Sports Surfaces Underlayment Impact Management using Expanded Polyolefin
Particle Foam
Steven R. Sopher
Technical Director, JSP, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Abstract
This paper provides details on the topic of impact
mitigation of sporting surfaces, including Football Fields,
Soccer Fields, Playgrounds and other sports surfaces.
Information on head impact and the mechanisms to manage
energy and reduce the potential for concussions and other
sports injuries will be presented.
The design and construction of sports surfaces, sporting
underlayment plays an important role in playability,
performance, injury reduction, and overall impact
management and shock mitigation. The optimal
combination of surface impact protection combined with
head impact protection is becoming more critical as the
short and long term effect of concussions is becoming
realized.
Expanded Polyolefin Particle foams are being used to fulfill
this role. The properties of Expanded Polyolefin Particle
Foams allow for designs which take advantage of the
isotropic nature of particle (bead) foams, the highly efficient
energy management properties, and the ability to manage
energy and mitigate impact with a combination of
compression, flex and tension.
The ability to shape mold the material allows for the most
efficient three-dimensional and multi-axis design for energy
management. It also allows further performance
optimization through changes in geometry and changes in
density.
This paper will present recent sports surface design
innovations as well as recent helmet and head impact
improvements, and will provide case studies vs. competitive
technology. Other benefits of Expanded Polyolefin Particle
Foam will be presented including 100% recyclability,
water-resistance, chemical resistance, long term
performance, and the ability to meet the ever increasing
rigorous standards for restricted chemicals.
Introduction
As evidence mounts for both the short and long
term significance of concussion and the resulting risk of
severe brain trauma, the search intensifies for improved
methods of concussion prevention and impact mitigation for
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sports padding. Although the role of sporting equipment
specifically pads and helmets dominate the industry
conversation, one opportunity to reduce risk that is
generally overlooked is the role of the sports playing
surface, and more specifically the opportunity to minimize
head impact and concussion risk by improving the sports
surface underlayment.
Sports Surfaces Safety
In a recent American Journal of Sports Medicine study of a
nationally representative high school population, 15.5% of
concussions across multiple sports occurred as a result of
contact with the playing surface. An additional 6% of
concussions were caused by secondary head to turf impact
after a player to player impact. This means that 1 in 5
concussions are caused by a head to surface impact. The
CDC estimates that between 1.6 and 3.8 million
concussions occur in sports and recreation every year.
Therefore, contact with the playing surface may account for
between 350,000 and 817,000 concussions per year in the
United States.
RISK OF INJURY FROM IMPACT ON SPORTS
PLAYING SURFACES
The share of concussions caused by contact with
the surface varies by sport and age. In a study of high school
and college football players, contact with the playing
surface was implicated in 10% of all concussions. In
soccer, Comstock reported that 13.3% of concussions in
boys high school soccer and 19.2% of concussions in girls
high school soccer resulted from head to surface impact. In
5-19 year olds in Canada, Cusimano found 17.5% of all
soccer related concussions and 11.5% of all football related
concussions resulted from head to surface impact. Table 1
below shows the proportion of concussions caused by
surface impact across the above mentioned studies.
SPE International Polyolefins Conference
 Study Sport(s) Ages
Comstock,etal.,2015 Soccer HighSchool
Guskiewicz,etal.,2010 Football
College
HighSchool
Soccer
Cusimano,etal.,2013
Football
519
Football
Soccer(Boys &Gi rl s )
Basketball(Boys &Gi rl s )
Meehan,etal.,2010 Wrestling HighSchool 15.5%
Baseball
Volleyball
Softball
Table 1. Proportion of concussions by surface impacts
Furthermore, youth athletes are at greatest risk due to the
childs head mass in proportion to the total body mass,
which peaks at birth and slowly declines over time. At age
6, a childs head is almost 90% adult size, while their body
mass is only 20% of their adult size. Even at age 12, a
childs head size is 95% of adult size, yet their overall mass
is less than 50% of adult size. In addition, neck musculature
is less developed, leading to a bobble-head doll effect and
a childs inability to prevent their head from striking the
ground when they fall.
