THE DOOMED JOURNEY OF MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

TRUTH BEHIND THE

NAZI GOLD TRAIN
The search for facts among Nazi
ction with Dr Sam Willis

How a dig to unearth the Curtain Theatre and

its treasures has changed our view of the Bard

Snatch a glimpse of the Finds that revealed the tricks Meet the archaeologists who
Elizabethan capital of the early modern stage uncovered the site

biggest
Buddhas
Help for historic
Durham Cathedral
Stories of the stonemasons
renewing the Central Tower
Digital Edition
GreatDigitalMags.com

ISSUE 009

Grave of the Amelia Earhart's Home of

Everything we know
about Egypt is wrong
Dr John Romer discusses his new
book & radical ideas in Egyptology
Griffin Warrior nal days revealed Art Nouveau
The inside story on the burial full of
bounty in Greece
A new study claims to have solved the
mystery of her disappearance
Discover a spectacular era of Latvian
art and creation in Riga
PLUS FABIAN WARE 8 SPECTACULAR CASTLES IN NORTH WALES 8 SYNAGOGUES IN PRAGUE 8
BATTLE MEMORIAL SITES IN BELGIUM 8 RURAL LIFE MUSEUMS IN EAST ANGLIA 8 AND MUCH MORE
 WELCOME to
Explore History
The search for new discoveries can sometimes be even more
tantalising than what is found. In the recent hunt for a Nazi
Gold Train, nothing may have been found as yet, but the
prospect of treasure lurking within Polands mountains still
intrigues and enthrals visitors. We speak to Sam Willis about
his search for truth among Nazi secrets on page 44.
A more fruitful excavation is taking place in London,
however. The unearthing of the Curtain
Theatre, one of Shakespeares lesser known
playhouses, has been fascinating from start
to nish. We take stock of whats been found
on page 20, and ponder what it means for
our understanding of Elizabethan London.
Elsewhere, we delve into one of
historys greatest mysteries and look
at new theories about what really
happened to Amelia Earhart (page
62), and discover the wealth of things
we might well have got wrong about
Thinkstock

Ancient Egypt (page 28) so prepare

yourself for a few new revelations. Alex Hoskins
 CONTENTS
ISSUE 9

Every issue of Explore History is packed with

places to visit and the amazing stories they tell,
from ruins across the world to stately homes
and museums that you can visit tomorrow

006 In Focus
Incredible pictures of historical places
012 Discoveries
News, interviews and reviews covering
archaeological nds, events and more

020 Uncovering Shakespeares

London
Inside the excavation revealing the tricks
of the trade in the Bards early theatre 028 Have we got 036 Saving Durham
028 Have we got Ancient Ancient Egypt wrong? Cathedrals tower
Egypt wrong? Dr John Romer tells us about Discover the extraordinary work
the surprising revelations in his going into the preservation of the
036 Saving Durham Cathedrals new book on the ancient society Central Tower
mighty tower
044 Investigating the hidden
truth about the Nazis
We speak to Dr Sam Willis about his hunt
for the truth behind Nazi myths
052 City guide to Art Nouveau Riga
062 The last days of Amelia Earhart
New evidence suggests we may know
what really happened to the pilot
who disappeared
068 Grave of the Griffin Warrior
See the treasures that were unearthed
alongside a particularly special skeleton
in Greece
088 Heritage Hero:
076 In the footsteps of Fabian Ware
Mary, Queen of Scots The story of the man who ensured each
Journey to ten places that the doomed fallen soldier was remembered
monarch visited in her lifetime
084 10 Treasures of the Peoples 098 Strange Places:
History Museum, Manchester The Wonderful Barn
Witness some of the most important A peculiar looking place in Ireland with
political artefacts in Britain an intriguing story to tell

004
 Subscribe
020 How & save 40%
discoveries from NEVER MISS
AN ISSUE
the Curtain Turn to page 074
Theatre are
changing our
view of the Bar ini
uides
091 Quick, practical guides
to the best places you can
visit on a theme, whether its
castles, museums or beyond
8 Rural life museums in
East Anglia
8 Giant Buddhas in Japan
8 Prague synagogues
8 Battle sites of Belgium
8 Castles in North Wales

E X P L O R E T H E I S S U E

036
DURHAM

084
M A NCHESTE R
076
EDINBURGH
098 044
COUNTY POLAND 092
020 JAPAN
KILDARE LOND ON

068
PY LO S
062
093 GAR DNER
PRAGU E ISLAND

028
EGYP T
Alamy, Shutterstock, Thinkstock

005
 INF C US
Temple of Hadrian,
Ephesus, Turkey

Founded in 10th century BCE, the

story of Ephesus goes that a prince
of Athens, Androklos, founded the
city having fled after the death of his
father. Legend dictates that he was
influenced by the oracle of Delphi.
In 27 BCE, Emperor Augustus
made it the capital of Asia Minor. At
its height of success in the 1st and
2nd centuries, it was second only to
Rome in importance in the empire.

006
007
Shutterstock
008
 INF C US
Hlubok Castle,
Vltavou, Czech
Republic

This Czech masterpiece, originally

built in the 13th century, was rebuilt
in the 18th century in the fashionab
le
Baroque style, then in the 19th
century was given extensive changes
to emulate Windsor Castle. It is now
described as neo-gothic.
The aristocratic Czech and
German Schwarzenberg family
were the occupants of the castle
until 1939, at which time the owner,
Adolph Schwarzenberg, escaped the
Nazis by moving overseas.

Alamy

009
 INF C US
Toledo Cathedral,
Toledo, Spain

Constructed between 1226 and 1493,

the cathedral of Toledo stands on the
site of the previous mosque, while a
Visigoth church stood there earlier
in
the 6th century.
The grand cathedrals of France
inspired its Gothic style, but there
are notable differences that give it
a Spanish identity. The choir stalls,
located in the middle of the nave, are
one such feature and they are often
considered as the most beautiful and
defining part of the building.

010
011
Getty
 ISCOVERIES
RTHING THE LATEST ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDS, BIG EVENTS & MORE

o t d ver
ece
The ruins of this important city have sat unnoticed
atop a Greek hill for over 2,000 years until now

A
rchaeologists in Greece are
exploring the remnants of an
exciting ancient city, the full
extent of which is only just
emerging. Researchers from the University of
Gothenburg had been hoping for a signicant
nd in their work on Strongilovoni hill at a
village called Vlochs, north of Athens, when
they unearthed the remains of the previously
unknown city.
The nd consists of the remains of towers,
city gates and walls, set into a slope. However,
not much of this is visible on the ground, which
might go some way towards explaining why
the site has not been investigated until now.
Leading the eldwork was Robin Rnnlund,
a PhD student in classical archaeology and
ancient history, who said: A colleague and
I came across the site in connection with
another project last year, and we realised the
great potential right away. The fact that nobody
has ever explored the hill before is a mystery.
The rst eld season at the village ended in
September 2016, and uncovered archaeological
remains throughout the area on the hill, which
can be dated to several historical periods. It
was, for the archaeologists, something of a
surprise to nd such an extensive site in this
area of Greece. What used to be considered
remains of some irrelevant settlement on a hill
can now be upgraded to remains of a city of
higher signicance than previously thought,
and this after only one digging season, Robin
said. The Thessaliska plains, over which the hill
in question looks, were previously considered
to be something of a backwater, largely
uninteresting in terms of its contribution to
Greek history. This nd has certainly changed
all that.
We found a town square and a street
network that indicate that we are dealing with
quite a large city. The area inside the city wall

012
 DISCOVERIES

The Thessaliska plains

were previously considered
to be largely uninteresting

Fragment of
pottery dating
from late 6th
century BCE

A four-metre-wide
The steep terrain on terraced, serpentine
the hill has protected road leads to the
the ancient remains citys acropolis
from destruction

measures more than 40 hectares. We also The participants

found ancient potsherds and coins that can be in the first
archaeological
used to date the city, said Robin. field season
The dating of the site led to the conclusion in Vlochs
that it spanned across many centuries: Our
oldest nds are from around 500 BCE, but the
city seems to have ourished mainly from
the fourth to the third century BCE before
it was abandoned for some reason, maybe in
connection with the Roman Empire conquering
SIA/EFAK/YPPOA

the area.
Researchers from Bournemouth University
have also been involved in the dig, and their
work there will continue in 2017.

013
Peterborough hosts festival to
celebrate Katharine of Aragon
Event offers chance to glimpse into the life of the real Katharine through a
programme of historical events in celebration of the former Tudor queen

P
eterborough cathedral is
commemorating the life of
Katharine of Aragon with a long
weekend of historical events.
The Tudor queen was buried at the cathedral
on 29 January 1536, and these celebrations will
culminate on 29 January 2017 to celebrate the
life of Henry VIIIs rst queen.
Among the events is a keynote lecture from
Suzannah Lipscomb, in which she aims to
turn the focus away from Katharines duties to
reproduce, and instead look at her character,
spirit and relationships with her mother, Isabella
I of Spain, and her daughter, Mary I of England.
Historian and author Lauren Mackay
will also give a talk entitled The queens
champions: Katharine of Aragon and
her ambassadors which will address the
relationships between Katharine and her
ambassadors. Through their accounts, which
were recorded at the time, we can see a new
perspective of Katharine, which Mackay will
express on the evening (28 January, 7.30pm).
Elsewhere, Peterborough Museum will host
At Home with the Tudors in which visitors
can meet costumed Tudor characters the
cook, the barber-surgeon and the Tudor lady
among them. Walks around the city are also
taking place over the weekend to illuminate the
places with Tudor stories around Peterborough,
as a costumed guide describes the funeral of
Katharine herself.
A pottage and ale supper will give revellers a
chance to eat as Katharine might have, too, on
Friday (27 January)
Commemorative events inside the
cathedral itself will include a sung Eucharist
on Thursday, 26 January and other services to
remember the queen.
Visit www.peterborough-cathedral.org.uk/
home/katharine-2017 for more information,
including the programme and travel advice.

MORE EVENTS TO LOOK OUT FOR

Burns alicht, Alloway, 28 January 2017
A special Burns birthplace tour is available
for visitors to the Robert Burns Birthplace
Museum, Alloway, Scotland. At 7.50 for adults
(5 for children), youll see illuminations and
Carnaval de Binche, Belgium,
26-28 February 2017
Recognised as a Masterpiece of the Oral and
Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO,
this celebration sees the residents of Binche
Art Deco festival, Napier
New Zealand, 15-19 February 2017
Napier and neighbouring Hastings were hit
by an earthquake in 1931, devastating much
of their landscape, but allowing Art Deco
Thinkstock

entertainment as well as historic tours, with don folkloric costumes for processions and to move in as the main architectural style.
traditional Ayrshire food and drink. entertainment in the city. Celebrations take place each February.

014
 EXPLORERS KNAPSACK
What do you need to make sure your
B&O A
Beoplay H8 next expedition goes smoothly? Tommys Life
Headphones Heres a selection of the latest In The Trenches
Ditch the wires and enjoy your by Private
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Bluetooth connection in these top-of- The illustrations of Private Fergus
the-range headphones. Theyll cancel Mackain have been collected here, with
noise around you, sit comfortably lengthy captions to explain context.
over your ears and even have a Tinged with humour, it offers a
touch interface. unique perspective.
Price: 399/$489 Price: 16.99/$21

Google
Pixel
The main draw for explorers
on the new Google smartphone is
its incredible camera. Its the highest
rated camera ever to grace a phone,
with 12.3mp and f/2.0 aperture. It
promises quality photos in any light
and has you unlimited storage for
all your snaps.
Price: 599/$649

Gerber
Bear Grylls
Fire Starter
If youre planning a grand expedition,
getting a re started is likely going to be
a priority at some point. This compact Britains
kit contains a ferrocerium rod and metal Tudor Maps by
striker, with a handy compartment for
keeping your tinder dry, so it wont
John Speed
This A3 book presents a beautiful
let you down.
insight into Tudor Britain. The full-page
Price: 19.99/$24
maps of counties in the Tudor age could
soak up hours of inspection, while the
information accompanying each one
is insightful. A welcome addition
to any coffee table.
Price: 30/$40

015
 ISCOVERIES

REVEALED:
Likely birthplace of
Henry VII discovered
A survey carried out at Pembroke Castle has found a spot that experts
believe saw the birth of Henry VII

T
he story of the search for the
exact birthplace of the rst
Tudor king began in 2013. A
simple aerial photograph of the
imposing Pembroke Castle in Wales revealed
curious parchmarks (areas of irregular grass
growth). They were in the shape of what clearly
looked like previously unknown buildings and
a well in the outer ward. Pembroke Castle has
long been known as the birthplace of Henry VII
in 1457, but destruction and rebuilding of the
fortications over the centuries has meant the
exact spot has been lost.
The revelations arising from the aerial
picture sparked an exciting new phase for
the castle, and with the permission of the
Pembroke Castle Trust, a geophysical survey
carried out by Dyfed Archaeological Trust, Tim
Southern and TF Industries Ltd with funding
by the Castle Studies Trust was set in motion.
The survey found that one of the parchmarks
indicates the position of a late-Medieval
building, thought to be a possible site for the
birth of this iconic king.
Neil Ludlow, the archaeological consultant
for the project and coordinator for the survey, is
excited by the fresh evidence in the search and
is in the process of collecting the ndings from
Pembroke Castle so that they can be published
in the next few years.
With some investigation into Tudor family
history, it seems that Ludlow and his
team have found a compelling case
He told us: The outer ward parchmarks
registered well in the survey, and seem to
belong to a winged, H-plan hall-house. It can
be identied with a building that was partially
excavated in the 1930s we have two photos
that show walls and a possible cesspit.
But this is the building that is signicant
regarding Henry Tudor. All the evidence so far
amassed suggests that it was of a form typical
of the period around 1450-1550. Jasper Tudor
(Henrys uncle), Earl of Pembroke in 1452-61,
and again in 1485-95, was the rst resident Earl

016
 Bid to protect
precious items
from conict
With war threatening heritage
sites, authorities are being
urged to come together to fund
protection schemes

ABOVE (INSET) Henry
VII was born in Pembroke
Castle, and now we may
know exactly where
I
nuencers across the UAE and
France have called for action to
protect the most precious ancient
sites from destruction. They have
led a campaign asking for $100 million of
funding in order to pay for the restoration and
protection of important sites like the Temple of
Bel in Palmyra, Syria, Nimrud and Yemens Old
City. This fund would contribute to the costs
of transporting the pieces to safe places and
restoring those that cannot be moved, which
have been affected by conict.
The threats to sites like these come from
both natural disasters and man-made conict,
with deliberate destruction from IS and
other extremists making the news recently,
particularly in the case of Palmyra. This fund is
specically aimed at protecting antiquities from
extremist conict and includes a suggestion
that moveable artefacts could be contained in
safehouses for the duration of war.
ABOVE The beautiful
surroundings of
Pembroke Castle,
in Wales
The call for action has come directly from
ve Nobel Laureates: former UN Secretary
General Ko Annan, Liberian President Ellen
Johnson Sirleaf, Myanmars de facto leader
Aung San Suu Kyi and authors Mario Vargas
Llosa and Orhan Pamuk. They released a
statement in early December to coincide with
the beginning of a cultural heritage summit
taking place in Abu Dhabi, which was attended
by representatives from some 40 countries.
The gathered Laureates spoke of the
need for urgent action, stating, the time for
powerless expressions of indignation is over,
and that, part of our history has been lost
forever, with the goal of fanaticism being to
undermine our hope for the future.
The extremists responsible for the
destruction of the Temple of Bel and Nimrud
consider shrines to be idolatrous, and so
destroy them, taking the centuries of heritage
and ancient craftsmanship in one fell swoop.

at Pembroke for more than 100 years, and

there were no resident earls after his death
in 1495. Therefore, Jasper is the most likely
builder of the winged hall-house.
With some investigation into Tudor
family history, it seems that Ludlow and
his team have found a compelling case for
this being the place that had so long been
wondered about. Contemporary sources
also provide clues as to where the birth
actually took place. The best-known
account regarding Henrys birthplace was
written by the Tudor antiquarian John
Leland, who visited Pembroke in the 1530s
and tells us that: In the outer ward, I saw the
chamber where Henry VII was born.
Thinkstock

It seems this 21st century search is far ABOVE The Temple of Bel in Palmyra, Syria, was considered the best-preserved ruin in Palmyra before being left in a state of
closer to the mark than that of the 1930s. devastation by an IS attack in August, 2015

