CHAPTER - 6

Instrumentation &
Process Control in
the process
 Instrumentation and Process control

6.0 INTRODUCTION

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise

control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications.

This module introduces you to control in process industries, explains why control is

important, and identifies different ways in which precise control is ensured.

PROCESS

Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of

changing or refining raw materials to create end products. The raw materials, which either

pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state during

the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in

some other way to produce the end product.

Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the food and

beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry, and the power

industry.

PROCESS CONTROL

Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when

manufacturing a product. For example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to

another, the temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the

pressure under which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an end

product. Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:

_ Reduce variability

_ Increase efficiency

_ Ensure safety

The Importance of Process Control

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Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end

products can be a precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a

process can have a large impact on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature,

flow, turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to

produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy. Process

control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running

within specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality

and safety.

There are many reasons for which external forcing or control is needed for the satisfactory

operation of a chemical reactor or condenser as well as the total plant. The most

obvious one is that by an appropriate feed - back control an unstable reactor may be

stabilized. Moreover, even the reactor is operating at a stable steady state is transient

response characteristic may not be satisfactory, that is the rate of recovery from upsets

may be slow. By using proper feedback compensation devices, it is possible to

speedup the response of the overall system. A further reason for introducing control is

to negotiate the problem of reactor sensitivity especially for tubular and fixed bed

reactors. These reactors are known to exhibit (parametric sensitivity).

Here is some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from which to

understand more complex control processes and algorithms

. Common terms and concepts relating to process control are defined here.

_ Define control loop

_ Describe the three tasks necessary for process control to occur:

Measure
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Compare

Adjust

_ Define the following terms:

Process variable

Set point

Manipulated variable

Measured variable

Error

Offset

Load disturbance

Control algorithm

_ List at least five process variables that are commonly controlled in process measurement

industries

_ At a high level, differentiate the following types of control:

Manual versus automatic feedback control

Closed-loop versus open-loop control

Feedback Control

In a feedback control loop, the controlled variable is compared to the set

point R, with the difference, deviation, or error e acted upon by the

controller to move m in such a way as to minimize the error. This action is

specifically negative feedback, in that an increase in deviation moves m

so as to decrease the deviation. (Positive feedback would cause the

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deviation to expand rather than diminish and therefore does not regulate.)

The action of the controller is selectable to allow use on process gains of

both signs. The controller has tuning parameters related to proportional,

integral, derivative, lag, dead time, and sampling functions. A negative

feedback loop will oscillate if the controller gain is too high, but if it is too

low, control will be ineffective. The controller parameters must be properly

related to the process parameters to ensure closed-loop stability while still

providing effective control. This is accomplished first by the proper

selection of control modes to satisfy the requirements of the process, and

second by the appropriate tuning of those modes.

Feed-forward Control

A feed-forward system uses measurements of disturbance variables to

position the manipulated variable in such a way as to minimize any

resulting deviation. The disturbance variables could be either measured

loads or the set point, the former being more common. The feed-forward

gain must be set precisely to offset the deviation of the controlled variable

from the set point. Feed-forward control is usually combined with

feedback control to eliminate any offset resulting from inaccurate

measurements and calculations and unmeasured load components. The

feedback controller can either bias or multiply the feed-forward

calculation.
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Computer Control

Computers have been used to replace analog PID controllers, either by

setting set points of lower level controllers in supervisory control, or by

driving valves directly in direct digital control. Single-station digital

controllers perform PID control in one or two loops, including computing

functions such as mathematical operations, characterization, lags, and

deadtime, with digital logic and alarms. Distributed control systems

provide all these functions, with the digital processor shared among many

control loops; separate processors may be used for displays,

communications, file servers, and the like. A host computer may be added

to perform high level operations such as scheduling, optimization, and

multivariable control.

Cascade Control

One of the disadvantages of using conventional feedback control for

processes with large time lags or delays is that disturbances are not

recognized until after the controlled variable deviates from its set point. In

these processes, correction by feedback control is generally slow and

results in long-term deviation from set point. One way to improve the

dynamic response to load changes is by using a secondary measurement

point and a secondary controller; the secondary measurement point is

located so that it recognizes the upset condition before the primary

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controlled variable is affected. One such approach is called cascade

control, which is routinely used in most modern computer control systems.

