Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Leah Bader
ANTH 040H
06 March 2014
Humans have been altering their body and skin, using both permanent and
temporary means for thousands of years, with judgments and perceptions of these
alterations changing depending on the cultural context and the time period in which they
are observed. Despite the pain, difficultness, and the sometimes high cost of obtaining
these different modes of body ornamentation, humans seem to have an innate desire to
want to alter the surface of their skin, whether as a manner of fashion, self expression,
status, or group identity. Even in prehistoric times, humans would use natural pigments to
decorate themselves and in some equatorial climates, this practice would predate even the
manufacturing and wearing of clothing (Isaacs). While prevalent in early human history,
the three main Abrahamic religions would soon attempt to stem body ornamentation in
multiple ways, including biblical injunctions against it. I will explore the background and
(including tattooing, piercings, and scarification) and how it impacted the frequency of
these practices.
Humans are mainly visual animals; meaning most of the information that we
collect and perceive is through our visual field. Being able to make fast assessments
about individuals visually is one of the main arguments for the development of altering
our skins appearance (Larkin). Even in modern societies, first impressions leave lasting
impressions and skin adornment could play a major role in the way an individual is
perceived and seen in other peoples eyes. Other factors play into this as well, such as
clothing or valuable items like jewelry, but all are seen as symbols representing the
person wearing them and therefore carry huge significance both to the person displaying
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them and to the person comprehending them (Sterelny). Some of the ideas that can be
grasped from body ornamentation are an individuals identity, the affinity to a specific
group or belief, social status, and sometimes even sexual desirability. Almost all of these
reasons can probably help explain the use of skin ornamentation early in hominin history,
particularly the idea that permanent markings would express a group identification that
was indelible and could not be removed, making it impossible for the agent to defect
body adornment, as it dates back to Neolithic times, found in the skin of tzi, a Neolithic
Iceman, whose body was frozen and preserved in a glacier, and who sports the oldest
known tattoos nearly 5,000 years old. These tattoos are short, parallel black lines on
his ankles, calves, and back, which have been suggested to be produced by puncturing the
skin and pushing the soot into the puncture holes (Isaacs). The next example appears
around 4,500 years ago, evident in the frozen tombs of the Pazyryk people from Siberian
Russia, whose extravagant tattoos depict scenes and figures of mythical and real animals.
Americas, Oceania, and Scandinavia. Mummified bodies dating back to the Middle
Kingdom in ancient Egypt also bear tattoos and contrary to popular belief, these ancient
tattoos are not always simplistic. (Jablonski). All of this evidence indicates that tattooing,
as well as other forms of skin ornamentation, were integral parts of cultures and society
These functional skin ornamentations are still utilized in some tribal societies,
particularly those in Africa. Though African tribes mostly use scarification because it
appears more noticeable than tattooing would on their dark skin, the reasons behind the
markings are much similar to those from early human history (Cronin). Particular marks
denote particular tribes and small children can often be seen wandering around a village
with fresh scars on their faces to indicate their tribal association, an ascribed status that
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will be with them throughout life and can not be changed without great difficulty. While
modern technology has made these modifications much easier to come by, modern
hunter-gatherer societies and tribes are more likely to use more traditional, outdated, and
primitive methods of cutting and then adding pigment, causing excessive pain and
causes for the decline in skin ornamentation, especially in Europe though these
practices are certainly making a comeback in very recent times. As stated before, most
early human societies used these markings as a way of expressing a certain aspect of their
life, but when organized, monotheistic religions began to take a firm hold in larger
societies and cultures, a stigma developed toward body art, deeming it unclean and
shifting its association from expression to the most deviant parts of society (Scheinfeld).
It is believed that organized religion related these traditional practices with rudimentary
pagan religions and they were attempting to distance their newer religions from the older
ones as much as possible. At the time, it was customary for idol-worshippers to tattoo
and their religion (Scheinfeld). As this stigma developed, tattoos became isolated to
specific subcultures with the most prevalent examples being criminals and prostitutes,
with navy sailors becoming associated with tattoos in much more recent history.