SELECTION OF OPTIMAL MATERIALS FOR SPORTS
SURFACE UNDERLAYMENT
The relationship between an artificial turf field and
concussion comes down to the ability of the surface to
attenuate impact forces. With a harder surface, less of the
impact forces can be absorbed by the material and instead
are absorbed by the athletes head. In synthetic tuft systems,
the utilization of different component types can affect
impact attenuation properties, with some component
selections offering greater impact attenuation than others.
The use of Expanded Polyolefin Particle Foam molded
sports surfaces allows for the ability
COMPARING NATURAL SURFACES TO ARTIFICIAL
SURFACES
When comparing and benchmarking the
interaction properties of natural grass in terms of running,
turning, sliding, friction, and ball behavior are well
documented, the performance standards for artificial turf
and the underlayment impact padding has developed
accordingly. The degree of safety of a natural grass surface
has been researched and tested, and is well documented, but
performance still varies widely from location to location.
However, the safety criteria of artificial turf surfaces (using
International Rugby as an example) is expressed in terms of
Head Injury Criterion (HIC) and is in fact, roughly one half
that of a natural grass surface.
When submitted to a severe impact a natural surface has the
ability to permanently deform, crush and collapse. This
behavior is a very effective means of dissipating the energy
February 2016, Sopher
Concussionsfrom of a severe blow and is similar to the way that a crash helmet
SurfaceImpacts is designed to absorb significant impacts. Unlike a
19.2%(Girls)
13.3%(Boys)
common Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) bicycle helmet that
10.0%
is only designed for one severe blow, a natural grass surface
can be repaired, maintained and made ready for another
17.5%
11.5% future impact. The ability of a natural grass surface to
effectively absorb the energy of a severe blow is of
significant benefit in preventing severe injury, and most
importantly head injuries.
The degree of safety of an artificial turf surface
underlayment pad is consequential to a surface compliant
with the performance properties for a given sport. However
with newer underlayment padding and impact mitigation
technologies, optimal surface performance and safety no
longer have to be mutually exclusive of one another. The
real challenge is to find a way to design a playing surface to
reduce the risk of head or other injuries to the greatest extent
possible.
HEAD IMPACT CRITERION (HIC) VALUE AND
GMAX PERFORMANCE
The purpose of testing the shock attenuation
properties of a sports surface is to estimate the probability
that an impact on the surface will cause an injury. The two
test methods and references used to describe the degree of
safety of a surface are Head Impact Criterion (HIC) and
Maximum G-force (Gmax). Research demonstrates that the
Head Impact Criterion (HIC) is the most accurate measure
of head injury potential of a sports surface as it takes into
consideration not only the peak force of an impact, but the
duration of the impact as well.
Understanding the HIC of a surface is to accurately predict
the likelihood of a moderate, severe and catastrophic head
injury. Empirically determined relationships between HIC
scores and the probability of head injury are widely used as
a way of estimating injury risk. An HIC score of 1,000
represents the safe limit of human tolerance, above which
the risk of fatal head injury is non-zero. However less
severe head injuries with long term effects can be incurred
at much lower HIC scores. In Figure 1 shown below, each
curve estimates a specific level of trauma for a given HIC
score. The curves shows that at a HIC score of 500 there
is a 79% probability of a minor injury, a skull trauma
without loss of consciousness, or that the athlete will incur
a minor concussion. At the same HIC value the risk of a
major injury (skull fracture, extended period of
unconsciousness) is 13%. The risk of a 500 HIC score
producing a critical or fatal head injury is very low, but the
probability of experiencing this head impact and not being
injured at all is only 21%. This information is based on the
expanded Prasad-Mertz Curves published by NHTSA in
1985. Each curve estimates the probability that an impact
with a given HIC score will result in a specified level of
head trauma.
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Figure1. NHTSA Probability of Injury vs. HIC Score
The HIC value and the Gmax value are widely used in a
number of industries ranging from sports, to aerospace and
automotive.
Material Selection for Sport Surface
Underlayment
While there are a number of different types of
underlayment materials used as impact pads for sports
surfaces, the use of expanded polyolefin particle foams like
EPP are consistently demonstrating the ability to effectively
manage impact energy and mitigate sports injuries.