6.1 PROCESS AND INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAMS

The process and instrumentation (P&I) diagram provides a graphical

representation of the control configuration for the process. The P&I

diagrams illustrate the measurement devices that provide inputs to the

control strategy, the actuators that will implement the results of the

control calculations, and the function blocks that provide the control logic.

The symbology for drawing P&I diagrams generally follows standards

developed by one of the following organizations.

BATCH CONTROL

Batch processes are those processes that are taken from start to finish in batches. For

example, mixing the ingredients for a juice drinks is often a batch process. Typically, a

limited amount of one flavor (e.g., orange drink or apple drink) is mixed at a time. For these

reasons, it is not practical to have a continuous process running. Batch processes often

involve getting the correct proportion of ingredients into the batch. Level, flow, pressure,

temperature, and often mass measurements are used at various stages of batch processes.

A disadvantage of batch control is that the process must be frequently restarted. Start-up

presents control problems because, typically, all measurements in the system are below set

point at start-up. Another disadvantage is that as recipes change, control instruments may

need to be recalibrated.
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RATIO CONTROL

Imagine a process in which an acid must be diluted with water in the proportion two parts

water to one part acid. If a tank has an acid supply on one side of a mixing vessel and a water

supply on the other, a control system could be developed to control the ratio of acid to water,

even though the water supply itself may not be controlled. This type of control system is

called ratio control. Ratio control is used in many applications and involves a controller that

receives input from a flow measurement device on the unregulated (wild) flow. The

controller performs a ratio calculation and signals the appropriate set point to another

controller that sets the flow of the second fluid so that the proper proportion of the second

fluid can be added.

In the digestor, the feed and the recirculating fluid flows in a particular ratio. Also, in the feed

the white liquor and the wood component is fed in a proper ratio. They are connected by ratio

controller. Some times they are cascaded also.

SELECTIVE CONTROL

Selective control refers to a control system in which the more important of two variables will

be maintained. For example, in a boiler control system, if fuel flow outpaces air flow, then

uncombusted fuel can build up in the boiler and cause an explosion.

Selective control is used to allow for an air-rich mixture, but never a fuel-rich mixture.

Selective control is most often used when equipment must be protected or safety maintained,

even at the cost of not maintaining an optimal process variable set point.

FUZZY CONTROL
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Fuzzy control is a form of adaptive control in which the controller uses fuzzy logic to make

decisions about adjusting the process. Fuzzy logic is a form of computer logic where whether

something is or is not included in a set is based on a grading scale in which multiple factors

are accounted for and rated by the computer. The essential idea of fuzzy control is to create a

kind of artificial intelligence that will account for numerous variables, formulate a theory of

how to make improvements, adjust the process, and learn from the result.

Fuzzy control is a relatively new technology. Because a machine makes process control

changes without consulting humans, fuzzy control removes from operators some of the

ability, but none of the responsibility, to control a process.

Level Control by model free adaptive control

When comparing the 4 major process variables: temperature, pressure, flow, and level in a

large-scale continuous process, the importance of the level loop is often over-looked.

Typically, the level loop is controlled by manipulating the inflow or outflow of the operating

unit, and is considered an easy loop to control.

Why level control can be difficult

It is difficult to properly tune a PID controller for good control performance under all

conditions due to the potential inflow and outflow variations of the operating unit. Overly

tight level control will result in too much movement of the flow loop, which can cause

excessive disturbances to the downstream operating unit. Thus, a PID level controller is

usually detuned to allow the level to fluctuate; so the variations of the outflow are minimized.

The detuned PID, however, cannot provide prompt control against large disturbances, which
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may result in safety problems during a plant upset. In addition, oscillations in level can cause

the process to swing, which also results in a lower yield.

MFA Control Solution

Robust MFA controllers have been used to control the levels to allow smooth material and

energy transfers between the operating units, and also protect the levels from overflowing or

becoming too dry during abnormal conditions. The Robust MFA controller can be configured

with the parameters as shown in the following bitmap.

The pressure in the digestor is maintained by pressure controller The liquor level is

maintained in the digestor by providing a level controller.