‘wild mammals, clinical observations were relatively unrewarding ard the diagnosis of hepa neoplasia was made sling necropsy examination. The morphological appearance ofthe liver tumors in the ceplive wld mammals at London Zoo comesponded fo those described eisewhere in domestic animals.” Wh the posible ‘exception of the Siberian chipmunk, species speci increases inte incidence of hepate tumors did not appear to occu during the fve year obsaraton parod i Landon 200. In some species of captive rodents such as the Degu (Octodon degus)hepatcellr cercinomes are rately common.’ The Soerian chipmunk may aso be a high risk rodent species for the development of hepatoceller tumors, Custering of hepatic and biary carcinomas have been noted in caplive beens but none were observed inthe ‘series we report.'** References 1. Appleby, E.C.: Tumours in captive wid animals: some obsevaions and ‘comparisons. Acta Zoologica Patho. Anwverp, 48: 7279, 1969, 2 Dom, CR: Bay and bepate carcinomas in bears atthe Son Diego ocloical Gardens, Nature 202; 513-514 1964 3. Mortal, R..: An overview of tumors in 200 animals. [n Montali, R.J. and Migak, 6. (Eds): The Comparative Pathology of Zoo Animas. Washington, DC. Smthsonian is. Prss, pp. 531-542, 1980, 4. Montali, R.d., Hoopes, PJ. and Bush, Ma; Exahepat bliary carcinomas in Asati bears Joural N.C. 66: 603-608, 1981 5, Moukon, JE: Tumors ofthe panres, Iver, al blader, and mesothelium. In Tamers in Domestic Animal, 2nd Editon, Barkley, CA, Uni. of Call Pres, pp 276-283, 1918 6. Patnaik, A.K., Hurvite, A. and Lieberman, PH Canine hepete ‘neoplasms: 2 clnicopathological study. Vet Pathol. 17- 553-564, 1980. 7. Ponomarkov, V. and Mackey, LJ: Tumors cf the liver and bilary system, Bul. Word Heath Org 53: 187-194, 1976. Drone. 9, 982 DIGESTIVE EFFICIENCIES AND MAINTENANCE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CAPTIVE WILD FELIDAE: COUGAR (Felts concole); LEOPARD (Ponthera pardus); LION ‘(Panthera leo); AND TIGER (Panthera tarts) A.B. Barbers, BS." LM. Vosburgh, BS.* PK Ku, PhD." DE. Ulrey, Ph.D." ira Ser, Mom Se Uy, — cara. ede 2 Summary Four species of wid feldae (cougar, leopard, lon, and tiger) housed at the Porter Patk 250, Lansing, Michigan, were sed to study the digestity (AD) of commercial mea-based det. Dect total fecal callin) and indie (C,0, as an indigestble marier) procedures were used ‘The indect procedure was satsacory, athough AD estimates for organic matt toss enengy, and crude protein were sighty lower than dec estimates, Mean AD estimates by det procedures for dry mater, organic mater, gross energy ude protein, and ether extract were 81,88, 90, 87, and 97%, respectively. An 8-month study of digestle energy (DE) requerents for maintenance of adult leopards suggested‘Composition tem vate, % Cute protein, % ‘rut tat, ‘rude fiber, Aah % alum, Phosphorus, % iam A, USP unitate ‘amin Os, USP unig i ery, ky TABLE 1 ot Me jased Diet (a) Guaranteed Chemical ‘Analysis Analysis, 620 ymax) 873 190(min) wr r204miny 156 15 max) - 45 max) a8 06 (min) - 05 min} - £8600 in) - 440 (in) - - a7 LUST OF INGREDIENTS: norsemoat, norsemeat by-roducts, liver, meat byproduct Neu, 304 grits, tied beet pulp, stewed bone meal, cried e903, Drewes’ ried yeast, salt, vilamin A supplement, Oactvated animal sterol, vitamin 81> supplement, vitanine supalemer pantothenate, ‘menadione sodium isullte, ribetlavin. supplement, niacin, calcium choline chloride, thanin, pyridoxine hydrochloride, fol acid, aitciat ‘ealering, copper oxide, cobalt carbone, ion cabonale, manganous Gude ethylene clamine ‘invari, and zine Oxide, 4 Nebraska Brand Chopped Frozen Feline Food, Central Nebras: Prato, NB 69101, ‘a need of about 182 keal DE/BW for the male and less than 166 kcal DE/BW° for the female Introduction ‘As a man continues to encroach upon the world's wildlife habitat, zoological parks ‘become increasingly important as refuges for endangered species. Such refuges must net only preserve creatures now living, but must also provide for their perpetuation. This assumes a knowledge of behavior and husbandry which isin extremely short supply. The information deficit includes qualtative and quantitative data on nutrient needs, and this fs reflected in Theobeld's* observation that one-fourth of 200 moraliies are nutritionally elated. Mortis, Fujimoto, and Berry* have reported comparative digestibility studies with several wild felidae, using chromium sesquioxide (C1.0;) as an indigestible diet marker. However, the digestibility estimates published by these researchers were not 33 ng, tne, North verfied by comparison with total fecal collection techniques. This project was undertaken to explore the validity of the (Cr,Q, matker and to develop further data cn the abilty of four species of wild felidae to digest a meat-based diet. Using these data, the digestible energy (DE) requirements for maintenance of adult leopards were determined, Materials and Methods Digestibilty Study: An adult male and female of each of the following flidae species were separately housed in conerete- floored cages at the Potter Park Zo0, Lansing, Michigan: cougar [Felis concolor) (female only); leoperd (Panthera pardus); lion (Panthera leo); tiger (Panthera tgs), Chromium sesquioxide was added to a meat-based commercial diet (Table 1) in a concentration of approximately 0.3% of fresh weight. The mixture was passed through @ meat grinder three times toensure homogeneity. A weighed amount of the diet was fed once daily for six days with a fast on the seventh. If any diet remained on the following day, it was removed and weighed.. Total fecal collections were made for three days after the animals had a constant intake of marked diet for two consecutive days. ‘The feces and a sample of diet were freeze-dried and ground in a Wiley mil Absolute dry matter was determined at 70° C in a vacuum of 740 mm of mercury, Crude protein, ether extract, and ash were determined by AOAC procedures.’ Gross energy was determined by total combustion in an adiabatic calorimeter. Chromium concentrations were determined by an adaptation of the procedure of Fenton and Fenton." Half-gram samples of freeze-dried feces and 1-g samples of freeze-dried diet were weighed into 100 ml volumetric flasks ‘and ashed overnight in a muffle furnace at 450° C. After cooling, 5 mi of a digestion mixture (10 g sodium molybdate dihydrate dissolved in 500 ml of a 150:150:200 mixture, by volume, of water, concentrated sulfuric acid, and 70% perchloric acid) were added to each sample along with a glass bead. The samples were heated on a hot plate with a surface temperature of about 300° C until a yellow-red eolor developed. This required 2-3 hours, dependent upon temperature. The: samples were cooled, made to volume with water, and mixed, Approximately 10 ml of the diluted mixture were centrifuged at 700 g for 5 min, The optical density (OD) of the supernatant was meesured at 40 nm. Standards were prepared by weighing 5-50 mg portions of reagent grade Cr.0, into 100 ml volumetric flasks, adding 5 ml of the digestion mixture, heating on a hot plate until yellow, cooling, and making to volume with water, (Ashing was eliminated since no difference {P> .05) was found between ashed and non-ashed standards.) Optical density at 440 nm was regressed against miligrams of chromium. Chromium concentrations in the samples were calculated from the following equation: Crin example, mg/g = m+ w 1m = sope of standard curve X= OD of sample b= Y itreop of standard curve w= sample weight gi Direct estimates of apparent digestibility (AD) were calculated by the following formula: ND. Get gx mtr nt 8): fc i gramme © Indirect estimates of apparent digestibility were calculated by the following formula: AD. = 1 rnb men eX 100 TG lamer Come ad A mixed classification analysis of variance,’ for the six animals (male and female leopards and tigers, male cougar and lion) upon which data were complete, was used to determine differences among methods (direct or indirect) in estimating digestibility. Days were nested with animals and both were eross-classiied with methods in the error term. Because of small numbers, species and sex effects were included in animals. Differences between days for direct and indirect estimates of digestibility were analyzed as two randomized blocks using animals as blocks and days as treatments, Correlation coefficients of nutrient digestibility estimates (across species) by direct or indirect Procedures were also determined. When ion coefficients were statistically significant (P<.05), regression equations were developed to permit prediction of direct digestibility estimates from those determined indirectly. lcs 1) 100 Digestible Energy Requirements for Maintenance of Leopards: For an. 8:month period (2/20/80:10/29/8), two adult leopards (7-year-old male, 8-year-old female) were housed and