It is important to understand the advantages of expanded
polyolefin particle foams and the numerous design options
available in the area of impact performance. With the
ability to specify a wide range of densities (from as low as
20 kg/m3 and higher), and the ability to shape mold, the
design and performance possibilities are numerous for a
given underlayment cross-section. When comparing impact
mitigation performance, it is also relevant to understand the
role the underlayment plays on a sports surface. The role of
the underlayment impact pad involves meeting the
following criteria (which varies by sport):
1. Support Structure for the turf (or playing surface)
2. Drainage (ability to capture and channel the water
through the material for proper drainage)
3. Field leveling and balance (base stability)
4. Impact Mitigation (Gmax, HIC)
5. Friction mitigation (longer turf life)
6. Insulation; freeze/thaw and frost heave protection
7. Performance & Playability (ball roll and bounce,
foot stability)
8. Resist [bio]degradation (mold, mildew and fungus
resistant)
9. Meet global restricted substance requirements (low
toxicity, no heavy metals, etc.)
In order to perform these multiple roles, a sports surface
underlayment impact pad made from expanded polyolefin
particle foams can be effectively tuned for optimal
performance. This can be done by selecting a specific
February 2016, Sopher
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density to match the fields Gmax as specified by ASTM
F355 for sports surfaces and/or as specified by ASTM
F1292 for playgrounds. Once the density and thickness is
determined by impact testing, the surface shape and design
can be optimized to meet all the above mentioned
requirements. It should be noted that there are also a
number of European (EU) standards including various EN,
ISO and DIN versions that are similar to the US standards.
Most recently in 2013, the European Synthetic Turf
Organization (ESTO) has published a Performance Guide
for Shock Pads. This guide provides recommendations
ranging from material properties, test methods, and
performance for impact, drainage and toxicity.
One of the features of expanded polyolefin particle foam
like EPP is stress-strain response. The stress-strain curve is
extremely predictable based on density. The linear
correlation between stress-strain and density allows for a
specific density to be chosen for each underlayment impact
pad design. Expanded polyolefin particle foams like EPP
have been modeled over the years and currently provide for
a very robust material model for design and impact
optimization. The strain rate dependency of expanded
polyolefin particle foams allow for predictive modeling for
virtually all impact velocities ranging from a quasi-static
speed of < 5 mm/minute (strain rate of <0.005 s-1) to over
10 m/s (strain rate of >10.0 s-1).
One of the benefits of expanded polyolefin particle foam
materials like EPP is the ability to match competitive
material performance based on the stress-strain
characteristics. EPP has replaced a variety of competitive
materials throughout the sporting industry. Figure 2 shows
the shape and zones of a typical Expanded Polypropylene
(EPP) material.
Figure 2. Stress Strain curve for EPP (30 kg/m3)
BENCHMARKING TYPES OF SPORTS SURFACE
UNDERLAYMENT MATERIALS
SPE International Polyolefins Conference
 Some of the underlayment impact pad materials used in
todays artificial fields and playing surfaces include:
1. Recycled PU and PE foams (chip foam)
2. Crosslinked PE foam (with varying layers)
3. Injection molded custom shape surfaces
4. Vacuum formed shapes (varying configurations)
5. Shape molded expanded polyolefin particle foam
While these are the most common, there are a number of
variations of these being evaluated. The above mentioned
materials fall into 2 different categories as follows:
Management by Flex and Deformation
Management by Compression
The Management by Flex and Deformation category
includes the injection molded and vacuum formed designs
that manage impact energy by deformation (bending,
twisting, flexing, etc.) and recovering to their original
configuration upon removal of the force. These designs
tend to be very unidirectional, and are anisotropic. These
designs are effective at managing impact energy from an
impact angle of 90 (degrees). Any change in the angle of
impact results in a different level of energy management,
and consequently a different level of impact mitigation. The
result could be less than optimal performance in the playing
surface both from a playability standpoint (running,
jumping, etc.) and from an injury standpoint, whereby a
higher Gmax or HIC value could occur.
The Management by Compression category includes the
foamed materials. The Recycled PU and PE foams (Chip
Foam) products are designed for impact and are also made
in such a way as to allow for controlled porosity to allow for
drainage. However, the fact that the cross-section of these
foams are made up of varying chips of foam at varying
densities and varying formulations, not to mention varying
sizes, makes this product quite unpredictable from location
to location. It is possible to encounter an area on the surface
that yield a surface durometer measurement of more than
50% different than an adjacent area on the same part.
