5.

1: Carbohydrates
Sugar in its many forms
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Polymer Chemistry: The Basics

How to make a polymer

Lose water
Through a condensation reaction (dehydration reaction or
dehydration synthesis)

Figure
5.2(a),
page 59,
Campbell's
Biology,
5th
Edition

Functions of Carbohydrates
Two Functions:
o Energy storage
o Structure
Example:wood
o It is a carbohydrate (cellulose).
o It stores energy: light a fire and release the energy!
o It provides structure: use it to build a house.

Naming Carbohydrates
 Word derivations:
o Saccharide: sugar
o Mono: one
o Di: two
o Poly: many

Single or double sugars

o Single sugar: monosaccharide
o Double sugar: disaccharide
o Mono and disaccharides have names that end in ose
Glucose (mono-)
Ribose (mono-)
Fructose (mono-)
Sucrose (di-)
Maltose (di-)
Etc.

Polymers (many sugars)

o Many monosaccharides joined together are called a
polysaccharide.
o There is no particular naming convention for
polysaccharides:
Starch
Cellulose
Glycogen
Etc.

The Monosaccharide: the Basic Functional Unit

Based on the formula (CH2O)n.
o C stands for carbo
o H2O stands for hydrate
o Hence, carbo-hydrate
Can have anywhere from 3 to 7 carbons.
However, 3-, 5-, or 6-carbon skeletons form the most common
monosaccharides:
o Triosesugars: 3-carbon skeleton
o Pentosesugars: 5-carbon skeleton
o Hexosesugars: 6-carbon skeleton
Figure
5.3,
page 60,

Campbell's Biology, 5th Edition

Aldehyde Sugars (Aldoses)

All carbohydrates are characterized by the carbonyl functional

group (C=O) along with a number of hydroxyl functional groups(C
OH).
o Aldehydeshave the carbonyl group at the end of the
molecule.
Glucose, pictured here, is an example of an aldehyde sugar
(aldose).
o It is the most common monosaccharide in living systems.
Note how the carbon atoms are numbered beginning at the aldehyde
functional group.

Part of figure 3.13,

Purves's Life: The Science
of Biology, 7th Edition

Ketone Sugars (Ketoses)

In a ketone sugar
(ketose), the carbonyl
group is not at the end
of the sugar.
Fructose, pictured
here, is one of the most common monosaccharide ketone sugars.
Figure 5.3, page 60,
Campbell's Biology, 5th
Edition

Classification of
Monosaccharides

Figure 5.3, page 60, Campbell's Biology, 5th Edition

Linear or Ring Form?

Monosaccharides can be found in the linear or ring form.

When in water they take the ring form.
o This is lowest energy configuration, due to water's hydrogen
bonding.
 o Since biological systems are in water this is the form in
which monosaccharides almost always exist!
Four or more carbons are necessary for the formation of a ringed
structure.
o In glucose, carbon 1 combines with carbon 5. Notice how the
hydrogen from the OH group moves to the carbonyl group,
converting it to a hydroxyl group.
o When illustrating a ring structure, the carbons are often
left out in order to draw the structure quickly or keep it from
getting cluttered (as can be seen in the abbreviated ring
structure below).

Figure 5.4, page 61, Campbell's Biology, 5th Edition

Famous Five-Carbon Sugars

Ribose sugar: found in RNA

Deoxyribose sugar: found in DNA
o Identical to ribose sugar except it is missing one oxygen.
o Demeans absent; oxy refers to oxygen.

Figure 5.3,
page 60,
Campbell's
Biology,
5th
Edition;
Part of
figure
3.13,
Purves's Life: The Science of
Biology, 7th Edition

Creation of Dissacharides
Happens via a dehydration reaction
o Loss of water occurs.
Two monosaccharides combine to make a disaccharide.
o They form a glycosidic linkage, carbon one connecting to
either carbon two or four.
o Example: glucose + glucose maltose

Figure 5.5(a), page 61, Campbell's Biology, 5th Edition

o Example: glucose + fructose sucrose

Figure 5.5(b), page 61, Campbell's Biology, 5th Edition

Polysaccharides
Long chains of monosaccharides
Can be used for energy storage or structure
o The function depends on the kind of bonding between
monosaccharides.

versus Configurations

The orientation of OH bond distinguishes (alpha) from

 (beta) configurations.

linkage
o Forms starch and glycogen.

linkage
o Forms cellulose.
o Not able to be broken down by human digestive systems.

Figure 5.7(a), page 63, Campbell's Biology, 5th Edition

Structural Polysaccharide: Cellulose

The most abundant organic compound on earth

The main structural component of plants
A polymer of glucose
Is linear.
Is joined to other cellulose polymers by hydrogen bonds.
Has linkage, and therefore cannot be broken down.
o I am unable to eat my cotton shirt, which is predominantly
cellulose.
o Glucose, glucose everywhere but not a bond can break.

Parts of
figure 3.16,
Purves's
Life: The
Science of
Biology, 7th
Edition
Storage Polysaccharides

Part of
figure 3.16,
Purves's
Life: The
Science of
Biology, 7th
Edition

Starch
o Th
e
main form of energy storage in plants
o A polymer of glucose
o Is branched.
o Has linkage.
o Examples: potatoes, rice, wheat, etc.

Part of figure 3.16,

Purves's Life: The
Science of Biology,
7th Edition

Glycogen
o The main
form of
energy
storage in
animals
o A polymer
of glucose
o Is highly branched.
o Has linkage.
o Found in muscles and in the liver: it's a reservoir of
energy for use when needed.

Part of figure 3.16,

Purves's Life: The
Science of Biology,
7th Edition

Cool Other
Carbohydrates
Figure 3.17, Purves's Life: The Science of Biology, 7th Edition

Glucosamine: Further Information

Glucosamine is a hot topic today. Should you take it to help your

joints? Go to the following websites and read about the current
research:
Quackwatch
NIH Website

How Sweet It Is
The quality of sweetness varies greatly among carbohydrates. In
this regard, not all carbohydrates are created equal.

Relative
Sweetener
Sweetness
Aspartame (an artificial sweetener, brand name Nutrasweet
200
not a carbohydrate)
Fructose (monosaccharide, fruit sugar) 1.3
Sucrose (disaccharide, table sugar) 1.0
Glucose (monosaccharide, blood sugar) 0.56
Galactose (monosaccharide) 0.50
Lactose (disaccharide, milk sugar) 0.25

Glycemic Index

How quickly carbohydrates raise your blood sugar (glucose) is

rated by a scale called the glycemic index. There may be important
health considerations with regards to this phenomenon. If you are
interested in learning more, visit one of these websites:
o Mendosa
o Glycemic Index