017
 ISCOVERIES
DIG
ISSUES
Wine press discovered
A 2,100-year-old wine press has been
uncovered during works to a school in
south Israel. The press is square-shaped, and
includes a flat surface for stomping grapes,
and a pit for filtering out skins. The press was
covered in a layer of seashells that were mixed
into plaster.
Roman villa in Cambridge
Construction work taking place near
Bottisham, England, has uncovered
the site of a Roman villa complex, dated
between the years 200 and 400. Part of the
complex is thought to have been a bath house,
and archaeologists believe the villa also had
under-floor heating.
Odin amulet in Denmark
Danish treasure hunter Carsten Helm
was out on a recent trip with his sons
when he came across a trove of gold. Included
was an incredibly rare medallion from the
Germanic Iron Age. The medallion is thought
to represent Odin, based on an inscription in
runes translated as one of his nicknames.
018
Archaeologists trace
earthquake history
in Turkey
Can the patterns shown by past earthquakes in
Turkey uncover the secret to predicting new ones?
G
eologists and archaeologists
from Kocaeli University are
combining their efforts to
analyse historic damage to roads
and buildings in Turkey. With a focus on the
ancient city of Bathonea on the shore of the sea
of Marmara, experts are looking for evidence
of epicentres and magnitudes of earthquakes
whose effects have been seen at other sites.
Excavation work in the Istanbul suburb of
Kkekmece in 2012 led the team to discover same region is clear. If a 7.5-magnitude quake
damage from an earthquake, which also hit the
Hagia Sophia, that dated from 557. Bodies were
also found buried underneath a structure, along
with some Justinian-era coins that helped to
date the nds.
The investigations are led by Professor erif
Bar, the head of Kocaeli Universitys Earth
and Space Sciences Research Center, who
told hurriyetdailynews.com Cracks occurred
on the walls of some big structures, and later
earthquakes caused great damage in Istanbul in
the 6th, 10th and 11th centuries.
The aim of this work is to create a full,
accurate picture of the history of earthquakes
in the area, as professor Bar commented, If
we reveal the age and traces of quakes that
affected Istanbul throughout its history, we can
eliminate the uncertainty in their formation. If
you know the past, you can predict the future.
Nature has a rule that if a disaster occurs in a
place, it will reoccur in the same place.
The possibility of these earthquakes in the
occurs in a place every 400 years, this means
it will reoccur after 400 years. Four different
earthquakes occurred in Marmara over one
century. We need to know their locations so we
can predict where the next quake will occur.
The use of geophysics to determine the
sites of earthquake damage, and also the places
where structures used to stand, has not been
widely used in Turkey before, and the team are
hoping that the collaboration of archaeologists
Thinkstock
and geophysicists will reveal new ways to
minimise future devastation.
My favourite places
Michael Scott
Classics historian, author and
presenter Michael Scott tells us about
his pick of places around the world
KENILWORTH CASTLE
Im based at Warwick University so Im
a regular visitor to Kenilworth Castle.
The castle is probably best known for its
connections to Queen Elizabeth I, who
granted the castle to Robert Dudley during
her reign, but theres also a fascinating
Norman keep there and the gardens are
absolutely beautiful and a joy to experience.
NATURAL HISTORY
MUSEUM, VENICE
The Natural History Museum in Venice
has an absolutely fantastic new design and
layout. What I love is that theres plenty
of interactivity for people of all ages and
knowledge. I went there with my eight-
month-old daughter recently and she was
totally spell bound.
ATHENS
I love how the city of Athens keeps
changing and every time you go. There are
always new and interesting places that you
didnt know about before to discover. It is
all oscillating around the central hub of the
ancient city, which is fascinating of course,
and has stood there (kind of unchanged!)
for some 2,500 years.
KRAK DES CHEVALIERS
Without a doubt Krak des Chevaliers in
Syria is my favourite I was lucky enough
to visit in 2010. Its an imposing 11th-century
fortress with history of the Knights
Hospitaller and the crusades. It has been
damaged in the Syrian Civil War by shelling
in 2012 and again in more recent attacks,
but the full damage done is still not known.
The island of Motya
is a fantastically
TORTURE MUSEUM,
SAN GIMIGNANO
beautiful area, full of
The Torture Museum in San Gimignano,
Italy is full of absolutely grim stuff but its all
great history and also
brilliantly displayed to show how different great food
nations have approached the idea of
torture throughout the ages the museum
really gets you to challenge your own ideas
at every turn.
SICILY
I think Sicily is widely underrated and in
particular its Western coast. I visited the
island of Motya there recently when I was
doing some filming and its a fantastically
beautiful area, full of great history and also Italys Invisible Cities with
Thinkstock
great food. You also get a sense of there Michael Scott airs on
being a really friendly local community Wednesdays, 9pm, BBC One
there which is great.
019
 U nco v e ring
S S
LONDON
Archaeological excavations at a rediscovered playhouse are
revealing new insights into theatre at the time of the Bard
WORDS
BY
SCOTT REEV ES

ENGLAND LOND ON

020

W
hen William Shakespeare travelled
to late-Elizabethan London to begin
his career as a playwright, he had no
idea that it was a journey that would
eventually lead to him becoming one of the most famous
writers the world has ever known. However, Shakespeare
was also lucky; the right man in the right place at the right
time. Without doubt a supremely skilled playwright, he
also happened to arrive in London just as a revolution was
occurring in public entertainment.
Prior to the Elizabethan era, plays were put on by itinerant
companies who wandered from town to town and performed
for payment and lodgings. It may have been one of these
touring companies visiting his hometown of Stratford-upon-
Avon that ignited Shakespeares interest in theatre.
But a seismic shift in the performing arts began to occur
in the 1570s when the rst permanent theatres were built in
London. Watching plays quickly became a part of everyday
SHAKESPEARES LONDON
life. It was a leisure activity shared by all levels of society, from
the aristocracy to the labouring classes; apprentices and
merchants are recorded as taking afternoons off to see a play.
In order to secure as much return business as possible, theatre
companies changed the play they presented every day or two,
returning to previously performed works weeks or months
later. Mornings were spent in rehearsal, afternoons were used
for performances. This meant that new plays were always in
demand perfect for a budding playwright like Shakespeare.
Considering that the new playhouses represented a major
change in how entertainment was consumed by the masses,
historians and archaeologists are able to investigate them
surprisingly rarely. Its easier to discover and excavate a Roman
amphitheatre than it is a Tudor or Jacobean playhouse.
There were only ever a handful of these purpose-built
playhouses out in the suburbs of London, explained Heather
Knight from MOLA (Museum of London Archaeology), and
often we are only able to excavate them partly.
The site of the theatre
in progress, being
excavated by MOLA

Drawing back the Curtain

Archaeologists have uncovered many objects that shed light on everyday life in the Curtain Theatre
Drinking Money Clay pipes Gaming Clay Glass beads
ask boxes Tobacco was introduced
to Britain by Francis
piece gurine Intricate beads made
from glass were used for
Ceramic drinking vessels, To stop members of This fish-shaped bone Tudor theatres were
Drake in 1573 and its use decoration on clothes
like this impressive staff pilfering the takings, gaming piece was one often ribald and bawdy
quickly spread, illustrated and these examples may
example in the shape of a entrance fees were put of several games found places with customers
by these clay pipes pulled have been used by the
lions head, were found all in ceramic money boxes from the Curtain. Drakes in the Curtain, others stumbling in from the actors to liven up the
over the site. Some were and kept in a secure voyage also brought included round stones nearby taverns, so its costumes they wore
found underneath the location the box office back the potato plant, from a childs game. appropriate that the on stage. Although its
stage, some were found where they would be although that was viewed Were they brought into archaeologists dug this tempting to imagine
in the courtyard where smashed to release the with suspicion by the the theatre to keep attractive little find these on the costumes
the audience stood. The days profits. It was a Tudors unlike smoking youngsters quiet during from the dirt it is a of Romeo or Juliet,
most likely explanation risky business to be in, tobacco, which was the performance, or were clay figurine showing Shakespeares company
is that both actors and but successful theatre thought a healthy habit, they used by the actors to Bacchus, the Roman actually moved on
audience alike enjoyed companies could enjoy a they thought the potato stop boredom setting in god of wine, sitting around 20 years before
a drink. decent income. was poisonous. between scenes? astride a barrel. the Curtain closed.

022

Archaeologists like Knight are trying to piece together
exactly what these trailblazing playhouses looked like
and what they can tell us about the development of
performing arts during Shakespeares time, but they are
hindered by the remains often being incomplete.
The location of the rst ever playhouse, known
simply as The Theatre, was identied in Shoreditch
in 2008 by MOLA. Their excavation of the walls of
the playhouse revealed it to be polygonal, but the
stage itself is thought to have been lost underneath
modern housing. Not that much of the stage area
would have remained anyway, because The Theatre was
deliberately dismantled in 1599 so that the timbers and
ttings could be used in the construction of another
theatre: the Globe.
Modern visitors to Shakespeares Globe, a reconstruction
opened on the south bank in 1997, might think that they
are viewing a replica of the original Globe in its heyday.
Its actually a little more complicated than that. Little
excavation of the original Globe site (which is 230
metres away from the reconstruction) has taken
place, and the archaeologists would probably
struggle to nd much from the Shakespearean era.
The original Globe burned down during a performance
of Henry VIII in 1613; the single casualty of the re was a
man whose burning breeches were put out with a bottle of
ale. The Globe was rebuilt, only for the second version to be
closed and pulled down during the ascent of Puritanism in
the 1640s.
Much of the evidence used to create the modern
Shakespeares Globe was taken from a different playhouse
altogether, the Rose Theatre, which was discovered and
excavated in 1989. This provided a blueprint to what we
consider to be the typical playhouse of the era: a polygonal
building with an open-air, sloped yard in which customers
watched the action on a thrust stage which surrounded the
A vision of the London
Shakespeare would
have known
remains too.
lives of both actors and audience, but they have also made
ABOVE One key find from
the dig is a bird whistle,
perhaps for Romeo & Juliet
BELOW Shakespeare and
many of his most famous
contemporaries
Its easier to discover and excavate a
Roman amphitheatre than it is a Tudor
or Jacobean playhouse
SHAKESPEARES LONDON
performers on three sides. Excavations at the site of another
playhouse, the Hope Theatre, have mirrored the ndings at
the Rose.
However, the recent discovery of another playhouse
is questioning what we think we know about early
theatres. This time, archaeologists had the chance
to uncover the Curtain Theatre, one of the earliest
London playhouses and a stage that Shakespeare will
have known intimately.
The Curtain is the fth purpose-built playhouse
that we have dug archaeologically, said Knight, who is
the lead archaeologist in the Curtain excavation, and it
has the best remains of those ve, so it is really adding to
our understanding. The Rose Theatre had below-ground
remains, but at the Curtain we have above-ground
Knight and her team of archaeologists have uncovered
some fascinating objects that shed light on the everyday
discoveries that may rewrite the accepted history of
Shakespearean playhouses.
Extensive documentary research by scholars
had already discovered that the Curtain was
built in Shoreditch in 1577, a few years before the
Bard set foot in the capital. It was Londons second
playhouse, only postdating The Theatre. Little is known
of the Curtains early years, but by 1585 the owner, Henry
Lanman, made an agreement with James Burbage, actor-
manager of The Theatre, to use the Curtain as an easer
or supplementary playhouse to the more prestigious
Theatre. When both were up and running, the total
playhouse capacity of London was around 5,000 people.
We dont know exactly when Shakespeare arrived in
London to seek his fortune it was likely between 1585 and
1592 but we do know that by 1594 he was a member of the
Lord Chamberlains Men, a company based at The Theatre. In
023
SHAKESPEARES LONDON
1597 Shakespeare and his band fell out with Giles Allen, owner
of the land that The Theatre was built on. As a result the Lord
Chamberlains Men shifted their base less than 200 metres
to the south and the Curtain became the new home of
Shakespeares works. Here several of his renowned plays were
performed for the rst time, including Shakespeares most
famous, Romeo And Juliet. However, the Lord Chamberlains
Men didnt just act the roles that Shakespeare wrote. While
in residence at the Curtain they also performed Ben Jonsons
Every Man In His Humour, in which Shakespeare played the
role of Knowell, an old man.
Shakespeare and the Lord Chamberlains Men spent two
years at the Curtain, leaving in 1599 when the company built
the Globe on the south bank of the Thames. The Curtains
most famous artiste may have moved on, but it continued
as a playhouse for around 20 years. In 1604 it became the
home theatre of a new company, the Queen Annes Men, but
they moved on within a year or so to the Red Bull Theatre.
Documentary records begin to tail off, although the Queen
Annes Men returned to the Curtain at least once.
After 1624, the last-known reference to a performance
there, the Curtain disappeared into the mists of history. By
the 21st century the Curtain was well and truly lost. Historians
knew that it had been built close to its predecessor, The
Theatre, but the exact location was unknown. For a long time
Curtain refers not to a stage curtain but a curtain wall
ABOVE Frontispiece
to The Wits by
William Davenant
we didnt know what shape it was, exactly where it was, when
it was built, who built it, Knight told Explore History. The
Curtain is the least well documented of all of the London
playhouses, the most absent from the historical record.
A clue to the Curtains location lies in the name the
marking the edge of the city. The Lord Mayor had decreed
that plays could not be staged in the city itself due to a
fear that playhouses would help spread disease. The only
contemporary illustration thought to show the Curtain at the
edge of the city was no help. It revealed an implausibly idyllic
location with a horse wandering across a rolling meadow and
a wooded hill in the background. In reality, this part of London
was at, even in Shakespeares time, and rather than the
meadows and woods of the engraving, the city limits were a
place where smelly and dirty industries like slaughter houses
and tanneries congregated.
In 2012, when the streets of Shoreditch were scheduled for
redevelopment, experts from MOLA were able to step in to
explore the area in search of the Curtain. They uncovered two
sections of the outer wall and, nearly four centuries after it
disappeared from the map, the exact location and size of the
theatre was known again. As it happens, the theatre was just
metres away from a plaque which marked the historians best
guess as to where it lay.

The Red
Bull hakespeares The Theatre

CLERKENWELL
Saint
Johns London The Curtain
SHOREDITCH

T
Gate

EE
TR
ES
MOOR FIELDS
AT
PSG
CRIPPLEGATE
HO

HOLB ORN
MOORGATE
BIS

BISHOPSGATE
ALDERSGATE CI
NEW GATE Guildhall TY
WA
LL AP
EL
CH
TE
CHEAPSIDE CORNH
IL L W HI
WEST ALDGATE
CHEA
FLEET STREE T LUDGATE P

Saint Pauls The Royal Exchange

Cathedral EA URCH
ST FENCH
CH
EA
P
Blackfriars THAME
S ST R E E
T

London
Bridge The Tower
The The
Hope of London
Swan The
Globe
RIVER
THAME
BANKSIDE

Bull S
The
Ring Rose The Clink
S O U T H WA R K

024

Mechanics must have unknowingly
stood centimetres above where
Shakespeare once performed
Even more excitingly, it appeared that the Curtain was
remarkably preserved, especially considering that Shoreditch
is no longer on the city limits. Shakespeares London had a
population of little more than 100,000; now it is far higher
and Shoreditch is very much part of the inner city with all
its construction and destruction. The Curtains survival was
probably down to the fact that, over 400 years, the land
under which it was buried was largely used for open spaces
including the back gardens of housing and the yard to the
Horse and Groom pub. That some of the more modern
building work missed the Tudor theatre was just down to pure
luck: the mechanics who stood in an inspection pit to work on
cars in the garage built over the Curtain in the 20th century
must have unknowingly stood centimetres above where
Shakespeare once performed.
Further redevelopment led to another excavation in 2016.
Over a three-month dig during the autumn, archaeologists
revisited the theatre ahead of a substantial new building
complex. The discoveries that they made may alter the
accepted history of Shakespearean theatre.
The breakthrough began with the very shape of the
theatre itself. One of the plays which premiered at the
Curtain was Henry V, in which the chorus possibly played
by Shakespeare himself proclaims may we cram within
this wooden O, the very casques that did affright the air
at Agincourt? Yet that line was probably rewritten after
Shakespeare and his company moved to the Globe. The
reason? The Curtain Theatre was not an O but a rectangular
building, quite different to the Globe, Rose, Theatre and
Hope playhouses.
VI after a panel of experts deducted that complex statistical
and tonight appear in Shakespeares works more often than
ABOVE Archaeologists from
MOLA at work on the Curtain
Theatre site dig
realised. Alls Well That Ends Well is another classic piece on
Shakespeare the
collaborator
To be or not to be a Shakespeare
play did the Bard co-write with any
other authors?
The archaeologists excavating the Curtain are not the only
ones attempting to shed new light on William Shakespeare.
Scholars have also been closely examining the Shakespearean
texts and have come to some astonishing conclusions. The
title pages of some new editions of Henry VI, Part One, Two
and Three will now credit William Shakespeare and his
contemporary Christopher Marlowe as co-writers.
The argument over who authored Shakespeares plays has
been around for a long time. Conspiracy theorists have wallowed
in the suggestion that Shakespeare was a total fraud and his
plays were written by a committee, the Earl of Oxford, Francis
Bacon or indeed Marlowe including the fanciful suggestion
that Marlowe faked his own murder in 1593 so he could carry on
writing as Shakespeare.
However, publishers at Oxford University Press have
decided to take the plunge on more scientific grounds. Their
new editions will co-credit Marlow for the three parts of Henry
analysis of the writing can reveal who authored a particular work.
Shakespeare-plus words gentle, answer, beseech, spoke
those of his contemporaries. On the other hand, Shakespeare-
minus words are rarely used by the Bard. Comparing such word
uses, and the combinations of words and phrases used, enable
researchers to identify not just a particular writer, but whether a
writer worked with a collaborator.
Although the 1634 edition of The Two Noble Kinsmen states
that the play was written by William Shakespeare and John
Fletcher, Shakespeare and his contemporaries were possibly
far more collaborative in their approach to writing than we ever
which Shakespeare may have received help this time from
Thomas Middleton.
However, it isnt all bad news for Shakespeares admirers.
The researchers also suggest that new plays on which
Shakespeare contributed should be added to his canon. Arden
Of Faversham is now listed as a Shakespeare work co-written
with an anonymous aide, according to the experts while
the painters scene in Thomas Kyds The Spanish Tragedy also
probably came from Shakespeares pen.
ABOVE Possibly a portrait of Christopher Marlowe, who may have
written Henry VI its complicated
025
SHAKESPEARES LONDON

The Bards city

Much of London was destroyed in the Great Fire, but a sense of the Bard remains at these sites
The Clink
In 1598, the time Shakespeare was
performing at The Curtain, he lived
in an area known as the Liberty of
the Clink on the south bank of the
Thames and would have walked past
the notorious prison daily. Perhaps
appropriately, Shakespeare can be
traced there because a case of tax
evasion that he was involved in was
referred to the Bishop of Winchester,
and the only place the Bishop had
jurisdiction was in the Liberty.
London Bridge
The only bridge across the Thames
in Shakespeares time was London
Bridge, although it was quite different
to the modern bridge of the same
name. The Tudor bridge was stone
and held up to 200 buildings. The
southern gatehouse was also used to
display the severed heads of traitors,
dipped in tar and impaled on spikes.
In 1598, when Shakespeare would
have used the bridge, a German
visitor counted more than 30 heads.
Royal Exchange
Shakespeare would almost certainly
have visited Englands first shopping
mall, the Royal Exchange on
Threadneedle Street, which first
opened for business in 1571. It was a
huge arcaded building with banking
facilities and more than 200 shops,
allowing a playwright to buy the
tools of his trade and a few luxuries
including spices from around the
world. Stockbrokers, however, were
not allowed due to their rude manner.
Saint Johns Gate
Originally the south entrance to the
inner precinct of the Priory of the
Knights of Saint John in Clerkenwell,
during Shakespeares time Saint
Johns Gate was the base of the
Master of Revels. His office decided
which plays could be performed
and which would be censored not
always an honest task since it was
common for the master to earn ten
times his salary in bribes. Did any of
Shakespeares work vanish here?