The most frequently cited biblical injunction against any sort of skin
19:28, used by both Christianity and Judaism as the main reason why body markings are
a sin in their faiths. Leviticus 19:28 states You shall not make gashes in your flesh for
the dead, or incise any marks on yourselves; I am the Lord (Scheinfeld). While most
conservatives in both faiths insist that this line is referring to skin adornment, recently
contemporary researchers have made claims that Leviticus 19:28 is more indicative of an
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ancient Middle Eastern method of mourning, rather than criticizing common body art.
This traditional mourning method included burning the deceased on a grand funeral pyre,
then a close relative or loved one would cut themselves open and rub the ashes from the
pyre into the wound, therefore ensuring that the deceased would forever be close to them,
even in death, for the rest of their life (Huehnergarda). As organized religion became
more and more popular, however, this practice of mourning was deemed unclean,
which could explain why Leviticus 19:28 might actually be in reference to banning the
The next most commonly cited biblical injunction against body adornment, again
cited by both Christians and Jews, would be the Mark of Cain. The Mark of Cain is
shown in the bible as the consequence of the first murder, after the story of Cain killing
his brother Abel out of jealousy (Hooke). Genesis 4:15 outlines the punishment G-D
bestows on Cain: Then the Lord said to him, Not so. If anyone kills Cain, vengeance
shall be taken on him sevenfold. And the Lord put a mark on Cain, lest anyone who
found him should attack him. Most of the conservatives in Christianity and Judaism take
this line as a literal meaning that G-D affixed a permanent, indelible mark upon Cains
forehead for his sins. This visible mark denoted Cain as an outcast to the rest of society
and broadcasted his status as a murderer to everyone he came into contact with. Many
believe this is how the concept of branding criminals came about, allowing everyone to
see their crimes through the scars on their skin. Even some ethnic groups have grown to
disdain permanent skin modifications due to the strong stigma surrounding the eternal
Mark of Cain, which brought with it not only ostracism, but also a curse, that the
remember that Christianity does not actually have a prohibition against tattoos or other
body markings in their faith, except for Catholicism. Often the official Christian
position on permanent skin markings is that the faith does not encourage or condone
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getting these marks, though often more conservative members of the church will cite both
Leviticus and the Mark of Cain as to reasons why permanent body markings are seen as
tattooing and branding culture around the world, with many people indicating their
markings as specifically religious, including things from young adults getting crosses
tattooed across their chests and arms to display their religious commitment to the small
crosses tattooed with dates on the wrists of Christians during their pilgrimages to
commemorate the spiritual and physical journey they undertook. There are even historical
occurrences of the Christian faith encouraging tattooing, which occurred during the 15th
century Ottoman invasion of Bosnia and Herzegovina when Catholic Croats were urged
to tattoo their children with Christian imagery, particularly on their faces, to prevent
Unlike the Christian faith, Judaism has a much more established and strict stance
when it comes to permanent body ornamentation. While the younger, more contemporary
generations of Jews argue that tattooing is not sinful and many participate in the new
subculture, the older, more traditional generations still insist that all permanent skin
markings are stringently forbidden in Judaism. Leviticus 19:28 from the Old Testament,
is again, like Christianity, the most pertinent biblical piece cited, proving that G-D has
forbidden these practices (Scheinfeld). However, the Jewish faith also cites the Talmud
(the body of Jewish civil and ceremonial law rules to live by for those following the
Jewish faith) frequently, giving conservative Jews more substantial biblical evidence to
support their prohibition against permanent body markings. The Talmud verse Yoreh
Deah 180:1-2 states Marks on the body are forbidden, as are cuts to the flesh. If it was
done in the flesh of another the one to whom it was done is blameless. While the first
part of this verse is interpreted as a general ban against tattooing and other permanent
marks on the body, the second line is often debated. Conservative Jewish sects argue that
the second part was referring to forced tattooing; implying that those who acquired these
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marks involuntarily are blameless and have not sinned. Recently, more modern Jewish
communities have claimed that the Yoreh Deah 180:2 verse extends even beyond that,
arguing that the Talmud line is specifically prohibiting self-tattooing, but that obtaining a
tattoo voluntarily from another is perfectly acceptable in the Jewish faith (Huehnergarda).