fed separately in concreteloored indoor cages measuring 3x3x3 m and an outdoor cage of comparable size (used only in warm weather). Each cage had a 2x2 m resting2 ry matter intake and apparent digestibility estimates by direct (otal fecal eolaction) ‘and indict (CrsO» marke techniques Dry Matter Apparent Digestibility (%) Inte igld) Ory Matter Organic Mattor Gross Energy Crude Protein Ether Extract pecs Male Female Diet Inde! Oreet iraret® Dinct Inde? rest Indrect® ole naet Cour 046 = «852 DOHA TR Leopare 087 0.58 70939 TROOP tin 097 Gor 757 BS N7 ATT Tier 087 GT 7 OOS ET] DS ‘a. Indirect astimates lower (P <.06) than direct estimates, , Unmarked diet; indirect digestibiity estimates made with male data only. TABLE 3 Correlations between direct and Indirect estimates of apparent digestibility ‘nd prediction equations to estimate direct trom indirect values Estate of Dirt trom inlvet Valen Diet Corelston Predleton Moan Square Frection Coefficient Equation Erior Dry matter On Y = 37.056+0.530X 24,1684 Organic matter gee Y= 1240741171 9.9485 Gross energy ond ¥ = ~21,844+1,201X 5.2981 Crude protein 0.54 Y = 40.856+0.548x 9.4887 Ether extract O88 ¥ = 5963+ 108K 03420 4 Signtiant 09) plaiorm, 1.1 m above the foot. The Results and Discussion leopards were fed at 3:00 PM dally, except Digestibthity Study: Daily dry matte intake Tuesday when they were not fed, Water and estimates of apparent cigesttilty by was available ad fibtum, Daily diet ‘consumption was recorded, and DE intake was calculated using apparent dgesibilty coeffcienss determined by total fecal collection techniques, The leopards were weighed initially and at approximately weekly intervals, The amount of cet offered was periodically adjusted to rrinimize changes in body weight and to respond to ‘changes in appetite, Dally minimum and maximum ambient temperatures and relative humidity were recorded. dlrect and incirect procedures for diet dry matter, organic matter, goss energy, crude protein, and ether extract are presented in Table 2, The female lon would not consume the diet marked with C1,0, and so was given only unmarked diet. The other individuals consumed amounts of matked det which were similar to those eaten prior to the study and which represented 0.8-2.0% of body weight, Estimates of igestblty on days 1, 2, or 3 of the collection period were not different{P>.05), The mean coeflicient of variation of daly DE estimates (repeated for 3 days) was 2.4% for direct determinations and 1.2% for indirect determinations. Indirect estimates of dgestbtity were lower (P<.05) than direct estimates for ‘organic mater, gross energy, and crude protein. The comelation coefficients for the relationship between these two techniques are shown in Table 3. Only those for igestblity of organic matter, gross energy, and ether extract were signficant (P<. 05), The absolute differences between indirect and direct estimates were small, and the use of Cr,0, as an indigestible det marker appears eporopriae to estimate digestibility of diets fed to captive wild feldae, Such @ technique avoids the obvious ciffeutios associated with total feces colecton. The use of the prediction equations in Table 3 may improve the accuracy ofthe indirect technique for estimating digestipity of organic matter, goss energy, and ether entra Digestive Energy Regulrements suisse Laptc tla a \weights forthe male leopard were 54.4 and 53.5 kg, respectively. The range of weight for this animal over the S:month study was 49.0-57.6 kg. The highest weights were recorded in early May, while the lowest weights were recorded in early July, subsequent toa petiod of hot weather and a decline in voluntary food intake. The mean + SD of 23 weights was 53 8+2.42 ig. Subjective evaluation of body compositon by visual appraisal revealed no ‘obvious change. Daily food consumption averaged 1.50 kg, Average daly digestble energy inteke was 3614 kcal or 182 kal/BW°y* Inifal and final weights for the female leopard were 38.6 and 46.3 kg, respectively. The range of weights was 36.2-46.3 kg, with a mean £SD of 41.143,30 for 21 values. Weights were rdlatively constant for the frst four months but gadualy increased subsequent fo estrus and breeding in late June, Wale pregnancy or fase pregnancy may have influenced ‘weight gain, no young were born. Daly food consumption averaged 1.12 kg Average dally dgestble energy intake wos 2708 kcal or 166 keal/BW Ambient temperatures to