ABOVE Possibly one of, if not the oldest ABOVE Old London Bridge in a 1616 ABOVE The modern Royal Exchange is ABOVE Reclaimed by its monastic
prison in Britain, the Clink is now open illustration note the severed heads of the third incarnation, the first two having builders, Saint Johns Gate now houses the
as a museum executed traitors been destroyed by fire Museum of the Order of Saint John

People could go to an inn, buy a Within this wooden rectangle archaeologists discovered
a stage, which also differed from the norm for theatres of the
drink and take in a performance but time. Rather than a thrust stage such as that seen at the other
were under no obligation to give the playhouses, jutting out and surrounded on three sides by the
audience, the Curtains stage was more typical of that seen in
performers any money modern theatres; a shoulder-high oblong, 14 metres wide and
ve metres deep. However, there was no backstage area. To
aid access to and from the performance space a tunnel went
The Falcon Tavern, thought underneath the stage with doors on each side of it actors
to have been visited could leave from one side and reappear at the other without
by Shakespeare
being seen by the audience.
The stage poses questions, said Knight. How did the
shape of the stage inuence the performances? Were people
like Shakespeare writing for the shape of the stage?
Perhaps the unusual shape of the stage inuenced the
plays that Shakespeare wrote for performance at the Curtain.
Were the battle scenes in Henry V improved by being able
to include more people on stage in a single scene? Was the
balcony scene in Romeo And Juliet specically designed for
a stage which did not jut out into the audience? These are
questions which will engage archaeologists, historians and
scholars alike for some time.
The building and stage may have been unusual, but
the audience stood in surroundings that would have been
more familiar to the Elizabethan theatregoer. Those who
bought the cheapest penny tickets for performances stood
in a courtyard made from compacted gravel. It is popularly
believed (although there is no evidence for it) that these
groundlings threw things at characters they did not like. The
groundlings would, however, have got wet when it rained the
courtyard was open to the elements. For those who didnt

026

want to be packed in the pit, three covered, timber galleries
offered places at a higher price.
We know that those who watched the plays paid for the
privilege because the archaeologists at the Curtain discovered
the tops of several ceramic pots in which the entrance fees
were once collected. These pots were then taken away and
stored in a separate office. Later, they were smashed so that
the money could be counted. The place where the boxes
were stored was called the box office, the origin of the term
we still use today.
The nials of the money pots are everybodys favourite
nd, revealed Knight. They are quite a depositional
signature of Elizabethan and Jacobean playhouses, you
nd them associated with places of entertainment. You get
an understanding that these playhouses were commercial
ventures through those objects. Before this period these
companies were playing in yards. People could go to an inn,
buy a drink and take in a performance but were under no
obligation to give the performers any money. I guess it was like
busking in a way. Having a purpose-built venue switches that
relationship. All of a sudden the audience now have to pay to
see a play.
Other nds shed light on the individuals who both
performed and watched at the Curtain. A ceramic pot
has been identied by the archaeologists as a bird call,
presumably used to set the scene. Glass beads and pins
were dug from the soil which may have been used on the
actors costumes. Drinking vessels and clay pipes could have
been used by both theatregoers and actors. And what of the
childrens games? Were they brought to keep a child quiet
during the performance (not that it really mattered since
theatre performances were often raucous affairs) or were
SHAKESPEARES LONDON
ABOVE The archaeological
site hidden behind tantalising
barriers and signage
TOP RIGHT The Curtain
could only be exposed
when the land above it
was redeveloped
RIGHT Family portrait of the
Shakespeares, dating from
19th century
they used by the actors to pass the time when they were off
the stage between scenes and performances? The discoveries
at the Curtain have added signicantly to our knowledge of
Shakespeares theatres, but plenty of questions remain. In
particular, was the unusual shape of the building and stage
a one-off experiment, or was it actually copied by any other
London playhouses?
We started off with a set of research questions, wanting
Museum of London Archaeology, Alamy, Thinkstock
to know how the Curtain could change our understanding
of the development of early modern drama, said Knight.
But the amount of new questions that the archaeology has
thrown up is going to keep us very busy for quite a while
Scholars will continue to examine the results and the
debate will no doubt go on. Meanwhile the remains of
the Curtain have been carefully covered by a protective
membrane and special pH-neutral sand while a new
40-storey residential, office and retail complex is built, which
ABOVE Title page from will include a visitor centre displaying the excavated nds.
Shakespeares First Folio,
dating from 1623
Shakespeare lived and worked in this busy corner of East
London, so its tting that, even 400 years later, the Curtain
BELOW A selection of
characters from the plays
Theatre will once again help make these streets a vibrant and
of Shakespeare thriving area.
027
 WORDS
BY
DA N RICH A RDSON

028
A
t the age of 75, Dr John Romer shows no
signs of letting up and seems to relish
the controversy that his latest book is
sure to arouse in the world of Egyptology.
Interviewed by telephone from his home in Tuscany, the
distinguished archaeologist and documentary presenter
(Mr Romer, he insists) gets down to earth in the second
volume of his History Of Ancient Egypt: From The Great
Pyramid To The Fall Of The Middle Kingdom.
After writing the rst volume, A History Of Ancient
Egypt: From The First Farmers To The Great Pyramid
(2012), hed expected to gallop through the dark ages of
the First Intermediate Period with little new to say about
the Middle Kingdom envisaging a two-volume history
weighted towards later eras. However, during research, so ABOVE Dr John Romer is widely known
for his television programmes including
much fresh evidence emerged that he expanded the book, Ancient Lives, and his scholarly work in
leaving the New Kingdom for a third volume. the field of Egyptology

029
ANCIENT EGYPT

Mentuhoteps temple
tomb, seen
from above at
Deir El-Bahari

030
The pyramid complex of Sahure,
looking west at Abu Sir, Egypt

031
 The pyramid and
causeway of King
Sahure at Abusir

ABOVE Some of the worlds oldest papyri was discovered in what used to be a boat depot in Wadi
el-Jarf. It is believed to describe shipments of stone for the Great Pyramid.

032
 ANCIENT EGYPT

The pharaohs in this story are barely known outside of Egyptology

circles, with none of the glamour of Khufu or Tutankhamun

Howard Carter opens

A large
the shrine of King
limestone
Tutankhamens tomb
statue that
near Luxor, Egypt
stood in front
of Senwosret Is
temple at Karnak

An inscription of King
Mentuhotep II at Shatt
er-Rigal in Egypt

033
034
035
Durham Cathedral is regularly
cited as one of the finest examples
of Norman and Romanesque
architecture in the world and is part
of the UNESCO recognised Durham
World Heritage Site

036
 SAVING
DURHAM
CATHEDRALS
MIGHTY TOWER
Stonemasons are getting to grips with
a monumental project to restore the
cathedrals 500-year-old Central Tower to
its commanding place in the city

DURHAM
ENGLAND

WORDS
BY
NICK W Y KE

D
urham is dominated by its cathedral.
However you approach the city by rail,
road or even air its usually the rst thing
you see: an awe-inspiring, lofty colossus
planted on a wide promontory above the winding River
Wear and centred by a robust but elegant tower.
Built in 1484, some 350 years later than the main
structure, the Central Tower is the most visible part of
the whole cathedral and arguably the most cherished
aspect of the skyline. The commanding views from its
visitor platform take in the college rooftops and cobbled
streets below and stretch as far as the Cheviot Hills on a
clear day.
The henchmen of the all-powerful prince bishops
would have had a similar view as they stood guard on the
Medieval battlements that encircle the cathedral and
scanned the horizon for Scottish and Danish invaders.

037
 The threats of aming arrows and cannon re have
long since gone. But years of exposure to the often harsh
north-east elements have certainly begun to take their
toll on the Central Tower, which houses the cathedrals
ten bells. The towers peachy coloured sandstone, which
glints in the morning sunshine, had become smudged and
darkened by soot and was highly susceptible to erosion.
The time to step in and halt the damage had arrived.
The restoration of the tower will take about two
years but work on such a vast and historic building
is, of course, never truly completed. There is always
something that needs to be done, whether its a ssured
drum arcade or fading ceiling fresco in need of attention.
The cathedral is made of beautiful, yet very vulnerable
sandstone and the conservation work done on the fabric
is never-ending, said the then Dean of Durham, the
Very Reverend Michael Sadgrove, in March 2015 after
the government announced a 568,000 grant towards
the repairs to the cathedral from its First World War
Centenary Fund.
Its a view echoed by the cathedrals project architect
Christopher Cotton, a specialist in conservation who
has worked on a number of cathedrals, including a 40
million restoration of Saint Pauls in London: One of
the challenges is to conserve the historic fabric and
character while also responding to how the cathedral
might respond better to visitors needs and ow. Its a
rolling programme that falls to every generation.
038
The cathedral is made of beautiful,
yet very vulnerable sandstone and the
conservation work is never-ending
ABOVE Open Treasure: So at the venerable age of 532, and for the rst time
pillars and burial stones on
display in the fully restored since major restoration work took place on the cathedral
monks dormitory in 1860, the tower is having a bit of cosmetic and
structural work.
It is a tall order by any stonemasons standards. The
work will require a massive 12 tonnes of new stone,
the removal of any cement between the stones and
the installation of molten lead joints to give structural
strength to the 66 metre-high tower.
The hard work began in February 2016, with the
rst three months of the project spent covering the
upper parapet of the tower using an innovative and
cost-effective scaffolding suspended from the towers
top. Using a temporary external lift to reach it, the next
six weeks involved carefully dismantling the ailing
balustrade that crowns the tower, block by block.
In total, the team of seven stonemasons and two
assistants brought down around 200 blocks, which can
ABOVE Saint Cuthberts
grave was originally found on
weigh up to 750 kilograms each, to the workshop in the
Holy Island, but was moved cathedral grounds.
amid a Viking invasion
They used a tracking system and block and
tackle pulleys with a hoist capable of supporting an
 DURHAM CATHEDRAL
800-kilogram load. In principle, its similar to the system

66 200 that our historic colleagues would have used to build the
tower, says project supervisor Scott Richardson .
Where the rapid growth of technology has radically

metres high
blocks of stone changed most other professions, heritage stonemasonry
removed from remains largely unaltered. With the exception of a
tower balustrade motorised saw and equipment to heat molten lead safely
to the right temperature, the stonemasons use the same
tools as those of the original craftsmen who built the
cathedral. Its all being done with mallets and chisels and
without CAD (computer aided design), says Richardson.
Stones that proved stubborn to shift, however,
12 required a split-pin lewis, a lifting device rst used by the
EST TONNES
Romans that inserts pins into holes in the top bed of the
1484 stone to enable the stone to be lifted.
35,000
people
532
of new Blaxter
stone used in
restoration
Its not so much the stone thats deteriorated but
rather the Victorian ironwork that has rusted over the
climb years old years, says Richardson. Its been rusting since the 1850s
the
tower
each
300,000 and where its bad the iron expands and jack lifts the
stones out of place. Once wet, iron can expand by up to
seven times its original dimensions, playing havoc with
year bricks used in the stone around it. This time around, the iron will be
Lego recreation of replaced with some longer-lasting bronze cylindrical rods
the cathedral and plates.

700,000
visitors a year to Durham Cathedral
According to Richardson the tower needed drastic
attention. The stonework may have lasted another
20 to 30 years but it gets battered by strong winds and

42 The Central Tower

renovation project is led by
supervisor Scott Richardson

325
Anglican

1
and

1.7m steps up a
steep, spiral
Catholic
cathedrals
tower restoration staircase to
the viewing
in England project total cost platform

The cathedral was founded

in 1093 as part of Durhams
Benedictine monastery
DURHAM CATHEDRAL

The cathedrals centrepiece is the

HIDDEN TREASURES grave of 7th-century Saint Cuthbert,

whose remains were brought here by
I N H I G H -T EC H monks fleeing Vikings

RESTORATION
The most intact set of monastic
buildings in Britain have been
transformed into a 10.9 million
state-of-the-art exhibition
When the ornate Saxon coffin and cross of Saint Cuthbert, the
7th-century monk whose remains were originally brought to
Durham Cathedral by monks fleeing Vikings, come to rest in
the monasterys great kitchen later in 2017, history buffs can rest
assured that they will be well looked after.
The octagonal, vaulted stone room, which once provided
meals for hundreds of Benedictine monks, will be sensitively lit
and impeccably climate controlled to keep the saints relics at
world-class museum standards.
Cuthberts treasures will be the icing on the cake of an
already gripping exhibition, which opened in July 2016, and tells
the story of this magnificent building and the rise of Christianity
in the north east. The current display features an impressive
collection of Roman pillars, Saxon burial stones and interactive
copies of Medieval manuscripts. Fish bones and betting slips
were also discovered during excavations.
The restored monks dormitory, which houses the first part
of the exhibition, is a splendid sight in itself. The whole-oak
beamed roof was rivalled only by Westminster Hall in all of
England for its scale and craftsmanship.
Three of its sides are lined with high book cabinets that
alternate with narrow enclaves where the monks would have
slept at least until morning prayers began at 1.30am.
It has taken Durham Cathedrals team of three in-house
joiners more than 18 months to intricately craft the oak doors
and brass screens by hand each of which is slightly different.

Open Treasure is open Monday to Saturday from 10am to 5pm and If we hadnt addressed it, theres a
Sunday from 12.30pm to 5pm; tickets cost 7.50 ($9) for adults and
2.50 ($3) for children.
chance that 750-kilogram stones may
8 durhamcathedral.co.uk/open-treasure have plunged through the roof

horizontal rain. If we hadnt addressed it now, there was

ABOVE Blacking Altar cross, made from silver gilt and enamel, on
display in the former Great Kitchen with its stone vaulted ceiling
a chance that 750-kilogram stones may have plunged 60
metres through the roof and vaulted straight onto the
church oor.
Having the stones in the workshop (rather than
in their usual position on the tower) may be labour-
intensive, but it gives the stonemasons the best access
to carry out repairs. This is done, where possible, by
patching in new bits of stone using moulds, or entire
stones can be replaced where delamination has split the
stone into layers. Were not cleaning, this is purely a
safety repair, adds Richardson. ABOVE Sir George Gilbert
Scott helped with renovations
The stone being used in the restoration is Blaxter, to the tower
a medium grained honey-buff sandstone from the
Lower Carboniferous Age dug out near Otterburn, in
Northumberland, at a quarry that has been open since
the 1890s. It is a particularly durable stone that is not
affected by acid rain or air pollution and has also been
used before for restoration work on the library and castle

040
adjacent to the Palace Green. The cathedrals original
blocks were quarried in Durham, on the other side of the
River Wear.
It will blend in well with the cathedrals original
sandstone, says the project architect Christopher Cotton
who is conscious of working with many layers of history
some more challenging than others. He describes a
rendering of the tower in Atkinsons Roman cement
in 1812 as a bit of a disaster but praises the works on
the cathedral, inaugurated by Sir George Gilbert Scott
in 1859, which re-faced the belfry and preserved the
Medieval stone of the lantern. Scott gave us a good 150
years or so and it would have been longer if it werent for Thousands of people
come to visit Durham
the ironwork, says Cotton. The whole of the balustrade Cathedral every year
tracery is carved work by hand, including a number of
really complicated carved stones that have eroded away
The rose window
and need replacing because of the risk of them falling off. was inserted by
We want to make sure we dont have to go back up there James Wyatt

for another 200 years.

In such hands-on roles, its hard not to reect on
history and those who built the tower centuries ago.
Theres a real sense of history kicking around and it
feels good to be making your mark, says Richardson.
The other day I chanced upon some interesting old The journey of
masons marks from 1840 and even some old penny coins, Saint Cuthbert
from Lindisfarne
probably left by workmen in the 1960s.

Nothing matched the

English cathedral in size
until the Crystal Palace

041
DURHAM CATHEDRAL
The cathedrals Central Tower has had an unstable
history. It witnessed tragedy in 1137, for example, when
a tightrope walker, eager to entertain the monks, slipped
to his death, but was also a site of celebration in 1346
when the monks learnt of the Scots defeat at the Battle of
Nevilles Cross and began a tradition of singing with joy
from the top of the tower. In its early Medieval form, the
tower was struck twice by lightning before settling on its
present-day look in 1484. Like the twin Western Towers,
it was most likely conceived as a small structure, to be
built up once the bulk of the cathedral had been nished,
though structural evidence suggests that the second
storey was an afterthought.
In his newly published book, Englands Cathedrals,
Simon Jenkins is inclined to agree: The main tower is a
curious design that seems to conclude with battlements
above the bell stage, but nds a second wind and surges
up a further stage. It is not so much handsome as
powerful, as if late Medieval builders could not forget
the history below. Nevertheless, Durham is one of only
C.1895
THEN&
NOW
ranked in the Big Six alongside
042
ABOVE Durham Cathedral
is said to be larger than Saint
Peters Basilica in Rome and
contains an ancient bishops
throne higher than the Popes
Durham is one of only a handful of
Englands 42 Anglican cathedrals to
score a perfect ve stars
The Central Towers details
are Gothic but its squareness
is in keeping with the twin
Western Towers
Durham Cathedral is commonly
Canterbury, York, Saint Pauls,
Winchester and Salisbury
a handful of Englands 42 Anglican cathedrals to score a
perfect ve stars in Jenkins view.
Richardson and his team are wisely waiting for
the spring and the weather to improve to reassemble
the balustrade. The current phase will be nished by
late summer 2017. Then its onto phase two which is
expected to take another year and focuses on the belfry
predominantly restoring windows, carved crockets
and large tracery work, as well as repointing walls, doing
internal work around the bells and installing a metal
frame walkway to inspect the gutters.
Other works to be completed include repairs to
the roof-coverings and rainwater systems due to an
THE SANCTUARY
K N O C KER
What is that curious, angry face that
hangs on Durhams door?
On the northern door of the cathedral, a particularly spooky-
looking bronze knocker keeps watch. Its looking for the wrong-
doers of the city, to whom the cathedral would offer 37 days of
sanctuary. Whether the sanctuary seeker had murdered in self
defence, run from prison or committed another crime, they
could use this time to appeal to those who were looking for
them, or even to plan their escape.
While the knocker that adorns the door today is a replica,
the original can still be seen inside the cathedrals exhibition of
treasures. In its heyday, the door would also have been
watched over by monks, who sat looking out of windows above
the door (these have now been removed), ready to help when
fugitives approached.
Once inside, the criminal would be given a black robe and
the special Galilee bell would be rung to announce their arrival.
They would be kept apart from the rest of the cathedral and
given basic provisions food, bed, water, clothing to allow
them to live until they had arranged their plans to leave.
This tradition of offering sanctuary continued until 1624,
after a period in which Henry VIII in particular sought to remove
the right of sanctuary from consecrated buildings, claiming that
the popes and bishops who had originally founded this right
would not have expected it to be used to such an extent.
 DURHAM CATHEDRAL
EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS

SCOTLAND
Newcastle

NO RTH E R N
IRELAND Durham
Cathedral

ENGLAND
IRELAND

There is a shrine dedicated
to 7th-century monk
Saint Cuthbert
increased intensity of rainfall in recent years and
new roof decking so that the 35,000 people a year who
climb the 325-step spiral staircase can continue to enjoy
magnicent views of the city from the tower.For the
time being, however, there is talk of opening up one of
the Western towers to give visitors access to the Lantern
Gallery inside the church.
What will it mean to Durham and the wider
community to remove the scaffolding and have the
Essential information
Durham Cathedral sits at the centre of
the county town of Durham in north-east
England. The Scottish borders are just 96
When to visit Its an active church
kilometres to the north. Its easily reached by
and community hub but vast enough to
road via the M1 and A1 and by Virgin Trains
accommodate hundreds of visitors. On early
on the London to Edinburgh route. Trains
winter mornings you can have the place
run hourly from London Kings Cross, and
almost to yourself and it tends to quieten
the journey takes around three hours. Its a
down in time to catch the choir at evensong
good stride from Durham station (which has
at 5.15pm on weekdays.
a much loved view of the cathedral) so you
may consider taking a taxi but, once in the Time zone UTC
centre, the town is best explored by foot. Currency GBP
Where to stay
Out of town In town In front of cathedral
Seaham Hall and The Town House, Durham Durham Castle
Serenity Spa A boutique hotel based Two stately rooms are

Thinkstock, Nicholas Mutton, Flickr - Forest Runner, Durham Cathedral and Jarrold Publishing 2005
cathedral back in all its glory? In a world full of Lord Byron was married at in a handsome Georgian available in the keep at this
this pristinely renovated townhouse in the heart of UNESCO World Heritage
uncertainties, cathedrals show that some things can
Georgian mansion with views Durham. Staff are attentive, site which forms part of the
endure and continue to be valued, says Becky Clark, the of the North Sea. It has plush the food is decent and each university. Breakfast is served
Church of Englands senior cathedrals officer. A visit roomy suites, an award- of the 11 themed rooms have in the Great Hall and theres
to Durham offers a chance to engage with some of the winning Asian-inspired spa. quirky interior designs; some an undercroft bar. Double
worlds nest architecture and experience a link going Double room with breakfast even have an outdoor hot room with breakfast from
from 185 ($230). tub. Rooms from 99 ($120). 200 ($250).
back over 1,000 years to a very different England.
Access for future generations to the work and memory
of the past is what drives Cotton. Durham Cathedral is Links
www.durhamcathedral.co.uk The main website for Durham Cathedral
one of the enduring icons of the north. It is a symbol of the
www.durhamworldheritagesite.com/heritage More about Durhams World Heritage Sites
spirituality of the north that emanated from Lindisfarne www.justgiving.com/durhamcathedral Donations in support of the care and maintenance
and spread across Northumberland. The rugged Central
Tower is the crowning feature of all that represents.
When the stonemasons nally lay down their tools 03 Revolutionary architecture
Here, three main
The cathedral in Lego
In the Undercroft
Track Harry Potter
The magic

in 2018 they will have done their bit to ensure that things engineering
breakthroughs of Gothic
a cathedral, described by the art historian Nikolaus to see style meet: stone ribbed
vaults, pointed arches and
Pevsner as, one of the great architectural experiences & do flying buttresses.
of Europe, has a central tower that wont disappoint.
Foyer sits a 300,000-
brick Lego model of the
atmosphere of the
cathedral has provided
cathedral. It took three
years to build by tourists
the backdrop to two Harry
Potter films and doubled as
from all around the globe. an exterior for Hogwarts.

043
 INVESTIGATING
THE HIDDEN TRUTH ABOUT THE

They believed the

mythic train full of
gold bullion stolen
by the Nazis would
be discovered
WORDS
BY
M A RTY N CONTERIO

044
 NAZI MYTHS

From Nazi gold trains to crocodile attacks, the history

of Hitlers army has spawned many myths. We catch
up with Dr Sam Willis on his search for truth

W
hat was supposed to be a glorious
new age for the Aryan people a
1,000-year Reich, as Hitler boasted
to a British journalist in 1934
lasted all but 12 years and ended in a thunderous
defeat, the ruin of a nation and the unmasking of
profound evil. Philosopher Hannah Arendt coined
the expression the banality of evil, when covering the
trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961 for The New Yorker, for
she was struck by the blandness of a man responsible
for transporting millions to their deaths. However, the
collective efforts of the Third Reich war machine were
and still are mindbogglingly complex, extreme, clever,
devious and arguably the lowest point in our supposedly
civilised culture.
There was a frenzy of activity as Stalins Red Army
advanced from the east and the Americans, British and
others from the west. There was rushed business to
conclude the burning of documents, the destruction
of evidence of crimes, loot to transport. The demagogic
leader of Germany wished to enact a scorched earth
policy upon infrastructure; anything to frustrate the
Allies. This wasnt a captain honourably going down with
the ship, his orders were equivalent to making sure there
were no lifeboats for survivors. At Nuremberg and in his
autobiography, Inside The Third
Reich, Armaments Minister
Albert Speer wrote that he was so alarmed that he
disobeyed such orders and contravened them.
Then there were their crimes against humanity at the
concentration camps and death camps. Officers involved
in that vile business ed through a network set up to help
them escape to warmer climes. They changed identities,
passing as farmers, factory workers and the like. As
the Fhrer and his inner circle, deep underground
in the fortress-like Fhrerbunker beneath the Reich
Chancellery, felt the quake of raging street battles above,
Hitlers time was up. His lavish architectural dreams, his
fascistic vision of Germanic dominance over Europe, his
plot to cleanse the continent of those he deemed to be
undesirable people Jews, communists, homosexuals,
gypsies, the mentally ill, the disabled had ceased due
to Allied forces sweeping in from all sides. Germany was
destroyed by the man who claimed that he could return
it to glory.
Since the end of the war, horrors, mysteries and
myths about the Third Reich have gripped popular
culture and historical discourse in ways few other eras
or conicts have managed to equal. It might well be
tantamount to an obsession. Books, movies, television
shows, documentary series and other cultural acts of
remembrance monuments, museums, archive projects,
days devoted expressly to pay tribute to the fallen and
victims have kept all things Nazi-related permanently

Nazi Weird War Two airs on Tuesdays

at 8pm on the National Geographic
Channel until 17 January

045
NAZI MYTHS
in the ether. Much of it is respectful, even when focusing
on things so profoundly grim (the concentration and
death camps). However, theres a whole other avenue
focused on ights of fancy: rumours, occultism,
propaganda, raving mad conspiracy theories (Nazi
moon bases, Hitler was possessed by a demon) and other
strange things.
World War II has been generally depicted as the
good war; Allied nations fought the peril of fascism as
a moral imperative, a duty undertaken by all who valued
democracy and freedom. This itself became a sort of
cultural mythology. It was men and women ghting
the good ght, both abroad and at home. Many family
members grew up hearing about tales of their fathers,
grandfathers and uncles having fought on the beaches at
Normandy, in the elds of France, in Italy, in north Africa
or in Asia.
Dr Sam Willis, co-presenter of the National
Geographic channels new show, Nazi Weird War Two,
puts the wars continuing popularity down to a range ABOVE Urban explorer Nazi Weird War Two, as its title suggests, is a show
Robert Joe joins Dr Sam
of factors, including those family links, a heritage that Willis to investigate Nazi dedicated to investigating a variety of incidents, stories
is both personal and cultural. World War II is popular myths and legends and myths, hopefully setting the record straight on a
because the majority of people will know someone who few. Hosted by historian and author Dr Sam Willis and
fought in the war. With the sheer quantity of material urban explorer Robert Joe, topics include Himmlers
that has been produced about it harrowing images, so occult castle at Wewelsburg; drug use (in an episode
many wonderful stories about it interest keeps getting BOTTOM RIGHT The titled Hitlers Meth Heads); the search for the much-
piqued in new ways. These stories can be staggeringly Nuremburg rallies were an discussed Nazi gold train in Poland; and the discovery
annual event for members
unbelievable, a lot of them. of the Nazi Party of an Italian art collection stolen by the Germans and
stored in Montegufoni Castle as an intense confrontation
American commanders examine a suitcase
occurred a few yards away. Some tales are well known
of silverware in the Merkers Salt Mine and others less so.
Willis explained the idea behind the show to Explore
History, and how the dynamic works: Robert Joe, who is
an urban explorer, had done a show before with National
Geographic, and what they wanted to do was ally him
with a historian, in a kind of Mulder and Scully way, a
bit like The X-Files, where one believes one thing and
the other is slightly dubious. They asked me to be that
historian. I loved the idea of investigating true stories
behind the weird. I think some historians would run away
from weird but I was fascinated by how these rumours
came about and their historical process of developing.
Deciding upon what to cover the show also includes
two episodes devoted to stories set in the Far East,
related to the Pacic campaigns was a matter of debate
and very much inspired by the world of online conspiracy

046
Joe and Willis will set the
record straight when it comes
to the stories of the Nazis
Myths of the regime
For decades, all sorts of myths have
swirled around about the Nazi
regime. Heres just four of them
The Ark of the Covenant
Dont confuse history with
movies. In Steven Spielbergs
classic, Raiders of the Lost Ark,
intrepid archaeologist and
college professor, Indiana
Jones (Harrison Ford),
attempts to beat the Nazis to
the discovery of the fabled Ark
of the Covenant. When the Nazis find it in Egypt, they take it to
a Greek island, open the thing and are destroyed in a holy fire by
a flying ghost. The Nazis looking for the ark is nothing more than
the plot of a Hollywood film.

Hitler survived the war and

moved to Argentina
On 30 April 1945, Hitler blew
his brains out as the Reds
swamped Berlin. The body
They wanted to ally an urban explorer of Hitler and his wife Eva
Braun, who took cyanide,
with a historian, in a Mulder and Scully were later taken outside the
Fhrerbunker to the garden of
way, like The X-Files, where one believes the Reichs chancellery and set

one thing and the other is dubious on fire with cans of petrol, as
hed ordered. Rumours swirled for years that Hitler had somehow
got out of Berlin and took a ship to Argentina. In 2011, two British
authors published Grey Wolf: The Escape Of Adolf Hitler, a book
theories and rumours. We needed a variety of locations about this hypothesised escape.
and we wanted stories that had signicant amounts of
online rumours and had the potential for us to actually The Nazi moon base
investigate them from a historical standpoint. While the Nazis certainly had
One episode, the rst to air, takes a gander at the technologically advanced
weaponry, including the V1 and
infamous Ramree Island crocodile massacre, noted in
V2 rockets, one of the craziest
the Guinness Book Of Records as the worst crocodile myths and conspiracy theories
disaster ever recorded. Roughly 1,000 Japanese soldiers about the regime was that they
eeing Allied bombing swam through crocodile-infested had implemented not only a
waters to reach safety, but were gobbled up by killer crocs space programme, but had
a functioning base on the dark side of the moon by 1942. Many
in an all-you-can-eat buffet.
German scientists went to work for the US after the war and put a
Joe and Willis head off to Myanmar and solve not ABOVE Episode one delves man on the moon in 1969, but it did not happen before then.
only the mystery but ensure history books are altered to into the infamous Ramree
Island massacre
correctly reect what took place. Using local knowledge,
archives and consulting scientists who study crocs, the Buried treasure in Austria and
Ramree Island massacre in Myanmar wasnt quite the New Zealand
Its not just the Nazi gold train
man versus nature battle passed down in legend. Is it
that is a current obsession
even possible for crocodiles to eat that many people in with treasure hunters,
one sitting? rumours abound that Hitlers
A current craze also covered by the show is the search accruement of gold and art
for the Nazi gold train in the Silesia region of Poland objects were also buried high
in the Austrian Alps at Lake
(during WWII, the area was annexed to Germany). Is
Toplitz and all the way down
there any truth to it or is it a case of gold fever and a under in New Zealand. Nothing to do with moon bases, the
tourist board opportunity? Its certainly plausible after ABOVE Episode three of occult or crazy escape theories, Nazi gold is a believable sort of
the show delves into the
all, Nazi looting took place on an epic scale but is there mysteries of a secret Nazi
story, but none of it can be proved unless anything ever turns up.
specically a Nazi gold train at the location outside the art fortress

047
NAZI MYTHS

Nazi Plunder
The Nazis looting of art treasures from across Europe is still being uncovered to this day
Adolf Hitler was a failed artist rejected
by the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts
and yet was an art devotee and most
importantly, saw himself a connoisseur.
Modernism was an atrocity to the dictator;
he rallied against it and considered modern
art to be a degenerate form. He was never
going to collect German expressionist
paintings for his 1,000-year Reich, but the
treasures of the Renaissance were purloined
from various different Italian churches,
museums, galleries and monasteries.
Hitlers unifying theme was always the
expression of Aryan taste and superiority,
and much like his interest in art, the Fhrer
also marvelled at classic architecture he
had gargantuan building plans for Berlin,
which were drawn up under the supervision
of Albert Speer, the architect who became
a minister and later chronicler of Nazi
Germany and its inner workings and
even films, such as Leni Riefenstahls
extraordinary two-part documentary/
propaganda effort, Olympia. There was a
total aesthetic vision and philosophy at
work in the Third Reich.
Once the war got under way,
organisations were set up to steal any
cultural property deemed valuable. One
such organisation was the Einsatzstab
Reichsleiter Rosenberg, which operated in
Poland, France, some Soviet territory, Italy,
ABOVE Some of Hitlers
Belgium, the Netherlands and pretty much watercolour paintings
any country they could invade and loot. BELOW Courtyard Of The
Artwork belonging to prominent Jewish Old Residency In Munich
families were targeted too as they were
worth millions.
In the wake of the war, Allied occupiers
set up their own recovery teams, most
famously the Monuments Men. Much has
been found and returned, but its estimated
ABOVE General Dwight D Eisenhower inspects art
that about 100,000 items are still missing. treasures hidden in a salt mine in Germany

town of Wabrzych? This story has been featured in the

press a lot since 2015. Two treasure hunters, Andreas
Richter (a German national) and Piotr Koper, sought
permission from the authorities to dig at a site of specic
interest an embankment known as Zone 65 where
they believed wholeheartedly that the mythic train full
of gold bullion and artworks stolen by the Nazis from
all over Europe would be discovered. All they wanted in
return was ten per cent of whatever they found.
The origins of the gold train tale began during the
nal days of the war and spread down the years. This is
partly down to the warren of tunnels the Germans built
known as Project Riese and their plans for turning
the castle and the ground beneath it into a complex for
what is most likely underground factories for the war
effort. The plausibility factor is important because it
can be a springboard. 257,000 cubic metres of reinforced
concrete from 30,000 concentration camp labourers
was used to build 213,000 cubic metres of tunnels. Many
of the tunnels have not yet been discovered and, given the
project was never completed, parts of it are submerged
There was a great deal of embarrassment
at occultism in the Nazi echelons
in water and can only be accessed by divers or boats.
The castle, too, was being refurbished and altered as a
new headquarters for Adolf Hitler. Yet none of it was
completed, leaving behind the complex to generate yarns
about hidden Nazi loot and a train stuffed with treasure.
The region was strategically placed and out of range from
Allied bombers, and Organisation Todt was priming the
area as a potential new base for Nazi activity.
One man central to the Nazi gold train drama is
ABOVE A drawing by Adolf Tadeusz Slowikowski, a former miner. In 2015, the
Hitler, of an unknown female octogenarian, who has spent more than 40 years
searching for the tunnel, told the Daily Mail how a
German soldier hed helped in the nal days of the war
BELOW LEFT The Nazi disclosed to him secrets about the tunnel. I became
gold trains specic site of aware of the tunnel after saving a German man named
interest in Poland
Schulz from being attacked by two men. As gratitude for