Though these biblical verses seem to mainly focus on tattooing, both Leviticus
and the Yoreh Deah verses extend to piercings and scarifications as well. Piercings are
looked down upon just as much as tattoos are, though simple ear piercings have become a
societal norm for women in the past few decades. While this shift in piercings has helped
the Jewish perspective become more relaxed in recent years much like the very recent
perspective shift with tattoos as cultures become more liberal and less religious, there are
still some circles, like more orthodox Jewish sects, that still ban all cuts to the body
(Larkin). My conservative Jewish family forbids any piercings and my ears remained un-
pierced until my Jewish convert mother pierced them while my conservative, religious
father was out of town. Though now, years later, he has learned to overlook this slight
mutilation due to the overwhelming popularity of pierced ears in both girls and boys in
earrings at the age of 88, despite the obvious wear on her drooping ear lobes that I find to
Jewish faith, tattooing specifically holds a higher level of revulsion, particularly to elder
generations. During WWII, rudimentary tattoos were used in the concentration camp
Auschwitz as identification markers. When the camp first opened, numbers were sewn to
prisoners clothing, but officers soon realized that clothing was often lost or exchanged
death (prisoners were often asked to strip nude before being exterminated). A single-
needle device was introduced, piercing the outlines of the serial number into the skin,
usually on the forearm, which became the iconic Holocaust tattoo that most people
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imagine (Stein). Though through the law of Yoreh Deah 180:1-2, these prisoners are
blameless as they were forcibly tattooed there is much controversy in Israel over youths
who are getting their grandparents and great-grandparents concentration camp serial
numbers tattooed on their arms in honor of and remembrance. While this younger
generation may view this as symbol of their gratitude and reverence, most of the older
(not only are these youth getting tattoos, but also they are choosing to be indelibly
marked with something directly associated with a horrific time for Jewish people)
(Rudoren).
Despite the revulsion and disgust shared by many of the more conservative and
often, older members in Jewish communities, the idea that an individual will be
ostracized and excommunicated from the faith for obtaining or possessing a type of
piercing, or any other type of body modification, though maybe frowned upon, will not
affect an individuals ability to participate in the religious community or bar them from
attending synagogue. One of the most common myths elder Jews threaten youth with is
the notion that once your skin is indelibly marked in some way (excluding simple ear
piercings as they are usually overlooked now in women), the individual will not be
allowed to be buried in a Jewish cemetery along with their family and friends. This threat
is empty and completely false, as Jewish cemeteries do not actually discriminate against
The last Abrahamic religion, Islam, has conflicting views over the topic of
indelible body markings. Islam is broken up into multiple sects with Sunni Muslims
making up the largest denomination of Islam, basing their principles off the Islamic
prophet Muhammad. The second largest denomination being the Shia Muslims, meaning
the body, taking a much similar stance as the Christian faith not encouraging or
condoning the act. However, their Sunni counterparts disagree, forbidding tattooing and
all other body modifications (Isaacs). This discrepancy may be able to be attributed to the
fact that Sunni Muslims follow the teachings of Muhammad much more closely, as can
be seen in the verse in the Koran that bans skin ornamentations. The verse, Surah 4 Verse
117-120 states, The Prophet forbade mutilation or maiming of the body. with The
against all body modifications, because, in Islam, the human form is viewed as
perfection. Islam reasons that G-D created the human form and any attempt to change
that form (tattoos, brands, etc.) is seen as an attempt to beautify and improve what G-D
already deemed perfect. For this reason, any body modification is seen as self-mutilation
This extreme ban is incredibly variable depending on the permanence of the mark.