Furthermore, due to the configuration, these products tend
to also be anisotropic in nature, and will yield different
levels of impact performance when impacted at varying
angles. Also in this category are the softer cross-lined PE
foams which are extruded foams. Like any extruded foam,
they are also anisotropic in nature and depending on the
orientation (extrude direction, vertical direction, or
horizontal direction) and build configuration, they will also
yield different results during repetitive impact are varying
angles.
Also, unlike most soft PU and PE based materials and other
solid resin injection molded or vacuum formed materials,
the expanded polyolefin particle foam stress-strain curve
February 2016, Sopher
4
does not contain the wide plateau region associated with
these types of materials.
Performance Characteristics
There are few materials that offer the optimal
combination of lightweight, low cost, with good impact
properties and good rebound properties, with the ability to
operate across a wide temperature range and isotropic.
Expanded polyolefin particle foam has all of these
advantages. It is the isotropic properties of expanded
polyolefin particle foams like EPP that make it ideal for
sports surfaces where playability and impact mitigation are
equally important. Figure 3 below shows the isotropic
nature of Expanded Polypropylene (EPP).
Figure 3. Isotropy of Expanded Polypropylene (EPP)
Expanded polyolefin particle foams like EPP are spherical
in shape. Each particle has an outer shell that contains the
inner cell structure and acts to enhance the performance by
acting as a protective layer. It also facilitates bonding to the
adjacent particles during steam chest molding (when the
molded shape is created). The cell structure was created in
an inert gas batch expansion process which allows for the
creation of uniform cell proportions across all 3 axes. The
result is an isotropic configuration with the ability to
manage energy the same across all 3 axes.
Different sports surface fields and playgrounds all have
different performance requirements that vary by sport, age,
level of play, and location. All of these factors are
considered when designing the optimal sports surface
impact mitigation system. Use of EPP shape molded
underlayment impact surface allows for tuning the
performance of the field. A range of ~ 85 gs to 165 gs is
possible. This assures player safety and allows for
consistent field performance across the entire playing
surface and provides greater field durability over the life of
the field. Figure 4 illustrates a typical sport turf
underlayment impact pad (Brock Powerbase System).
SPE International Polyolefins Conference

Figure 4. Sport turf underlayment impact pad
Note the shape of the impact pad. The configuration allows
for stability to the base and provides a uniform surface
which allows for consistent performance across the entire
playing surface. Furthermore, impact pads made with EPP
permit consistent performance throughout the life of an
artificial turf field or playing surface which typically ranges
from 8 to 10 years. In most cases, the EPP impact pads can
be reused for a 2nd life cycle, and in fact, most are. The EPP
impact pads have a solid 15+ year history. The combination
of density, shape and thickness allow for the optimal energy
management and playability, as well as water drainage.
Figure 5 is a cut sectional coupon showing the top, bottom
and cross-sectional configuration of the Brock Powerbase
EPP impact pad. Note the holes and channels that facilitate
optimal drainage. The thickness, shape and density are
tuned for the specific playing surface to meet the Gmax and
HIC requirements.
Figure 5. Cross-section of EPP underlayment impact pad
In addition to sports field applications for Football, Soccer,
Lacrosse, Rugby, etc., where the balance between
playability and impact performance (and concussion
mitigation) must be considered, other applications such as
playgrounds have a higher level of safety considerations at
the expense of playability. Again, as with the Powerbase
application shown above, the performance characteristics
can be tuned based on density, thickness, and shape. Figure
February 2016, Sopher
5
6 below is an example of the Brock Playbase impact pad for
playground underlayment. As is evident with the design,
the product is thicker and has a shape that allows for
controlled compression, which in turn provides the lowest
Gmax and HIC values possible within the given cross-
section, while at the same time, providing for a stable
playing surface, as well as allowing for adequate water
drainage.
Figure 6. Playground surface underlayment impact pad
PERFORMANCE BENCHMARKING
Although considerations are made to a wide range of
characteristics (such as those shown above in Page 3),
ultimately the impact performance and stress vs. strain
properties are the characteristics that really matter and it is
these properties that define the products performance.