Kiasz Castle, Poland,

near the proposed site of
the gold train

048

saving him, he told me about the tunnel. Only last year,
Slowikowski was forced to place maps and documents
hed procured essentially his lifes work (or obsession) Nazi theories
into a bank vault, when, he claimed, somebody attempted
to break into his home and steal his secrets. Gold fever can
lead to all sorts of chicanery and funny business.
Having used ground-penetrating radar equipment,
Koper and Richter were utterly convinced scans showed
the very likely chance theyd hit the mother lode, the big
one, the nd that would force their names into the history
books (and make them multi-millionaires). They began a
dig to the tune of 28,000. All they got for their money and
sweat was glacial deposits and empty pits. No gold train
was found.
The Nazi gold train scenario is certainly intriguing.
The Third Reich plundered anything they could get
their hands on and believed to be valuable. Europes rail
networks enabled the administrators to co-ordinate not
just the Holocaust, but also transferring stolen goods from
the concentration and death camps all over the continent.
Whether it was items used to enable the war effort or
to enrich the Reichs coffers, there is a moral dimension
we must always remember when getting struck by Nazi
train gold fever. Thats absolutely a key thing, Willis
explains, When we investigate the Nazi gold train in
the episode, we go to Auschwitz. We also look into the
banking system, the Reichsbank, and the administration
behind it, which was absolutely extraordinary. We looked
at les from a company involved in the smelting of gold.
The Nazis stole gold from Jews. Even beforehand, during
the time of the Kristallnacht, they had the Jews pay for
their persecution and somebody then had to deal with
that gold, and companies dealt with the smelting. All
their records still survive. That side of things, the Jewish
origins of much of the gold, its all there.
An American soldier of the
90th division, 3rd army with
a hoard of Nazi gold
ABOVE (TOP & BOTTOM)
Dr Sam Willis and Robert
Joe investigate the weirdest
RIGHT Piotr Koper and
Andreas Richter with
pictures from ground-
penetrating radar
Better known than any adventures hunting for gold,
is the eldritch world of Nazism and the Occult. Its been
a xture of movies, books and video games for decades.
Did the Nazis derive their grand vision and power from
supernatural sources? No, but since when did facts get in
the way of a good story? There is a clear propaganda aim
and purpose to depicting Nazi brass as a bunch of weirdos
into silly things, but they also did a lot of real damage
utilising and perverting science.
Wewelsburg Castle in Westphalia was going to be the
spiritual home of the SS, and while there is no doubt that
Heinrich Himmler and a few other high ranking Nazis
were super-into occultism, there was a great deal of
embarrassment at it among the Nazi echelons. It wasnt
an across-the-board interest or a vital part of Nazism by
any stretch. What was going on behind closed doors was
hardly in line with any of the Indiana Jones movie series
ABOVE Head of the SS,
Heinrich Himmler was a or even Castle Wolfenstein video games series, where a
firm believer in the occult group of mad scientists intended on creating a race of
mutant super-soldiers. Imagine being a GI walking into
049
Hitler and the Occult
Was Hitler a raving mad occultist or
has myth got in the way of fact?
Hitler sold the Third Reich as a new religion using advertising
techniques and the latest propaganda tools. He most
definitely believed in racial theories of Aryan supremacy and
eugenics, but its a lurch into fantasy to say he was a full-blown
occultist who literally believed in the supernatural, and things
like the Spear of Destiny and the Holy Grail, as literal objects
with mystical properties.
Due to the appropriation of the ancient swastika symbol,
interest in revising the history of the Germanic people, his
penchant for big bonfires and torch-lit processions as seen
in propaganda film The Triumph Of The Will the portrayal of
Hitler as a messianic-like figure lasted well beyond his lifetime.
Those in later years spoke of their dead leaders aura of
power. It was as if Hitler had Germany in his hypnotising grip;
as if he was a man who had sold his soul for power, or derived
his energy from supernatural means. One interviewee in a
documentary called Hitler And The Occult, which first aired in
2000, even drew from the fact that he came to power on 30
January 1933 during a pagan Sabbath (not quite true as Imbolc
begins 1-2 February but so does Groundhog Day) and shot
himself in the head on the afternoon of 30 April 1945 (Walpurgis
Night) as evidence of a magical spell being broken. It is exactly
the type of pseudo-historical tripe that feeds the myth machine.
Hitler and the Occult is a fevered field of propaganda and fiction
slimly based on fact.
ABOVE Black Sun symbol on the floor of SS Generals Hall at
Wewelsburg Castle
050
Adolf Hitler speaks in 1941
of the war in the Pacific
There is no doubting this guy had
seriously warped ideas and beliefs
some of these abandoned, ghostlike places, all of their
leaders and henchmen long gone from its halls, and some
of the rst things you see are a bunch of really weird-
looking symbols and rooms that look like they were built
for some kind of ritual gatherings. Little wonder all the
rumours begin to develop from here; it may well have
looked creepy and deranged to their eyes.
The Medieval castle overlooking the town of Bren
denitely looks the part of a place lled with secrets.
Himmler chanced upon the castle as early as 1933 and
ABOVE Karl Maria Wiligut decided it would be perfect for his burgeoning SS group
saw Wewelsburg as a home
for Nazi occultism and would be a centre to provide training. Himmlers
friend, Karl Maria Wiligut, a man deeply invested in
occultism, saw the potential in Wewelsburg as the home
of Nazi occultism. There is no doubting that he held
seriously warped ideas and mystical beliefs (the kind that
would have deeply embarrassed Hitler and others who
saw it as mumbo-jumbo). Yet for all his big plans for the
SS and Wewelsburg, by 1938, Wiligut had gone insane and
was committed to an asylum.
Wewelsburg has a power over the imagination,
Willis says, because its a genuinely eerie place. As the
Americans are approaching it, Himmler orders for it to be
destroyed as there are things he doesnt want them to see,
but when they attempt to blow it up, it totally fails.
ABOVE The Occult Roots
Of Naziam by Nicholas
In one of the towers in this extraordinarily shaped
Goodrick-Clarke castle, theres what appears to be a crypt and a symbol
 NAZI MYTHS
emblazoned on the oor it all looks a bit Harry Potter
its strange when you go there. You can see very clearly
why rumours began because you cant help but think,
What the hell were they up to? but then it unravels. Its
actually one of my favourite stories and its all to do with
the Nazis obsession with race.
To understand that obsession, and how it fed into
their total vision, we must go back to the late 19th century
and the revival of esoteric nonsense under the purview
of conservative-nationalist theosophists obsessed
with racial purity and tracing it back to the dawn of
humankind. That is a key aspect of what drove the Nazis:
racial purity, theirs specically.
While race interested Nazis greatly, they werent
so hot on Freemasons, astrologers and other mystical
theories. The Nazis wanted to prove their superiority
through science which is how and why they bent it to Wewelsburg castle is at
their will. the centre of much of the
mythology of the Nazi
Nazi medical experiments at Auschwitz and other obsession with the occult
places; racial segregation like the Mischling Test;
breeding what they believed to be superior human
specimens; these things drove the Nazis more than any Some conspiracy Moloch, the
Tarot readings. Occultism was banned and was clamped theorists believe Canaanite god of
Hitler escaped child sacrifice
down on ruthlessly by the late 1930s. Its kind of like to Argentina
historical one-upmanship, Willis explains, Its to do
with race and its a fascinating view into the Nazi belief
system. Yes, they were interested in pre-Christian,
Germanic religion, I suppose you could call it, but when
war broke out it got very marginalised and I think thats
also fascinating. It was loopy, but there is historical
evidence for it. Himmler and a couple of his honchos who
really believed in it marginalised it.
There were no mad schemes to dominate the world
by consulting astrology charts or a belief that nding
the Holy Grail as if it were a literal item in a cave
somewhere in the Middle East would ensure Nazi
domination through supernatural means for all eternity.
While Himmler and a few fellow travellers believed along
those lines, Willis certainly doesnt think occultism in

Thinkstock, Alamy, Getty Images, Bundesarchiv Bild, Shutterstock, Rex Features, National Geographic Channel
the Nazi top brass was widespread. The fact that when it
came down to kicking off the war, they were told to shut
up about it. Calm this down, its nonsense, we need to
start concentrating on making tanks is the gist of what
they were saying.
Its more to do with the early roots of Nazism and
rather than being extreme in their beliefs, its actually the
opposite of that, its controlling it and isolating it to this
castle. The fact that its in Himmlers castle doesnt prove
its everywhere. The Nazi war machine was enormous, of
course youre going to have people with differing opinions,
it just so turned out that Himmler was interested in this
kind of pre-Christian, early Germanic history.
Fascination with World War II and its weird tales and
myths isnt going away any time soon, and Willis makes
the good point that, if the Nazis can operate and run
a Holocaust and kill that many people, everything else During the Warsaw
becomes kind of believable, because thats unbelievable, Ghetto Uprising, people
were forced out of their
its so difficult to get your head around. So, if they did that, homes by German forces
then why not X, Y, Z?

051
 CITY GUIDE
TO

ART NOUVEAU

RIGA
For half of its time as an independent nation, Latvia
has been occupied, yet its beautiful Art Nouveau
buildings survived its tumultuous past
WORDS
BY
MIKE COLLIER

052
 Riga across the
in the
Daugava River
ry
early 20th centu

There is no
better city in the
world to walk
through with your
head tilted up at a
45-degree angle

LATVIA R IGA

T
here can be few countries on Earth as
obsessed with history as Latvia. This
small land on the eastern coast of the Baltic
Sea has seen more than its fair share of
remarkable events, whether as Medieval Livonia, a state
ruled by the crusading warrior-priests of the Teutonic
Order; as a province of the Russian Empire in which
German barons enjoyed total dominance; or since 1918
as an independent state in its own right. Yet even then,
the tides of history continued owing over Latvia so
that when the republic of 2 million people (a European
Union and NATO member since 2004) celebrates its
centenary in 2018, for half of those 100 years, the country
was occupied, rst by the Soviet Union in 1940, then
by Nazi Germany and then again by the Soviets, with
independence only regained in 1991.
Throughout its history, the economic and political
powerhouse of the region has been the capital city Riga,
the only true metropolis in the Baltic states of Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania. An important port since the start
of the 13th century and one of the leading members of the
Hanseatic League, Riga has always been to some extent a
state-within-a-state. The British Navy was reliant upon
timber, tar and hemp ropes from Riga and so by the end of
the 18th century, many of the leading merchants in Riga
were British.
The economic importance of Riga has always been
reected in its architecture, with the Medieval Old Town

surrounded on all sides by districts with very different
characters, including Scandinavian-style wooden
architecture, Baroque churches and numerous examples
of Soviet brutalism.
It was in the early years of the 20th century that an
unprecedented inux of both wealth and population
created the conditions for one of the most remarkable
architectural booms in European history. Between 1897
and 1914, Rigas population almost doubled, reaching
530,000. By comparison, Stockholm on the other side
of the Baltic Sea, had a population of 350,000
and Tallinn, capital of neighbouring Estonia, just
140,000. It was also extremely cosmopolitan, with
the population at the turn of the 20th century at 45
per cent Latvian, 23 per cent German, 16 per cent
Russian and 6 per cent Jewish.
In a manner that in some ways is reminiscent of
Haussmans rebuilding of Paris, which created the
conditions for the rst Art Nouveau boom in Europe,
crumbling old districts of Riga were torn down, a
system of broad boulevards was laid out and public
transport, sewerage and electricity were introduced.
All that was required to complete this thoroughly
modern city for the new century, awash with cash,
were buildings, and to that end, a remarkable roll-
call of mainly German architects (plus occasional
Russians and increasing numbers of Latvians who
054
One of Eisensteins Art
Nouveau masterpieces
had studied under German masters) was assembled
and handed commissions as quickly as they could take
them up. Among the most notable names are Wilhelm
Bockslaff, Friedrich Scheffel, Konstantns Pkns,
Mikhail Eisenstein, Paul Mandelstamm and Eiens
Laube, the last of whom might, with some justication,
be regarded as Latvias national architect for the way
TOP RIGHT A plaque
he blended traditional folk motifs into the fabric of
dedicated to iconic Art these state-of-the-art buildings. The strong German
Nouveau artist Eisenstein
inuence is also reected in the common use of the term
Jugendstil for Art Nouveau. Whats most remarkable
is the quality of the buildings raised during this 20-year
golden age, considering the sheer numbers that were
being constructed.
An international industrial and trade exhibition
held in Riga in 1901, marking the 700th anniversary
of the citys founding, acted as an important catalyst.
The temporary pavilions designed by many of these
architects were so impressive and innovative, municipal
and mercantile interests alike gained condence that
buildings with ornate decorations, unusual lines and bold
ABOVE George Armitstead,
Rigas much-loved mayor
concepts could also be extremely practical and would
enhance the prestige of their owners. One of the humbler
The temporary pavilions designed by
many of these architects were so impressive
and innovative
eet (Kalku
People on Lime Str
) in old town Riga c.1900
iela
 ART NOUVEAU RIGA
pavilions, that was designed to showcase the skills of
master bricklayer Krisjanis Kergalvis, still exists in the
pretty Kronvalda park, with few passers-by realising its Rigas stock
original purpose. exchange, c.1900
The building boom of the early 20th century was truly
remarkable: 1,172 new buildings were approved in 1901
and 1,359 in 1910 with comparable numbers every year in
between. In nearly all cases, buildings were designed and
built within the year.
Today, Riga still boasts more than 800 Art Nouveau
buildings, the ravages of war miraculously having
avoided them for the most part when other districts
of the city were destroyed. The very ornateness and
complexity of the Art Nouveau style even offered some
protection during the grim years of Soviet occupation.
While many Jugendstil interiors were gutted by the
Soviets, and the grand apartments of the well-to-do
were divided into municipal apartments or the dreary

Even beyond
its Art Nouveau offices of totalitarian bureaucracy. The fact that the
credentials, Riga
glitters at night
Soviets lacked the craftsmanship and nancial resources
required to renovate such buildings meant that the
exteriors were just left to crumble. With the regaining of
Latvian independence in 1991, these remarkable edices
were valued once again, with Rigans realising that they
could be a major tourist attraction which they now are.
While the Art Nouveau district is generally held to
be the area around Alberta and Elizabetes streets, there
are examples scattered throughout the city. Even in the
most obscure suburbs, its not unusual to come across
a smaller, but no less impressive, Art Nouveau house,
sometimes built as trial projects for the grand designs of
the city centre or just as a modest country residence for
a discerning patron.
In central Riga today, even when a modern shop front
now occupies the ground oor of a building, its worth
looking at the oors above, where youll frequently see a
Muse, nymph, sphinx, distorted face, lion, peacock, bear,
wolf or other fantastic creation staring back at you. There
is no better city in the world to walk through with your
head tilted up at a 45-degree angle.

How to spot Art Nouveau

Think you might be looking at an Art Nouveau classic?
Heres how you can tell
Art Nouveau began in France, at art
dealer Siegfried Bings gallery, but its elements
range from mosaics to Japanese motifs. Some
of the main recurring shapes and forms to
look out for when identifying an Art Nouveau
building are: an abundance of ornamentation,
including the addition of plants, animals,
faces and patterns; a proliferation of arches
and curved forms; bright colour in the form
of paintings or an overall block colour to the
exterior; and asymmetry.
There are also other features, such as
curved and stained glass, and flowing lines,
which can indicate a buildings origins in the
Art Nouveau movement.
Art Deco, however, is defined by its
geometric style, influenced by Fauvism,
Cubism and the art of Egypt, China, India and
other countries. It came to the fore in the
1920s and 30s, and was particularly prevalent
in the United States, as well as seeing
popularity in western Europe.

055
CITY GUIDE

Things to see
The Corner 3
House
2
Elizabetes iela
Cafe Sienna

Hotel
Neiburgs 6
DOME SQUARE 7
Audeju iela
1

Statue of George
Armitstead
 ART NOUVEAU RIGA

Alberta iela

1 Nu ,
Audeju iela
Generally held to be the first example of Art Nouveau
in Riga, seven Audeju Street is rather modest in
comparison to the ornate masterpieces that
followed it, but most of the essential elements are
in place.
Designed by architect Alfred Aschenkampf in
1899 at number seven Audeju iela (Weavers street)
Riga Latvian in Rigas Old Town, the facade with its swirling plant
motifs and beautifully balanced geometric devices
Society House looks not unlike an elegant book plate which
may not be surprising given that the owner was the
publisher, Alexander Grosset.
Aschenkampf was, at the time, a teacher at Rigas
Craft School, putting him at the forefront of new
design in the city. He went on to work with other
prominent architects on buildings in Riga, including
one structure which was unfortunately gutted by a
fire in 2014.
From the beginning of Art Nouveau, the style
quickly spread as a glance next door at number nine
shows, designed by architect Konstantns Pkns.
Here, it seems almost as if Art Nouveau has been
grafted onto a more conventional classical style, but
explodes in the amazing combination of face, sun and
shell at the top of the building. This use of plasterwork
as full-scale statuary was to become one of the most
striking elements of the Riga Art Nouveau style.
Pkns (1859-1928) was the first of a new breed
of home-grown Latvian architects and was also the
most prolific, being credited with more than 250
buildings in Riga alone.

057

TAKING IN
THE CULTURE
What to listen to, read and
watch for an Art Nouveau
experience in Riga
Listen to: Latvian
National Opera
Rigas wonderful
opera house boasts a
magnicent high-class
orchestra and offers
some amazingly affordable tickets,
should its spectacular opera shows or
its ballet shows take your fancy.
Read: Arthur Ransomes
Racundras First Cruise
In 1922, The Swallows And
Amazons author sailed
around the Baltic Sea from
Latvia. This is his tale of
the adventure, perfect for
anyone embarking on their very own
Latvian odyssey.
Watch: Chronicles of Melanie
This is a new feature
lm that will certainly
appeal to history buffs,
following one womans
tale of endurance during
deportation to Siberia. Despite its
subject matter, it is a unexpectedly
uplifting lm.
058
2 Number ten
Elizabetes iela
The building located at 10a and 10b Elizabetes iela,
or Elizabetes Street, is perhaps the most ornate of
all Rigas Art Nouveau treasures. It is loaded with so
many fantastical beings, faces with a range of facial
expressions, rings, pillars and wreaths that the eye
is never at rest. Indeed it is almost psychedelic in its
intensity, employing an architectural principle known
as horror vacui, or fear of empty space.
Designed in 1901, the architect was Mikhail
Eisenstein, father of the great Russian film director
Sergei Eisenstein, who was born in Riga in 1898 and
spent his early years there, graduating from the
Realschule in 1915.
Sergeis memories of his life in Riga are not
particularly happy. His father raised him after his
parents divorced and Sergei resented the controlling
tendencies of his father, who expected his son to
follow in his footsteps and become an architect.
Looking back on this time in the city, Sergei
wrote: My protest against what was acceptable in
behaviour and art, and my contempt of authority,
were certainly linked to him... when I had to draw
plaster figures, teapots and Dantes mask, it came out
all wrong.
Eisenstein fans can also find a permanent
exhibition dedicated to the great director at the small
Riga Film Museum on Peltavas street.
3 The Corner House
Few buildings have seen such a radical change of
purpose as this large building at 61 Brivibas iela, or
Freedom street, the Latvian capitals main artery,
which leads north from the elegant (but Art Deco,
rather than Art Nouveau) Freedom Monument, the
iconic heart of the Latvian nation.
Designed by architect Aleksandrs Vanags in 1912,
it was one of the most desirable residences of its day,
combining neo-classical design with less flamboyant
later-period Art Nouveau. The ground floor was
occupied by high-class boutiques selling the latest
Parisian fashions, while above, spacious and roomy
apartments catered to the needs of the wealthy
middle classes. It was given the name Corner House
because of the unusual positioning of the main
doorway, right at the corner of the building.
When the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic
States in 1940 as a result of the infamous Molotov-
Ribbentrop pact, the building was taken over by the
Cheka or KGB. They wasted no time turning the
interior into cells, torture chambers and an execution
room, as well as their administrative offices. The door
on the corner became a place where people could
post requests for information about missing relatives
a dangerous act in itself or where denunciations
could be deposited into a convenient letter box.
Trucks would be left running in the central courtyard
to cover the sounds of executions taking place.
According to one piece of grim Latvian humour,
the Corner House was the tallest building in the
country because you could see Siberia from it.
If any evidence is needed of the frequency with
which Riga has been buffeted from one regime to
another, we need only consider the various other
names by which Freedom Street has been known:
Great Sand Street, Alexander Street, Revolution
Street, Adolf Hitler Street and Lenin Street.
The Corner House now houses an excellent
exhibition outlining the KGBs crimes against
humanity, and the guided tours in English are
particularly recommended. Yet perhaps the building
was always cursed architect Aleksandrs Vanags was
executed here by the Bolsheviks in 1919.