Only permanent, indelible marks that remain on the body for the rest of life are
tattoos, like henna, are frequently used in Muslim culture. One particular example of
frequent temporary body markings in Muslim culture is the Indian tradition of mehndi.
This ritual uses henna a temporary pigment on the skin that can achieve similar effects
as tattoos, but eventually washes away. Mehndi refers to the traditional practice in Indian
culture of decorating a womans hands and feet with intricate, complex designs in henna
dye right before her wedding. Usually this is reserved for brides-to-be and the female
counterparts of their bridal party (Mehndi). I had a chance to experience this practice
when my sister married a Islamic Indian last year and can attest that the process took
hours to complete and remained on my hands and feet for two months before finally
washing away, though the darkness and how long the dye remains on skin is determined
mainstream, as cultures and societies become more liberal and the hold religious laws
have on the general population become looser. Until recently, people with tattoos were
seen as being involved with a marginal part of society and disreputable people. Tattoos
were thought of as reserved for prisoners, prostitutes, and sailors, or with primitives
cultures that still practiced what was seen as an archaic rituals (Cronin). These views
have rapidly changed in recent years, as more and more youth have been getting tattoos
and bringing the habit back into popular opinion. This increased acceptance of tattoos in
popular culture of recent years can be attributed to the rise and increasing media coverage
of celebrity tattoos, featured by icons like Angelina Jolie and music stars like Rihanna
or Lil Wayne, who show off their ink at high-profile social events (Jablonski). People
now not only put a lot of thought into choosing the design and aesthetic of their tattoo,
but are willing to pay a high sum for it and many people even travel to different cities to
get tattooed by famous tattoo artists or attend body art fairs. The rapid rise in popularity
has spawned an entire subculture of tattoos in contemporary society, complete with its
own vocabulary. Increasingly, tattoos have moved from a mode of rebellion to a type of
This trend can be seen with other forms of body ornamentation as well. Piercings,
like tattoos, have become much more popular in industrialized societies recently as a
method of permanently affixing jewelry to the body, mostly referring to the ears, now
utilized by both sexes (Cronin). The trend has become so widespread and accepted that
piercings are now offered in kiosks in shopping centers for a reasonable price and can be
done rather quickly (about ten minutes). Though the methods of decorative scars and
brands are not nearly as popular as tattoos and piercings in industrialized societies, both
types of body modification can definitely still be found in contemporary culture and are
becoming increasingly more popular, as can be seen in the rituals of some college
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(Cronin).
Though all these methods of body modification have been used throughout human
history and most of them have origins in ancient times, most of these adornments had
fallen out of popular opinion in common cultures, only very recently becoming more
widespread, ordinary, and accepted. All of these methods had been fully or partially
prohibited by at least one of the Abrahamic religions, leading to their downfall in most
modern, industrialized societies, and it was not until more liberal views returned to these
Sources
Cronin, Terrence A., Jr. "Tattoos, Piercings, and Skin Adornments." Dermatology
Hooke, S. H. "Cain And Abel." Folklore 50.1 (1939): 58-65. Taylor & Francis Online.
Web.
Isaacs, D. (2012), Tattoos. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 48: 10511052.
Larkin, Brenda G. "The Ins and Outs of Body Piercing." Aorn Journal 79.2 (2004): 330+.
Web.
"Mehndi." Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body. Ed. Victoria Pitts-Taylor. Vol. 1.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2008. 274-276. Gale Virtual Reference Library.
Polay-Wettengel, Liz. "The Art of Being a Modified Jew." BME News. Body
Rudoren, Jodi. "Proudly Bearing Elders Scars, Their Skin Says Never Forget." The
Scheinfeld, Noah. "Tattoos and Religion." Clinics in Dermatology 25.4 (2007): 362-66.
Sterelny, Kim. The Evolved Apprentice: How Evolution Made Humans Unique.