing infrastructure
expansion, if it has to be considered as serviceable in
the future.
Another interesting phenomenon is line galloping
that occurs when lines with asymmetrically accreted
ice are exposed to wind. Desai et al [30] tried to
model this phenomenon using the FEM. For that
purpose they developed a special three-node element
with 4 degrees of freedom per node. The authors
pointed that in order to predict the clearances
between lines a multi-span case must be considered.
The authors of this paper would also like to stress
out here that energy harvesting is the technology that
is inseparably connected to SHM. More information
about the state of the art on this topic can be found
in [31].
3. Proposal of line monitoring
system
3.1 Fibre Bragg Grating sensors and
Brillouin scattering
FBG is a type of reflector constructed using UV
in a short (usually 1 10 mm) segment of an optical
fibre. Its main task is to reflect light of a particular
wavelength. It could be considered as a set of
mirrors that transmit light except the particular one
wavelength.
FBG is widely used as a tension sensor. When a
FBG sensor is bonded onto an investigated element,
the effective distance between Bragg scatterers
changes under tension what results in a shift of the
wavelength of the reflected wave. The majority of
commercially available FBG interferometers allows
connecting multiple sensors to one optical fibre,
where every sensor has a different characteristic
wavelength. The application of optical multiplexers
allow connecting and using together hundreds of
FBG sensors. What is significant, optical fibres are
immune to electromagnetic noise what is crucial in
the high-voltage applications.
Another, but a very similar technology, is the one
based on the Brillouin scattering effect. This effect
occurs when light travelling in a medium interacts
with time-dependant variations of the medium
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optical density. In this case the light changes its
length and so energy. Such light can interact with
phonons, magnons or temperature gradients. What is
crucial, there are no particular sensors, as the whole
optical fibre acts as a sensor on its full length. This
implies that one can perform measurements on the
length of tens of kilometres. This is a great
advantage over FBG sensors, where measurements
are carried out only in particular points.
The main disadvantage of both mentioned
technologies is the sampling rate. FBG sensors
usually work with tens of hertz, but with an increase
of the number of fibres, the sampling frequency is
proportionally decreased. This implies, on the other
hand, that FBG sensors are not too good for
characterization of the dynamics of an object.
Brillouin fibres share the same property, and
however a whole long fibre can acts as one sensor it
has to be divided into segments of particular lengths.
During one measurement period only one segment
can be investigated.
3.2 Proposed monitoring system for
transmission lines
Due to the segmentation of Brillouin sensors, the
authors propose to divide overhead lines into
appropriate segments, where one segment
corresponds to one span. The authors assume that
this approach will help to visualize the sag of the line
directly avoiding the application of any other indirect
methods.
The application of FBG sensors could also
provide information about the sag, but a numerical
model of whole one span is required. Strains
measured by sensors can also provide information
about galloping lines as vibrations of this kind are
characterized by high amplitudes (i.e. high strains)
and low frequencies (few hertz). The number of such
sensors must be carefully chosen and should be
related to mode-shapes of vibrating lines at least
two sensors per wavelength. On the other hand
increasing the number of sensors results in a
decrease in the sampling frequency, so their number
should be low enough to observe dynamic aspects of
the phenomenon. It is impossible to provide a clear
solution to this problem and it should be
investigated in every specific case.
Sensors themselves should be also selected in an
appropriate manner and by taking into account
elongation of the lines. By considering a 1.2 km span
on flat terrain and by using a normative calculations
under assumption of a 60 m sag with no additional
loads one obtains the line length equal to 1207.96 m
(catenary curve) or 1208.00 m (parabolic curve). If
the line is loaded by characteristic ice accretion, the
sag increased by additional 3.21 m (catenary curve)
or 3.15 m (parabolic curve). The line length also
increases by almost 0.87 m 1.0 m (catenary curve)
or 0.86 (parabolic curve). This results in the
maximum strain level of 720 m/m. If one
investigates a similar case but in mountain terrain,
where the height level between span ends is also 1.2
km (extreme case of overhead lines in mountains)
the difference between the parabolic and catenary
curves is visible. During loading with characteristic
ice, the sag difference between both curves reaches
almost 9 m, where the catenary curve gives a greater
result. Despite the huge differences in the sag, the
maximum strain level remains practically unaffected
at 735 m/m. This conclusion needs further
experimental validation as suggesting that the same
type of sensors can be used in various span setups.
Also environmental effects should be taken into
account.
3.3 Proposed monitoring system for
transmission towers
As it was presented in the state of the art, the
Finite Element Method (FEM) is the main
calculation method used in model-based structural
health monitoring of transmission towers. Over the
years many issues have been shown and investigated
such as joint modelling and development of new
elements. Scientists seems to limit their interests only
to the classical finite element theory available in
commercial software, neglecting other, often very
interesting novel calculation methods.
One of such methods is the Spectral Finite
Element Method (SFEM), which joins together two
computational techniques: spectral methods and the
Finite Element Method. First of them could be
clearly described as solution methods used for partial
differential equations, when solutions are sought
using Fourier series or series of orthogonal
Chebyshev or Legendre polynomials. When
combined with the FEM this technique allows
modelling and dynamic analysis (steady state or
transient) of geometrically complex structures.
The fundamental issue in the SFEM is the
approximation of unknown variables. Each
unknown function f(x) can be represented as a
Taylor series of n initial terms:
N
f (x )
(x x0 )n f (n ) ( x0 )
n=0 n!
Various approximating functions can be used
here including trigonometric, rational, exponential,
etc. In the area, Chebyshev polynomials are popular.
Their most important property is orthogonality,
thanks to which they are unaffected by Runges
phenomenon.
The use of the Spectral Finite Element Method in
modelling of the behaviour of transmission towers
can result in an improved accuracy especially at
higher frequencies, hence allowing detection of
smaller defects. SFEM models could be used as the
base of a diagnostic system that solves the inverse
problem of vibrating towers. Data collected from
various sensors placed on real transmission towers
(accelerometers, wind and tension sensors, etc.) can
be employed as feeding data for the model. Such an
approach can help to obtain very valuable
information not only about the current state of the
towers, but can also help to monitor damage severity
and progression. Based on statistical data the
remaining lifespan of the structures can also be
estimated and predicted.
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