4 ALBERTA IELA
Alberta iela is quite simply one of the
most beautiful streets in Europe, with
every single building a masterpiece.
Only the buildings at numbers ve, nine
and ten could be argued to be in the
eclectic rather than Art Nouveau style,
but even those show a clear inuence.
Most of the buildings on the right
(even numbers) were designed by
Mikhail Eisenstein, while those on the
left (odd numbers) were designed by a
variety of the other star architects of Art
Nouveau including Pkns and Laube.
What is remarkable is that despite
every building being different to its
neighbour, they somehow seem to hang
together as a perfect ensemble and the
closer you look, the more remarkable
they become.
Quite apart from the staggering
decorations, which incorporate
everything from ancient Egyptian
sphinxes to rustic Livonian barns,
there are a series of optical illusions
and architectural tricks such as false
oors, mismatched window shapes and
materials such as metal that appears
to be wood or jade. Its an intoxicating
experience simply to walk along
the street, and every time you do so,
something else leaps to your attention.
A plaque outside number 2a reveals
that British philosopher Sir Isaiah
Berlin was born here and lived in the
building from 1909 until 1915. Berlins
thought, which stresses the importance
of liberal democratic values, has been
undergoing a notable renaissance in
recent years and every year Riga hosts
an Isaiah Berlin Day, dedicated to
its famous son. This years event saw
hundreds of people packed into the
wonderfully named Splendid Palace
Cinema (an architectural gem in its
own right, dating from 1923) to watch
1970s British TV interviews with Berlin.
In 2014, an award-winning Latvian
lm titled Escaping Riga was shown,
chronicling the parallel lives of Berlin
and his neighbour Sergei Eisenstein.
At number 12 Alberta Street
(entrance just around the corner on
Strelnieku street), you will nd the
Riga Art Nouveau Museum, which has
a must-visit collection showcasing not
only architecture but all the other ways
in which Jugendstil expresses itself,
from books and posters to furniture and
household objects. The interiors (which
are difficult to access in most privately-
owned buildings) are beautiful and the
sight of the central stairwell is gorgeous.
ART NOUVEAU RIGA
Art Nouveau:
Going beyond
the buildings
While Rigas most impressive displays of Art Nouveau
design adorn its beautiful buildings, Latvian designers
used Art Nouveau way beyond architecture.
The style extended in to silverware, porcelain,
furniture and even clothing. Some of these incredible
items are held in the Riga Art Nouveau museum, on
Alberta iela. The re-created home was the apartment of
Konstantns Pkns, a renowned Latvian architect, until
1907. While the museum is undoubtedly beautiful on the
outside, the interior offers a rare chance within the city to
see a house fully restored to its early-20th century design.
In 2008 and 2009, experts studied the apartment to
determine its original design, and set about renovating
it so that they could bring it as close as possible to
its original appearance in 1903. The result feels like
something close to time travel.
One of the most prominent features in the museum
is a spiral staircase, thought to have been designed by
Janis Rozentls, one of the more prominent Art Nouveau
designers. Looking up at the ceiling, an incredible fresco
is revealed, repeating a colourful painted pattern of lines
and what look like plants on a light background. You can
also step inside several rooms, from the bedroom to the
lavatory, which have been furnished with authentic Art
Nouveau antiques. Look out for the huge collection of
pottery, dining ware, cabinets, armoires and period mirrors
adorning the different rooms.
A rare display of Art Nouveau clothing is also on
display, from an intricate white dress embellished with
fabric flowers to a classic mens top hat for formal
occasions. These exhibits truly help to bring the Art
Nouveau period to life for visitors, as costumed tour
guides wander the floors adding to the atmosphere. You
can even pop an Art Nouveau hat on yourself and have a
picture taken for posterity.
Some items of early kitchen technology bring the art
of Art Nouveau cookery into focus, including a bread
slicer and very early refrigerator, complete with the
ultimate luxury a compartment for ice blocks, so that
guests could be wowed with chilled drinks and foods at
turn of the century cocktail parties.
Also on Alberta iela stands the Riga Graduate School
of Law, which has been completely refurbished with its
original Art Nouveau features restored (but with modern
heating and technology added). The outside of the
building is spectacular, but if you get the chance to go
inside, its a unique example of Art Nouveau co-existing
with modern comforts.
059
CITY GUIDE

Take the
family

5 Riga Latvian
7 DOME SQUARE
Doma or Dome Square (from the broadcaster. Built in 1913 as a bank based
Society House German Dom or cathedral) is Latvias on the designs of Paul Mandelstamm,
One building tourists with an interest in architecture
often miss is the Riga Latvian Society House, as its equivalent of Trafalgar Square, a scene of the allegorical sculptures adorning its
location, 13 Merkela iela (Merkels street), is a little national gatherings, demonstrations and pediment are worth craning your neck
away from many famous buildings of the style. celebrations. In winter, its also the scene for. In January 1991, thousands of people
If it seems strange that a Latvian society should of one of the best and largest Christmas gathered and barricades were erected
exist in Latvia itself, it is worth remembering that for
markets in northern Europe. in the square and surrounding streets
700 years, Latvians were essentially second-class
citizens in their own land. While the red brick Dom cathedral, to protect the Radio House as die-hard
The building was erected in 1909 by home-grown founded in 1211, dominates the south side, Communists attempted a coup detat to
architect Ernests Pole to provide a space suitable for two buildings on the north side contribute restore Soviet rule. The people won the day
the musical performances and folk dances, which both to Latvias Art Nouveau heritage and and Latvia remained independent.
form an essential part of Latvian culture. Eiens
the countrys history. To the left at six Doma The building that is found next door,
Laube added further modifications in the 1930s.
Square is the former Riga bourse, now on the corner of Smilsu iela, which now
an art museum. It predates Art Nouveau, houses a restaurant, is another ne
having been constructed 1852-55 in the Jugendstil effort from Saint Petersburg
style of a Venetian palazzo, but subsequent architect Nikolai Proskunin.
restorations have given it more than a hint In the centre of Doma square is a bronze
of Jugendstil. Tucked away at the back of plaque testifying to the fact that you are
the square is a pleasant little French-style standing in the centre of a UNESCO world
cafe, if youd like a brief reminder of Art heritage site. Look around and youll see
Nouveaus Parisian origins. seven streets leading away from the square
Facing it, across Smilsu iela (Sand street in different directions. It makes a pleasant
its winding course explained by the fact it game to choose one at random and see how
used to be a river) at eight Doma Square, is long it takes you to spot some Art Nouveau.
the Radio House, home to Latvias national The answer in all cases: not long!
6 Statue of
George Armitstead
The man acknowledged by Riga residents as the
best mayor they ever had possessed a name that Architectural
details in Rigas
is decidedly non-Latvian, non-Russian and non-
Dome Square
German: George Armitstead.
Armitstead (1847-1912) was born in Riga but of
Yorkshire stock, descendant of merchants trading in
the Baltic. He was elected mayor of Riga in 1901, a
position he retained until his death in 1912 and which
coincides with the Art Nouveau boom.
For new architecture to flourish, it needed the
latest amenities: electricity, piped water, street
lighting, sewerage, schools, hospitals. Armitsteads
administration either introduced or improved these
efficiently. He treated Latvians as equals, not inferiors.
The statue of Armitstead, his wife and their dog
stands at the entrance to the Latvian National Opera.

060
 RIGA
EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS

ESTONIA

RUSSI A

Riga
Where to sta LATVIA

Hotel Neiburgs,
Jauniela 25-27 LITHUANIA
Built in 1903 to designs by the great Riga city architect Wilhelm
Bockslaff, the first things to strike you upon arrival are the BELARUS
amazingly expressive stone heads staring out at you from the
buildings textured faade. The building now housing the hotel was
commissioned by Ludvigs Neiburgs, a Latvian peasant who arrived
penniless in Riga in 1891 and became one of the first of a new breed
of self-made Latvian entrepreneurs.
In 1941, the Neiburgs family was deported to Siberia, along with
tens of thousands of other Latvians, for no other crime than being PO LAND
kulaks, or middle class businessmen. The hotel was divided into
apartments for Soviet military officers. Following the restoration of
Latvian independence, the Neiburgs regained possession of their
property and restored it to its former glory. Essential information
Rooms are of varying sizes, with full hotel facilities, and the dcor Where Latvia is the middle one of the three
is a modern take on the elegant lines and geometry of Art Nouveau. Baltic states on the east of the Baltic sea.
The capital Riga is on the coast. There is busy
Riga International Airport, a ferry port with
boats sailing to Stockholm several times a
week and a rail terminal with overnight trains
to Moscow. Most regional transport is by When to visit The biggest festival of the
bus or car. Roads outside Riga are not great, year is midsummer much more important
however Riga has an extensive and cheap than Christmas. Winter is cold but beautiful
public transport network of buses, minibuses, with guaranteed snow.
trolleybuses and trams that make it easy to Time zone UTC+3:00
get around the city. Currency Euro

Duru Eksioglu, Thinkstock, Alamy, Cafe Sienna, Shutterstock, Flickr - Bryan Ledgard, Thomas Gartz, xiquinhosilva
Links
www.lsm.lv/en English language daily news about Latvia
www.latvia.eu Official information about the country
www.liveriga.com Riga city tourism information

Need to know
Eat & drin
Cafe Sienna
Just around the corner from Alberta iela on Strelnieku iela
(Riflemens street) is Cafe Sienna. Despite its Italian name, this self-
styled art caf it is definitely more Art Nouveau than Dolce Vita,
with the sort of elegant pastries, cakes and coffee that wouldnt look
out of place in any other Art Nouveau metropolis such as Vienna, Baltic, not Slavic Forget former Soviet Odd flowers
Paris or Budapest. While nearly half of Rigas People in the country can get Latvians love to give flowers
Grab a window seat if you can because directly opposite is population speaks Russian, offended if people say that Latvia to one another, however, if you
Latvian is the official state is a former Soviet country. do likewise, and follow suit by
the Mikhail Eisenstein-designed Stockholm School of Economics, language. It is not a Slavic As far as most Latvians are giving someone else flowers,
another of his masterpieces, with a bust of George Armitsead language, belonging instead to concerned, they were occupied make sure its an odd number of
standing right by the entrance too. the Baltic language group with by the Soviet Union against flowers even numbers are given
If you want to prove thats the case, you can take a virtual tour of Lithuanian and Old Prussian. their will. at funerals!
the cafe at their website. Visit www.sienna.lv for more information.

061
 THE LAST DAYS OF
AMELIA
EARHART
In 1937, pioneering aviator Amelia Earhart vanished
over the Pacific Ocean. But has the mystery of her
disappearance finally been solved?

062
 AMELIA EARHART

A
melia Earhart made history. The rst female
to y solo across the Atlantic Ocean, the holder
of multiple other records and a celebrated
author, she is at the centre of one of the most
enduring mysteries of the 21st century.
On 2 July 1937, as she crossed the Pacic Ocean with
navigator Fred Noonan, Amelia Earhart disappeared. She
was at the controls of a Lockheed Model 10 Electra and
intended to make history by becoming the rst woman to
y the longest route around the globe, but it was a feat she
was destined never to complete. Instead of becoming lauded
for the monumental journey, her fame has endured for a
far darker reason. What happened to Earhart has been the
subject of ongoing investigations, debate and theory, but one
organisation believe they have nally solved this mystery.
Born in Kansas in 1897, Amelia Earhart was raised to
believe that anything was possible. Far from being moulded
into the perfect ladylike little girl, she was encouraged to
express herself and glory in her tomboyish nature. Drawn to
excitement and the thrill of danger, at just seven years old she
built her own roller coaster and, constructing a ramp on the
Earhart tool shed, sat in a wooden box and launched herself
into space. She crashed down to earth with a few bruises,
ushed with excitement and ready to go back for more.
As the years passed, Earhart began to develop an interest
in aviation, nurtured during visits to air shows and airelds at
which pilots undertook daring stunts and demonstrations.
WORDS
BY
CATHERINE
CU RZON
ABOVE Amelia Earhart was
a pioneer of aviation but her
fate has since been a mystery
LEFT Aerial view of the
TIGHAR work site on
Nikumaroro (also known as
Gardner Island)
BOTTOM LEFT Fred
Noonan, who was navigator
on Amelia Earharts last
flight, has not been found
BOTTOM RIGHT A map
showing the sites where
objects have been found,
and when
Her rst ight took place in 1920, when she took a short ride
as a passenger at a local aireld and from that day, her mind
was made up. She took every job she was offered, squirrelling
away every cent to pay for ying lessons that would change
her life and make her name.
Her determination and hard work was rewarded quickly
and Earhart proudly brought her rst plane in 1921, naming
it The Canary. Just a year later, she set her rst world record
when she piloted The Canary to a height of 4,270 metres, the
highest any female pilot had own.
A cavalcade of achievements and honours followed and
Earhart became famous across the world for her escapades,
eventually crossing the Atlantic Ocean in 1928. The rst
woman to make the trip, it wasnt quite enough for the
adventurous Amelia. Four years later, she undertook the
journey again and this time, she was alone. Her place in
history was sealed by this remarkable ight; it seemed as
though nothing was out of Amelia Earharts reach.
Earhart was determined to y around the world and,
in 1937, she took to the skies intending to do just that. Her
rst attempt was hampered by mechanical failure but,
undaunted, she set off on her second attempt on 1 June 1937,
accompanied by navigator Fred Noonan. Although Earhart
wasnt familiar with her new navigational system and Noonan
had complained of technical problems, at rst all seemed well,
but it wasnt to stay that way.
After a series of communication problems, the pair made
their last known contact with radio operators just before
8am on the morning of 2 July. Their last denite position was
recorded as somewhere in the vicinity of the Nukumanu
Islands and from there, they were due to land at Howland
Island. This stage of the ight was beset with problems as the
radio operators, who were charged with guiding the plane

Her place in history was sealed by this

remarkable ight; it seemed as though
nothing was out of Earharts reach

TANK FROM
SHIPWRECK, 1999
PIECES OF AN AEROPLANE,
1958-1962

AIRCRAFT
WHEEL, 2002

PIECE OF AEROPLANE
WING, 1958-1962

PARTS OF AN AEROPLANE,
1940-1941
PRESUMED AIRCRAFT
BREAKUP, 1937 SHIPWRECK

063
AMELIA EARHART

Here, they believe, she and Noonan continued to send out

distress calls, which went unanswered. Operators heard
faint distress calls that were dismissed as hoaxes
down, realised that they had lost radio contact and couldnt
Significant finds have communicate with the Electra.
been made on the
Nikumaroro atoll Helplessly, they listened as Earhart reported that she
couldnt see the land due to clouds and that her fuel was low.
When efforts to communicate by Morse code failed to help
Earhart get her bearings, the radio operators could only search
fruitlessly and desperately for some way to bring the plane
safely to land. Instead, it vanished from the skies.

But what became of Amelia Earhart?

Immediately after the apparent loss of the plane, search and
rescue efforts began. The US Navy combed the area around
Howland Island, searching for any trace of the downed ier.
For weeks the search continued, yet it found no evidence
that Earhart, Noonan or the plane in which they had been
travelling had ever been there at all. Less than two years later,
in January 1939, Amelia Earhart was officially declared dead.
The memory of the adventurous aviator, however,
proved considerably more difficult to lay to rest. She
continues to fascinate researchers who have devoted
their lives to uncovering the fate of Earhart and solve this
enduring mystery.
One of the most prominent researchers was United
States Navy Captain Laurance Safford, who devoted his

Finds on Nikumaroro TIGHAR expeditions have uncovered evidence of an American woman

inhabiting Nikumaroro; here are some of the finds

The zipper Freckle A pocketknife Human waste A compact

Discovered in 2007 at the
Seven Site a forgotten,
remote corner of the island
a brass zipper pull bearing
the name Talon offered the
tantalising possibility that
it might once have been
attached to Earharts flight
suit. Investigations have
proved that the zipper was
manufactured between
1933 and 1937, so how did it
come to be on a supposedly
uninhabited island? This
heavy-duty fastener would
have been perfect for the
sort of flight wear favoured
by Noonan.
ointment
The remains of a glass
ointment pot were found in
2010 at a suspected campsite
were perhaps the most
famous artefacts were found
on the atoll. The pot matches
Dr CH Berrys Freckle
Ointment, though the glass
is not frosted as would
have been common for the
ointment at the time. For a
woman known to be aware of
her freckles, its possible that
Earhart would have carried
a pot of ointment on her
round-the-world trip. Could
this have been hers?
Another item uncovered
at the theorised Seven
Site campsite during the
2007 expedition was a
piece of a pocketknife
that was manufactured by
Cattaraugus in the 1930s. It
bears a striking resemblance
to a similar knife that was
included in an inventory
taken of Amelia Earharts
plane after her initial failed
attempt to fly around the
world in 1937. Although the
knife blades were missing,
it was clear that they had
been deliberately removed,
perhaps to use as tools.
In 2010, a TIGHAR
expedition found clumps of
what appeared to be human
faecal matter. Although the
matter contains human DNA
attributed to two individuals,
there wasnt sufficient
DNA in the samples to
enable identification. As
technologies increase, of
course, this might prove to
be an invaluable find when
it comes to DNA matching
Earhart and Noonan, or
excluding this unusual find
from the ever-growing
collection of evidence
accumulated by TIGHAR.
mirror
One of the most compelling
pieces of evidence found
at the Seven Site in 2007
was a 1930s cosmetic
compact. Though the mirror
is shattered, the compact
still contained the remains
of a womans rouge. Earhart
always carried a compact
and the possibility of such
a culturally specific object
finding its way into a distant
corner of a remote Pacific
island by chance is highly
unlikely. Did Amelia Earhart
lose her compact when she
was marooned?