Note the different types of dynamic stress-strain curves
shown in Figure 7 below. Note the shape of the different
curves. They are defined as follows:
Spring or Rubber Material
Soft Foam or Flexible Material
EPP Foam
The area under the return curve can be considered the return
of stored energy and the area between the two curves is the
energy being absorbed is known as the hysteresis. As is
evident from the curves, the ability of the EPP foam to
manage energy, rebound effectively, while at the same time
providing for repetitive impact is what makes it an ideal
material for sports field underlayment and impact pads. The
area within the loading and unloading portion of the
dynamic stress-strain curve determines the total energy
absorbed, and as was discussed earlier, can be tuned
accordingly based on density, thickness, and shape to yield
a specific Gmax or HIC value.
SPE International Polyolefins Conference

Figure 7. Dynamic Stress-Strain Curve Comparison
Another important consideration in benchmarking sports
field underlayment is the ability to absorb a wide range of
impact from varying directions (vectors or impact angles).
The ability of the impact padding to not only manage
energy, but to provide a consistent surface feel which
equates to playability. When players are running, jumping,
landing, turning, and falling, each of these results in a
different angle of incidence (impact direction). This is
where the benefits of an isotropic material like EPP really
matter. It is important that the sport field underlayment
allow for multidirectional performance. Expanded
polyolefin particle foams like EPP are ideal to handle a wide
range of impact directions, while providing consistent
stress-strain response. Figure 8 below illustrates the
sequence of four different impact directions (foot positions)
that are exerted by a typical player on the sport surface. Not
the different angles of incidence. The difference from Initial
Contact through Elevation spans 75 (degrees). This
difference translates to varying levels of impact energy
being exerted on the playing surface, and ultimately in the
underlayment impact pad.
Figure 8. Dynamic Stress-Strain Curve Comparison
INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT AND FUTURE TRENDS
It is clear that the trend for artificial playing
surfaces is growing. This is due to a number of factors
ranging from improved performance requirements, water
February 2016, Sopher
6
restrictions (and costs for watering and maintenance of
natural turf fields), quality and consistency of existing
playing surface, location, competition, number of
participants accessing sports fields, and multi-sport usage.
As this occurs, public awareness about sports field playing
surface safety is growing. A number of organizations
ranging from private, professional, and even governmental
are working to standardize the testing and performance
characterization of artificial turf. In the US, the ASTM has
created the Subcommittee F08.65 on Artificial Turf
Surfaces and Systems for the purposed of .
END OF LIFE - RECYCLABILITY
Expanded polyolefin particle foams like EPP
meets the global restricted substance requirements, and can
be fully recycled at the end of life. The EPP material can be
recycled as a number 5 (<5>) per the SPI recycling code).
Expanded polyolefin particle foams like EPP (or EPE) can
be expanded with inert gas, and are free from VOCs
(Volatile Organic Compounds). They have long shelf life
and a wide operating temperature range.
Summary & Conclusions
Concussion prevention and mitigation is now a
priority across all sports. There are no guaranteed solutions
when it comes to preventing concussion, so every
opportunity to reduce risk of injury must be evaluated. The
role of Expanded Polyolefin Particle Foam allows for
optimal design and isotropic impact performance of both
sporting equipment (including helmets and athletic pads) as
well as the underlayment impact padding for sports surfaces
including both athletic fields and playgrounds.
The ability to mitigate head injuries requires a dual
approach to head protection which includes optimal helmet
and sports pad designs, combined with optimal design of
underlayment impact padding for sports surfaces. The
proper combination can lead to improved energy
management and impact protection. The use of Expanded
Polyolefin Particle Foam like EPP will allow for significant
impact performance improvements and g-force reductions
with the proper selection of material thickness, density and
geometry.
Based on the information available, it is clear that artificial
sports surfaces should receive the same attention and
analysis as football helmets when it comes to mitigation of
head impact and the resulting risk of concussion. Players of
all ages, from youth, high school, college and professional
athletes can benefit for the improvements made to
underlayment padding for sport surfaces, and not only reap
the benefits of a safer playing surface, but allow take
advantage of optimal playing conditions and field
performance.
SPE International Polyolefins Conference
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