which the leopards were exposed ranged from 20-25° C during Februery-dune and Sepiember-November when their building was heated, Relative hurts were 30-45% during this time, When outdoor temperatures exceeded 18°C during June- ‘October, and the leopards were given access to outide cages, ambient ‘temperatures ranged from 18-32° C and relate humidies were generaly above 508, The research literature does not contain direct estimates of digestible energy requirements for maintenance of wild folidae. However, Scot’ has published the amount of ‘meat required per week" (for a 4-week-perlod) by lions, tigers, jeguers, pumnas, and domestic cats. While the composition of the “meat” was not gven, if ‘one assumes no body weight change in the domestic cats studied by Scot, and that active adult domestic cats have a metabolzable energy (ME) requirement for maintenance of 85 kcal/kg body weight,* cone can calculate that the “meat’ contained 1605 kcal ME/kg. Using this value, the ‘amount of “meat” consumed per day, and estimates of metabolic body sie, Sects “observations suggest daily energy intakes for ‘these captive wild felidae of 90-110 keal ‘ME/BW "i>. These values are appreciably below those consumed by leopards in this ‘study. Whether the feldae studied by Scott changed in body weight is not known, In our longer-term study, there were period fluctuations in weght but essentially ‘no mean change for the male leopard and a ‘mean increase for the female, Its noteworthy that the commercial diet used in cou study had been fed in approximately the same amounts by the same keepers forat least three years. Morris, Fujimoto, and Berry‘ noted that the daily food allowances for a male leopard at the Sacramento Zoo was 1.8 kg (40% DM basis). As noted previously, this diet was similar in composition to the diet used in our study. While DE concentrations were not given, dry matter digestibility by the leopard at Sacramento was 18.2% compared to our value of 79.9%. Presumably, DE concentrations were similar, If the weight of the Sacramento leopard was typical for two adult males at the San Diego Zoo (44.9.59.0 kg; P.T Rotinson, pers. commun.) ot for a captive 19-monlh-old Botswana male (49.9 ka),? dally DE intake per urit of metabolic body size would be as ‘great or greater than noted in our study. The 59.0 kg male leopard presently on ‘exhibit at the San Diego Zoo is fed 1.6 kg dally of the same commercial diet which was fed at Sacramento. Assuming a dietary DE concentration of 2400 kcal/kg, daily DE intake would be 180 keal/BW°\? It is not clear why these estimates of DE requirements for maintenance of captive adult leopards are so much greater than. those for adult domestic cats. Acknowledgments Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Article No, 9910, Special thanks to Gerald Miller, Director of the Potter Park Too, Lansing, and to Jan Brighamn and Dave Dicker, conscientious keepers who were extremely helpful. Tharks also to John Gill for statistical counsel, Phyllis Whetter for laboratory assistance, Herbert Schultz for loan of equipment, and Shery Mileski for secretarial service. R.B. Barbiers 37 received patil suppor from NIH Training Grant No, ST35HLO7507-01 References 1, Fenton, TW, and Fenton, M.: An improved procedure for the determination of chromic oxide in feed and feces, Canad. 4. An, Sci, 59: 631-634, 1979. 2. Git, JIL: Design and Analysis of Experiments in the Animal and Medical Sciences, Vol. 1, 2, and 3. Ames, IA, lowa State Univ. Press, 1978. 3. Herwite, W., (Ed.): Official Methods of Analysis, 13th Edition. Washington, DC, Assoc. Official Analy. Chem., 1980. 4. Mortis, J.G., Fujimoto, J. and Berry, $.C.: The comparative digestibility of a 200 diet fed to thirteen species of felid and badger. Internal. Zoo Yrbk, 14; 169-171, 1974. 5. National Research Council; Nutrient Requitemerts of Cats. Washington, DC, Nat, Acad, of Sci,, 1978. 6, Scott, P.P.: The special features of nutrition of cats, with observations on wid felidae nutrition in the London Zoo. In Crawford, N.A. Ed): Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals, London, Academic Press, pp, 21-39, 1968., 7. Smithers, R,H.N.; The Mammals of Botswana, Museum Memoir No, 4, Salisbury, Rhodesia, Trustees of the Nat. Museums of Rhodesia, 1971. 8. Theobald, J.; Felidae, In Fowler, M.E. (Ed_): Zoo end Wild Animal Medicine. Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders, p, 652, 1978.