064

considerable expertise in communications technology to
investigating the case. His efforts were further supported by
other experienced navigators and professionals, who sought
to prove that the plane had been forced to ditch in the
ocean, having run out of fuel.
Other researchers concluded that Earhart landed on
Gardner Island, also known as Nikumaroro, though multiple
search parties found no denitive proof that remains later
discovered there were those of Amelia Earhart or Fred
Noonan. Frustratingly, a skeleton found on the island in 1940
was sent to Fiji for analysis and has long since been lost.
In 1988, The International Group for Historic Aircraft
Recovery (TIGHAR) began its own pioneering investigation
into the case, determined to discover what had happened
on that fateful morning once and for all. TIGHAR believe
that Earhart, unable to locate Howland Island, successfully
landed on a reef that was located just off the coast of
Nikumaroro instead. Earhart was already following the
line towards Gardner and in her last transmissions she had
conrmed this.
Here, they believe, she and Noonan continued to send
out distress calls, which went unanswered. Over the next
few nights, operators around the region and in the USA
heard faint distress calls that were dismissed as hoaxes,
though perhaps they were not. With their exact location
unknown, the stranded pair were at the mercy of nature and,
alone on the atoll, all they could do was sit and wait for the
rescue that never came.
ABOVE Amelia Earhart in
an aeroplane, taken in 1936.
Earhart was an experienced
and well-known pilot
ABOVE, TOP RIGHT Ric
Gillespie is executive director
of the TIGHAR search for
clues to Earharts fate
ABOVE, BOTTOM RIGHT
Fragments of a bottle
thought to be for a product
contemporary with Earhart
ABOVE A prominent
researcher in the search for
Earhart was US Navy Captain
Laurance Safford
AMELIA EARHART
Although the US Navy ew a search party over
Nikumaroro a week after the disappearance, no evidence
of the Electra was seen. Of course, by this time the plane
would long since have been claimed by the tide. Although
the naval pilots did see evidence of recent human
habitation, they didnt realise at the time that Nikumaroro
had been uninhabited since 1892 and, thinking they had
seen nothing untoward, they continued on their way. To add
to this compelling theory, when a small party of local people
set up temporary residence on the island months later, they
built a rudimentary settlement using salvaged materials.
Archaeological work on the site later revealed that these
islanders had access to Plexiglas and aluminium, exactly the
sort of items that one might salvage from a plane wreck.
TIGHAR researchers believe that Noonan and Earhart
survived on the atoll for at least a short period. Perhaps
injured and with few supplies, the castaways would have
faced a miserable fate, foraging for food and left without any
drinking water other than rain. TIGHAR hypothesise that
Noonan likely died rst, if not in the plane, then soon after
they landed. Left alone, Earhart survived for a short time on
the atoll before her eventual death.
They believe that the skeleton lost long ago in Fiji
was that of the pilot and that, using computer modelling
to recreate the measurements and weights recorded
at the time of the discovery, they can demonstrate that
the remains were most likely those of a woman of North
European descent with the same build as Amelia Earhart.
065
AMELIA EARHART

What became of Noonan, however, remains open to

The other conjecture. To add further fuel to this compelling re, a

photograph that was taken at the reef in October 1937 was

theories examined and enhanced in 2012. It showed, as TIGHAR

While TIGHAR have uncovered what
they deem to be the truth, others
have reached different conclusions
about Earharts fate
Ditch and sink
The most popular theory is that the plane was forced to ditch
of the coast of Howland Island as a result of technical problems
and lack of fuel. Unable to radio for help, Noonan and Earhart
would have been claimed by the waves, if they had even
survived the crash that brought them down. This theory has
long been accepted as the most likely explanation behind the
mystery, and some speculate that the remains of the plane and
its crew are almost 6,000 metres beneath the surface of the
Pacific Ocean.
have claimed, the unmistakable remains of the landing gear
of the Lockheed Electra.
TIGHARs efforts to prove their theory regarding the
lost ight have continued for almost three decades. During
this time, they have undertaken multiple archaeological
excavations and uncovered several artefacts that appeared
to be consistent with the presence of a western woman
of the 1930s. They have also investigated a sextant box
discovered on Nikumaroro in 1940, demonstrating that it
was Noonans favoured make and model.
If Earhart and Noonan died on the atoll though, what
became of the Electra? Certain that the plane now rested at
the bottom of the ocean, TIGHAR undertook an expedition
made up of professionals from a variety of disciplines
in 2007 and combed the reef for the missing aircraft. In
2010, they returned, this time to employ sonar-mapping
techniques, suspecting that the badly degraded remains
might rest deep in the ocean. Unfortunately, efforts to reach
the area were thwarted by technical difficulties, so what
might be concealed at the bottom of the deep reef remains
a mystery.

Captured by the Japanese

When Japanese
research by
Mitsubishi
appeared
to include
components
inspired by the
Electra, a theory
emerged that
Earhart had
actually crashed on Saipan. Author Fred Goerner theorised that
she and Noonan were captured by the Japanese and placed in
prison, where they later died. Others claim that Japanese forces
deliberately shot down the plane or that Amelia Earhart was the
infamous Tokyo Rose, a claim her husband rejected out of hand
after conducting a private investigation.

A new life ABOVE Nikumaroros

One of the most outlandish lagoon, a beautiful but
theories emerged in 1970, when likely unyielding place to
it was claimed that Earhart become stranded
successfully flew to New Jersey
and began a new life as Irene LEFT A fragment of a glass
Craigmile Bolam. When Bolam bottle found on the atoll, with
read the theory in a book by evidence for a link to Earhart
Joe Klaas, she took legal action in time and production of
the bottle
that resulted in the book
being withdrawn. Although
Bolam and Earhart had mutual
friends, Bolams life was well
documented, and there was no
evidence that she was a construct of a woman seeking to leave
her old life behind. Later forensic investigations by craniofacial
specialists resulted in this audacious theory being discredited.

066
 AMELIA EARHART
LEFT TIGHAR at work
digging up the finds that
support their theory that
Earhart and Noonan died
on Nikumaroro
RIGHT Amelia Earhart
pictured looking carefree
in Waikk, Hawaii, also
in 1935

R Barrel, TIGHAR photos, Getty

BELOW A memorial
commemorates Earharts
landing in Burry Port, 1928,
at the end of her flight
across the Atlantic
BOTTOM Earhart
inspecting maps of Hawaii
in 1935

What I have learned is that smoking guns

are in the eye of the beholder, yet TIGHAR
has revealed more than its fair share
Now, however, plans are underway for TIGHAR to return
to the island and investigate a lagoon where they hope
wreckage from the plane might have been washed in from
the ocean. Investigating this lagoon, a far smaller search
area, means that the chances of nding evidence proving
that Earhart and Noonan crashed around the island are
much improved. The group is also striving to bring more
attention to their investigations to nd out what happened
to the pilot by means of published works, expanding on their
previous projects and investigations.
The evidence that Earhart did indeed survive to live at
least for a short time on Nikumaroro might initially have
appeared circumstantial but, as TIGHARs extensive
investigations and research have gone on, it has become
increasingly compelling. We know that Earhart was headed
for Nikumaroro and that someone did live there in 1937
when it was supposedly uninhabited, but who that was, we
dont know. As TIGHARs Ric Gillespie comments, What
I have learned is that smoking guns are in the eye of the
beholder, yet TIGHAR has revealed more than its fair share.
With technological insights improving at a rate of knots,
it is surely only a matter of time before that tantalising
anomaly on the ocean oor is properly investigated,
and each new expedition to Nikumaroro uncovers fresh
evidence of the case. Perhaps TIGHARs efforts will see the
spirit and mystery of Amelia Earhart nally be laid to rest,
nearly a century after she disappeared from the skies.

067
 GRAVE OF THE
GRIFFIN WARRIOR The discovery of the treasure-filled grave of
a warrior buried in Greece 3,500 years ago
continues to astonish archaeologists

WORDS
BY
REBECCA FORD

PY LO S
GREECE
Excavations at the site
have continued to yield
fascinating objects
since the first discovery

068
 GRIFFIN WARRIOR

I
t is the stuff that archaeological dreams are
A facial reconstruction
made of a dig that uncovered the intact grave of the Griffin Warrior
of a Mycenaean warrior who was buried around by the University of
Witwatersrand
1500 BCE, his tomb lled with an extraordinary
range of treasures including silver cups, a sword, golden
rings, precious stones and even a bronze mirror. Not only
that, but the discovery is considered to be of such immense
historical signicance with the potential to deepen and
inform our whole understanding of the ancient world that it
has been hailed by the Greek Ministry of Culture as the,
most important tomb to have been discovered in 65 years
in continental Greece. The grave is situated in a eld near the
famed Palace of Nestor at ancient Pylos which is near the
modern day town of Chora in Messinia however, it predates
the palace by several hundred years.
The earliest advanced civilisation in Europe is said to
date back to around 2600 BCE with the Minoans of the
island of Crete. Named after the mythical King Minos, they
developed Linear A an early script, traded widely across
the Mediterranean and Aegean and were skilled artists,
metalworkers and makers of ceramics. They are widely
portrayed as gentle merchants and agriculturalists who
revered female deities and built sophisticated cities with
stone roads, sewage systems and grand palaces. The largest
known Minoan site is the palace of Knossos, on Crete.
However, by around 1450 BCE, their inuence seems to have
given way to that of the Mycenaean culture of the mainland
perhaps, many scholars think, after the Mycenaeans invaded
and conquered Crete and the palace of Knossos was burned.
The name Mycenaean derives from the fortied palace
of Mycenae in the Peloponnese, which was excavated in
the 1870s by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, a
pioneer who also uncovered Troy. Uncovering a wealth of

Unlike most Mycenaean graves, there were no ceramics, but

The key finds glittering gems, carved stones and weaponry instead

The rings Seal stones Sword and dagger The mirror

Four rings were found, made of
layers of gold and etched with scenes
depicting typically Minoan motifs.
One shows a leaping bull, another
depicts a woman offering a bulls
horn to a goddess who is seated on
a throne and holding a mirror. Then
there are five finely-dressed women
at a seaside shrine, while the fourth
shows a woman holding a staff with
two birds on either side. The Cretan
artistry provided excellent evidence
for cultural exchange.
Archaeologists discovered more than
50 seal stones (a sort of amulet)
in the grave around the warriors
skeleton. These seal stones were
adorned with Minoan-style carvings
that were depicting various things
such as goddesses, lions, bulls, reeds
and altars. It is thought that they were
originally made in Crete. The sheer
number of stones alone is highly
unusual in a grave of this type and
attests to the high social status of the
Griffin Warrior.
The grave contained a number
of different weapons including a
stunning 91-centimetre-long sword
with a hilt that is made of ivory and
gold. It was on the left side of the
grave, by the mans chest. Beneath
it was a dagger with a hilt, intricately
decorated with gold. The positioning
of these items within the grave
must have been of some symbolic
importance, perhaps reflecting his
skill as a fighter or his political or
social power.
The presence of a traditionally
feminine item such as the bronze
mirror is highly unusual in a male
grave at least in the sites that have
been excavated to date. The bronze
mirror has an ivory handle and was
placed above the Griffin Warriors
legs this position may be suggesting
that the mirror might hold some
special significance. There could be
some kind of allusion to the second
of the golden rings in which a goddess
holds a mirror.

069
GRIFFIN WARRIOR
artefacts including weapons, pottery and treasures made of
silver and gold, he identied Mycenae as the palace of King
Agamemnon, who was celebrated by Homer as the ruler
who led the Greek forces in the Trojan War. The discoveries
attested to the wealth and prosperity of Mycenae, which
Homer had referred to as, rich in gold. Schliemann also
uncovered a number of shaft graves deep rectangular
tombs that have traditionally been viewed as typical of early
Mycenaean practice, later superseded by their characteristic
beehive tombs.
The Mycenaeans built other strongholds across the Greek
mainland at Tiryns, Thebes and Athens as well as at Pylos.
Their culture, which has traditionally been portrayed as more
warlike, male dominated and less artistically sophisticated
than that of the Minoans (one academic once described
them as barbarians in comparison with the Cretans), spread
from the Peloponnese across the eastern Mediterranean.
They traded extensively probably in commodities such
as oil and wine, as well as ceramics and appear to have been ABOVE A decorated ivory cultural interchange though to what extent is unclear. It is
comb found in the grave with
skilled engineers, building bridges, fortications and both the Griffin Warrior an issue that scholars have long debated. We have known
drainage and irrigation systems. Their civilisation ourished for a century that people on the mainland started importing
until around 1100 BCE when it rapidly declined perhaps, objects from Minoan Crete, explained Professor John
most scholars think, due to waves of invasion during which Bennet, director of the British School at Athens and professor
Mycenaean sites were destroyed and plundered. However, it of Aegean archaeology at the University of Sheffield.
was Mycenaean culture that provided the roots of Classical Conclusive evidence for Minoan inuence on Mycenaean
Greece, the civilisation immortalised by Homer in The Iliad culture came when Carl Blegen of the University of Cincinnati
and The Odyssey. discovered King Nestors Palace, Ancient Pylos, in 1939. The
Although the Mycenaeans might appear to be very clay tablets he found, on which Linear B script were inscribed,
different peoples to the Minoans, there was a degree of proved similar to ones found in Knossos, thus demonstrating

Digital reconstruction Bronze mirror Necklace

This digital reconstruction of the grave as This, along with the jewellery, A gold necklace more than
it was discovered shows the most challenges previous assumptions 75-centimetres-long was found in
impressive finds, including the skeleton of that these objects were the the grave, which had avoided being
the warrior himself. preserve of wealthy women. looted over the centuries.

Weaponry Gold cup Lone skeleton

In the grave, weaponry and Also found in the grave was a The item at the centre of the
paraphernalia including a blade, gold cup, adding to the extensive teams excitement was of course
bronze short sword and a hilt of a collection of precious items buried the skeleton, particularly as it
Minoan sword were found. with this person of authority. appears to have been buried alone.

070
Palace of Nestor
It is the best preserved Mycenaean
palace in Greece and has now
re-opened after restoration
This impressive complex in the Peloponnese was built around
1300 BCE by King Nestor, ruler of ancient Pylos who is
mentioned by Homer in both The Iliad and The Odyssey and
is reputed to have taken part in the Trojan War. Perched
on a hilltop with glorious views of Navarino Bay, it was an
administrative, political and financial hub. In addition to the
main palace stood the kings residence a smaller, older palace
and a large workshop or guardhouse. The residential buildings
were two storeys high with 105 rooms on the ground floor alone.
The site was first excavated in 1939 by Carl Blegen of the
University of Cincinnati, who discovered a large cache of clay
tablets written in Mycenaean Linear B script, an adaptation
of Linear A script used by the Minoans in Crete, therefore
demonstrating a clear link between the two cultures. Linear B
is the precursor to Modern Greek. Excavations resumed after
the war in 1952 and continued until the 1960s where the works
revealed the presence of a huge throne room with a circular
hearth, a brightly coloured geometric floor and walls decorated
with fine frescoes. Storerooms were filled with hundreds of
wine cups. Perhaps most famous is the bathroom, which boasts
a deep, decorated bathtub ideal for luxurious royal soaks;
according to legend Nestors daughter bathed Telemachus here.
The complex burned down in 1200 BCE and was never rebuilt.
According to Homer, Nestor was a wise old king with a voice
that flowed as sweet as honey. His palace has now re-opened
to visitors after a three-year restoration, costing 2.5 million, in
which a new protective roof has been erected, along with raised
walkways and improved interpretation.

The discovery of the griffin warriors

tomb looks set to shed new light on this
aspect of the history of the ancient world

ABOVE Wilhelm Drpfeld
(peeking through a hole) and
Heinrich Schliemann at the
Lion Gate at Mycene
ABOVE The excavated skull
of the Griffin Warrior
ABOVE One of the Linear B Mycenaean script tablets found at the
Palace of Nestor
a strong cultural link. In Linear B script, each symbol stands for
a syllable. It formed the basis for the Greek alphabet, where a
symbol represents a vowel or consonant. Now, the discovery
of the griffin warriors tomb looks set to shed new light on this
aspect of the history of the ancient world.
The tomb was discovered in May 2015 by Jack L Davis,
professor of Greek archaeology at the University of Cincinnati;
and Sharon Stocker, his wife and fellow archaeologist who
represents the University of Cincinnati in excavations at the
Palace of Nestor.
They assembled an international team of experts, with
the initial intention of searching a eld near the palace for
evidence of settlement, perhaps domestic dwellings.
They began to dig where some stones were sticking out
of the ground and soon realised that they had not uncovered
a house, but a grave. Work commenced in earnest and it was
not long before Davis and Stocker received a text: Better
come. Hit bronze.
The bronze artefacts discovered were just the start. The
shaft grave around 1.5 metres deep, 1.2 metres wide and
2.4 metres long contained the well-preserved skeleton

071
 The team delve further
into the site in search of
fresh treasures
Tholos of Atreus, a
Mycenaean monument
in Greece
Fragment of
a Pylos fresco
showing a hunter
of a man in his early 30s. The warrior was lying on his back
and had been buried in a wooden coffin, which had long
decayed, but the grave was otherwise undamaged. The
astonished archaeologists soon realised the grave also held a
dazzling treasure trove, for the skeleton was surrounded by an
extraordinary array of artefacts: weapons to his left and at his
feet, jewellery to his right. Pitchers and other items that had
originally rested above the body were on his chest.
The researchers dated the burial to around 1500 BCE,
several hundred years before Nestors palace was built and
in the early years of Mycenaean civilisation. Among the
weapons was a large bronze sword, with a gold and ivory hilt,
and a golden-hilted dagger. There were cups and pitchers
unusually these were all made of gold, silver and bronze
(no mere ceramics for him); delicately etched seal stones (a
sort of amulet) and jewels that included a golden chain and
pendant, and four gold signet rings. Thousands of beads made
from materials such as amethyst, amber, carnelian, jasper
and gold lay beside him, many drilled with holes suggesting
072
The progress that had been
made on the excavation by
late May 2015
that they would once have been strung together to form
necklaces. Perhaps to ensure that the warrior looked his best
for his passage to the next world, the grave also contained a
bronze mirror with an ivory handle and six ivory combs.
The nal touch which gave the man his nickname was
an ivory plaque embellished with the image of a griffin, which
lay between his legs. The griffin, a mythological beast with a
lions body and eagles head, was associated with power.
Most Mycenaean graves appear to contain more than one
body; Its extremely unusual to nd an undisturbed tomb of
a single burial, explained Professor Bennet, who added, We
have also all been astonished by just how many objects it
contained. What makes the ndings particularly signicant
is that although buried on the mainland, the vast majority of
them appear to have come from Minoan Crete or at least
have been made in Minoan style. They therefore provide
evidence for extensive cultural interchange and a strong
ABOVE A necklace with two
gold pendants and jewels,
Minoan inuence on early Mycenaean society. Did the Griffin
found in the grave Warrior himself come from Crete? Was he a Mycenaean
 We might well have
PALACE OF NESTOR
questioned their authenticity EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS
had they not been found in
an intact grave
ALBANIA

who had looted goods from the island or had he had them
custom-made locally in Minoan style? Had the items been
imported by traders, supplying mainland markets with
GREECE
desirable Minoan goods? As yet, no one can be sure. While
the presence of martial items, such as the sword, suggests
he was a warrior, the vast amount of jewellery confuses the
picture, as it was commonly believed that such trinkets were
only buried with wealthy women. One explanation could be
Athens
that the jewels were offerings to a deity. Then there are the
many seal stones, small gems used as amulets, which might
suggest he was a religious leader. He was however, certainly
wealthy, and certainly important. Palace of Nestor
The extent to which the grave goods exhibit Minoan
imagery, and showcase Minoan art, is fascinating. The four
rings bear scenes of such distinctively Minoan iconography
that we might well have questioned their authenticity had
they not been found in an intact grave, said Professor
Bennet. One ring, for instance, shows a leaping bull a motif Essential information
commonly associated with Minoan culture and one that gave The Palace of Nestor is situated in Messinia,
rise to the legend of the Minotaur. Then there are the seal in the south-west corner of the Peloponnese
peninsula, four kilometres from the village
stones, intricately decorated with typically Minoan scenes
of Chora and 14 kilometres from modern
goddesses, lions, bulls and men indulging in their favourite Pylos. If you are driving, take route EO9. The
Minoan sport: leaping over a bulls horns. journey should last about 25 minutes. The
Although we know little about him, we do have some idea trip from Chora in a taxi takes around seven
When to visit Try and arrive early in the
of the appearance of this 3,500-year-old man, as specialists minutes. Bus from Pylos to Gargalianoi at
morning to beat the crowds and avoid the
8.45am, calls at the palace at approx 9.15am;
at the University of Witwatersrand have performed a facial heat of the day.
11am bus calls at palace around 11.30am. The
reconstruction, revealing the warrior was dark and handsome return to Pylos is around 12.45pm (Monday- Time zone UTC+2:00
with strong features and a powerful neck. Researchers Friday only). Currency EUR
will soon carry out DNA analysis on the skeleton of this
mysterious man. His teeth are in good condition and so they
Where to stay
may yield information about his genetic background, while Luxury Standard Budget
tests should also provide an insight into his diet and help to Costa Navarino Dunes; Hotel Navarone, Artina Hotel and
determine the cause of death. If plant material is found, it Costa Navarino, Messinia Petrochori, Pylos Nuovo Apartments
might be able to be used to provide a radiocarbon date for the The luxurious Romanos and Family-run hotel, villas and Situated in the harbour
the family oriented Westin, apartments situated beside town of Marathoupli, this is
burial. The grave has now been sealed over and the artefacts
are both good bases for beautiful Voidokoilia beach, a family oriented hotel with
taken away for careful scientic analysis. visiting archaeological and above which is a natural a swimming pool, just some
As Professor Bennet explains, though, the grave is not just ecological sites. Deluxe feature known as Nestors 11 kilometres from Nestors
signicant for its contents but also for the very nature of the double rooms start from 157 cave. Standard double rooms Palace. Rooms start from 46
tomb itself. It has traditionally been thought that the early (130/$160) per night. start from 50/$60 per night. (35/$50) per night.
T Houlton and L Schepartz, HVIRU, University of the Witwatersrand

www.costanavarino.com www.hotelnavarone.gr www.artina.gr

Mycenaeans buried their dead in shaft graves but that the
practice was later superseded by the use of beehive tombs.
However, the Griffin Warrior is buried in a shaft grave not Links
www.visitgreece.gr/en/culture/monuments/nestors_palace_x General tourism information
far from a beehive tomb that was excavated by Carl Blegen
pylos.info Travel and tourism tips for visits to Pylos
in the 1950s and that beehive tomb was built before the www.griffinwarrior.org Official site of the Griffin Warrior excavation with news and images
Griffin Warrior was laid to rest. It seems that this discovery
will cause scholars to question and re-think much of what
is known about this period in Greek history. It will also likely 03 Chora Museum
Visit the museum
Beehive tomb
There is a tholos, or
Pylos wildlife
The area around

pique public interest in the identity of the swarthy stranger things at Chora, where
artefacts from the palace
from another age; a man who was ceremonially buried with to see are displayed. Look out
for decorated pots and
possessions that even he powerful though he undoubtedly & do fragments of wall paintings.
was could not take with him when he died.
beehive, tomb by the
palace on the other side of
Pylos is notable for
its wildlife the Gialova
the car park. Its a smaller
version of other tombs, like
lagoon is the only mainland
European habitat of the
the Treasury of Atreus. African chameleon.

073
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T
he gripping journey to
the places in which the
most dramatic events of
the life of Mary, Queen of
Scots were played out covers almost
480 kilometres. Born in 1542, Mary spent
her early years under the supervision of her
mother, Mary of Guise. In 1548, she was
taken to France where she continued her
education at the French court and eventually
married the French Dauphin, Francis in
1558. Following his death, Mary returned
to Scotland in 1561 where she began a rule
that would prove to be disastrous. Married
to Henry Darnley in 1565, the couple had
076
IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF
Mary,
Queen of Scots
Explore the sumptuous palaces
Queen Margaret awaited her
husbands return from battle in a
chamber in the north-west turret
and romantic ruins in England and
Scotland that witnessed the rise
and fall of Mary, Queen of Scots
WORDS one child, James, but the marriage quickly
BY
NICOLA turned sour. In February 1567, Darnley was
TA LLIS murdered in mysterious circumstances
and it was widely believed that Mary was
PL ACES VISITED involved. Shortly after, she made an unwise
third marriage to the Earl of Bothwell, before
2 7
1 3 being forced to abdicate by her lords in July
4
5 6 1568. Having escaped from imprisonment
8 at Lochleven Castle, Mary ed to England
10 where she threw herself on the mercy of her
9
cousin, Elizabeth I. For the next 19 years she
was forced to endure a captivity that became
increasingly stringent, before she was
executed for conspiring against Elizabeth on
8 February 1587 at Fotheringhay Castle.
 MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS
The Return Of Mary, Queen
Of Scots To Edinburgh by
James Drummond DATE VISITED: DECEMBER 1542

Look out for
James Vs impressive
Renaissance fountain, made in
1538. It still functions.
LINLITHGOW
PA L A C E
On 8 December 1542,
1 James Vs queen, Mary
of Guise, gave birth to a
daughter at Linlithgow. The
baby was named Mary and six
days later, she became queen of
Scots when her father died at
Falkland Palace. At
the time of Marys
birth, the palace was
one of the principal
residences of the
Scottish royal family
and Marys father had
also been born there.
There has been a
palace on the site at ABOVE Mary ascended to
Linlithgow since at the throne at six days old
least the 12th century, after her fathers death
much of which was swept away
by re in 1424. James I ordered
the building of a new palace and
the ruins of his once splendid
great hall, which witnessed the
feasting and entertainments
of the court, still dominate
the east quarter of the palace.
Jamess work was continued
and embellished by subsequent
monarchs and the results were
magnicent. Marys grandfather,
James IV, an enthusiastic
builder, added royal apartments
and a chapel and gave the palace
to his wife, Margaret Tudor, as
a wedding gift. In 1513, James
left Scotland to ght the English
and tradition has it that it was
from Queen Margarets Bower, a
small chamber at the
top of the north-west
turret, that Margaret
sat waiting for her
husbands return. It
never came as he was
killed at the Battle of
Flodden.
The palace in
which Mary was born
was one of the most
splendid Renaissance
palaces in Scotland and was
described by her mother as a
very fair palace. Mary spent
the rst seven months of her life
at Linlithgow before leaving for
the greater security of Stirling
Castle. She did not return until
20 years later.
Linlithgow is open from 9.30-5.30pm
daily, 1 April-30 September, and
10am-4pm daily, 1 October31 March.
Entry is free for Historic Environment
Scotland members.

ABOVE Marys parents King James V and Mary of Guise

077
IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF...

Look out for

The Stirling Heads that
represent different members of
the Stuart dynasty.

Mary, Queen of Scots was

crowned here at Stirling
Castle in 1543

DATE VISITED: 1543-48

ST I R L I N G CAST L E ABOVE King James IV

of Scotland

2 Today, Stirling Castle

appears much as it did in
Marys day. Stirling was Marys
childhood home and it was here in
the Chapel Royal that Mary was
crowned on 9 September 1543. The
day was ominous, being the 30-year
anniversary of the Battle of Flodden,
which saw the slaughter of her
grandfather. Perhaps the infant
queen was aware of the tension on
the day as she is said to have
screamed throughout the entire
ceremony. Moreover, English
Ambassador Sir Ralph Sadler
reported scathingly that Mary was
crowned, with such solemnity as
they do use in this country, which is
not very costly. Marys son, James,
was later baptised in the chapel.
When Mary returned to Scotland
from France, her visits to Stirling
were frequent, but dramatic. Tragedy
almost struck one evening when she
retired for bed and a lighted candle
set re to the curtains and tester
of her bed while she slept. Though
panicked, she was unharmed.
Stirling Castle is open Mon-Sun from ABOVE James VI was also
9.30am-5pm, adult tickets cost 14.50. King James I of England

The queens
bedchamber

ABOVE The Chapel Royal where Mary was crowned and James was baptised

078

DATE VISITED: 1561-67
PA L A C E O F
H O LY R O O D H O US E
Situated at the end of
3 Edinburghs Royal Mile and
overlooked by Arthurs Seat, the
Palace of Holyroodhouse has been
a royal residence for more than
500 years. King David I established
a royal abbey at Holyrood in 1128,
and Marys grandfather and father
began to construct new rooms there,
transforming it into a lavish palace
complex. Mary took up residence at
Holyroodhouse in 1561, and it was to
remain her primary home for the next
six years.
Marys apartments were on the
second oor of the north-west tower,
and are still largely preserved. Suites
of rooms were also provided for the use
ABOVE Mary, Queen of Scots Entering Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh
After Marys secretary
was murdered, the
queen was put under
house arrest here
MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS
of her second husband, Henry Darnley,
and later her third, the Earl of Bothwell.
It was in the tiny supper room that
Marys Italian secretary, David Rizzio,
was ambushed and soon killed as he
dined with the queen and her ladies in
1566. The murder was the connivance
of Darnley and the Scottish lords, and
Mary herself, though heavily pregnant,
was threatened with violence.
Following the murder she was placed
under house arrest, with both her reign
and her life under threat. Shortly after,
she escaped from Holyroodhouse and
made for Dunbar, 48 kilometres away.
Holyroodhouse is open from 9.30am-4.30pm
daily, 1 November 25 March, and 9.30am-6pm
daily, 26 March 31 October.
Marys father and
grandfather added many
rooms to Holyroodhouse
Look out for
The Lennox Jewel,
commissioned by Lady
Margaret Douglas.
079
 DATE VISITED: 1566
E D I N B U RG H CAST L E
4 By the end of the 11th century,
Edinburgh Castle was an important
royal fortress. It is strongly associated with
the wife of King Malcolm III, Queen
Margaret, who was canonised in 1250, and is
the dedicatee of the tiny chapel in the castle
complex. By the 16th century, Edinburgh
Castle was the centre of Mary, Queen of
Scotss capital city and housed the Scottish
Crown Jewels. It also contained comfortable
royal lodgings that had been refurbished by
James IV and the famous Mons Meg cannon,
DATE VISITED: AUGUST 1566
T R AQ UA I R H O US E
Traquair is the oldest inhabited
5 house in Scotland and has been
visited by 27 monarchs. In 1491, James
Stewart, son of the Earl of Buchan, obtained
Traquair and became the rst laird. He had
grand plans for improvements to the house
but was killed alongside James IV at the
Battle of Flodden before these could
transpire. By 1566, Traquair was the home of
Jamess grandson, John Stewart, fourth laird,
who was the captain of Marys bodyguard and
a loyal supporter. On 19 August 1566, Mary
arrived at Traquair with her husband, Henry
080
which was red in 1558 to celebrate Marys
marriage to the French Dauphin, Francis.
Mary arrived at Edinburgh Castle in April
1566, where she had chosen to give birth to
her rst and only child. The birth was
difficult, but on 19 June, a prince was born in
the tiny cabinet room, which still survives.
Marys son was the future James VI of
Scotland and I of England.
Edinburgh Castle is open from 9.30am-6pm daily,
1 April 30 September, and 9.30am-5pm daily, 1
October 31 March.
Darnley and their infant son, James as part of
a hunting trip. The royal couple were,
however, estranged and thus it was not a
happy trip. The room in which Mary probably
slept still survives, located in the
12th-century tower and the bed in which she
slept was brought from Terregles House. The
silk quilt that adorns it is said to have been
made by Mary and her ladies. To mark her
visit, she presented her host with an armorial
in oak of the Royal Arms of Scotland.
Traquair is open 11am-5pm daily, 1 April 30
September, and 11am-4pm daily, 1 29 October.
The Murder
of David
Rizzio
How the husband of Mary,
Queen of Scots plotted
bloody murder for her
trusted advisor
On the evening of 9 March 1566,
Mary was enjoying supper in the
tiny supper room that adjoined
her bedchamber at the Palace of
Holyroodhouse. She was joined by
a small group of friends, including
her Italian secretary, David Rizzio.
The pleasant evening was suddenly
disturbed when a group of Marys
nobles burst in and dragged Rizzio,
who had clung to the queens skirts,
out through the bedchamber and
into the outer chamber. Save my life,
madame, save me! Rizzio cried in
desperation, but it was too late. He
was brutally stabbed 56 times before
his lifeless corpse was ung down a
staircase. Rizzio had been incredibly
unpopular, and Marys husband,
Henry Darnley, who was jealous of
the secretarys inuence over his
wife and was determined to engineer
his removal, led the conspirators.
It was Darnley who directed the
conspirators from his own apartment
on the oor below, to the queens
bedchamber by means of a narrow
private staircase. I will think upon
revenge, Mary said when she was
told that her loyal servant was dead.
ABOVE Rizzio clung to the skirts of the queen
as he was dragged from the room

Hermitage Castle was the home of
James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell
The mighty stronghold
6 of Hermitage is known
as the strength of Liddesdale,
and dates from the 13th
century. In 1566, it was the
home of James Hepburn, Earl
of Bothwell and Lord High
Admiral of Scotland, who would
become Marys third husband
the following year. On 8 October,
Bothwell was seriously injured
during an altercation with
cattle thieves on the borders
and returned to Hermitage to
recover. Mary, meanwhile, was
staying at Jedburgh, where
she was presiding over a local
DATE VISITED: 1566
H E R M I TA G E CA S T L E
court hearing when she heard
of Bothwells injuries. It was
not until a week later that she
set out to visit her trusted
admiral. Hermitage was 40
kilometres from Jedburgh, and
Mary accomplished the long
journey on horseback in the
company of her half-brother,
the Earl of Moray, and several
of her lords. She stayed at
Hermitage for just two hours
Mary accomplished the long
journey on horseback
MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS
Look out for
A 16th-century watch reputed to
have been Marys was recovered
from Queens Mire.
before making the arduous
journey back to Jedburgh the
same day. According to legend,
Mary was thrown from her horse
near Hermitage, a place that is
now known as Queens Mire,
and shortly after returning to
Jedburgh she fell ill.
Hermitage is open 9.30am-5.30pm
daily, 1 April 30 September. Entry
is free to Historic Environment
Scotland members.
ABOVE Mary, Queen of Scots. This is one
of only two paintings believed to have been
commissioned in her lifetime
081
IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF...
The queen managed to
escape her Lochleven
prison in May 1568
Look out for
In the 14th-century tower
where Mary was housed, a small
oratory survives.

L O C H L EV E N CAST L E
On 15 June 1567, Marys
7 rebellious Scottish lords
defeated her forces at the Battle of
Carberry Hill. Two days later, the
queen arrived at Lochleven Castle; it
was not her rst visit, but on this
occasion the circumstances were
very different: she was a prisoner.
Lochleven was situated on an island
in the middle of a loch and as such, it
was an ideal place to hold a queen
DATE VISITED: JUNE 1567 MAY 1568
captive as escape was difficult. Mary
remained at Lochleven for almost a
year under the custodianship of Sir
William Douglas, one of the leaders
among her rebellious lords.
It was here that, just over a month
after her arrival, Mary miscarried
twins. While she was recovering, on
24 July she was forced to abdicate in
favour of her infant son. Mary lodged
in two rooms on the third oor of the
tower, rooms she was often forced to
share with Lady Douglas. She tried
to escape and it wasnt until the 2
May 1568, that she succeeded after
a failed attempt. However, her army
was defeated at Langside on 13 May
and she ed south towards England,
never to return to Lochleven again.
Lochleven is open from 10am-4.15pm
daily, 1 April 30 September, and
ABOVE Mary was forced to
10am-3.15pm daily, 1-31 October. abdicate in favour of her son

DATE VISITED: 1568 - 69

B O LT O N CA ST L E
Marys bedchamber
at Bolton Castle

On 15 July 1568, Mary arrived at
8 Bolton Castle in Wensleydale after
a two-day journey from Carlisle Castle.
She was Boltons rst and last royal prisoner
and would remain there for six months. Sir
Francis Knollys, Marys custodian, reported
that, this house appears very strong, very
fair and stately, after the old manner of
building, and is the highest walled house I
have seen with but one entrance, and
observed that Mary was, very quiet,
tractable and void of displeasant
countenance upon her arrival.
During Marys time at Bolton she went
hunting and was allowed to wander in the
grounds. She had 30 servants to attend to her
needs, including the faithful Mary Seton. In
addition, Sir Francis Knollys began teaching
her to speak and write in English. Marys
cloths of estate also arrived which, though
deposed, allowed her to keep regal state over
her apartments, which were located in the
south-west tower. Despite the comfort of
Marys surroundings, Knollys was paranoid
that she might attempt to escape and even
sent a map of Bolton to London in order for
his security arrangements to be approved.
Meanwhile, it had been decided that Mary
would be moved to the greater security of
Tutbury Castle in Staffordshire, which was
160 kilometres further south.
Bolton is open 10am-5pm daily, 13 February 30
October. The castle closes at 4pm in February, March
and October.

082
 MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS
DATE VISITED: 1569 - 85

T U T B U RY CA ST L E
When Mary arrived at
9 Tutbury, her custodian was
the Earl of Shrewsbury. Though
she liked Shrewsbury, she loathed
Tutbury and remarked that, the
greater part of it is rather a dungeon
for base and abject criminals than a
habitation for any person of quality.
Though falling into disrepair, it had
once been one of the most important
castles in England. Despite her
protests, Mary was forced to endure
spells of imprisonment at Tutbury
for nearly seven years. It was here
that she rst met Bess of Hardwick,
Shrewsburys wife and initially the
two women got along well. The
uncomfortable conditions impacted
on Marys health, and Shrewsbury
wrote to Queen Elizabeth to inform
her that Mary was so ill at one point
that, she showed herself somewhat
afraid of her life. Mary recovered,
but her health continued to decline
throughout her imprisonment.
Tutbury is open at various times from ABOVE Mary when she
Easter 2017, check the website for details. was in captivity

DATE VISITED: 1573 - 1584

SHEFFIELD MANOR LODGE

10 Mary was frequently moved
between Sheffield Castle and
for an artist, claiming that she wished
to send miniature copies to her friends
Alamy, John Lord, Flickr - steve p2008, Loren Kerns, Glen Bowman

Sheffield Manor Lodge, a house that
had been erected on the site of a
former Medieval hunting lodge.
The lodge was largely the work of
Marys jailor, the Earl of Shrewsbury,
and today the Turret House is the only
remaining roofed building. While
imprisoned at Sheffield, Mary began
an aviary and asked her agent in Paris
to obtain birds for her, including a pair
of turtledoves. This, she said, will be a
pastime for a prisoner. Mary also sat
and she was known to regularly bathe
in white wine.
When she left Sheffield for the
last time in 1584, she was much
changed as a result of many years of
imprisonment that had taken their
toll on her health. She was now a
prematurely aged 42-year-old woman.
Sheffield Manor Lodge is open on
weekends throughout the year, see the
website for details. Guided tours are
sometimes available.

083
 OF THE

Peoples History Museum, Manchester

Manchesters museum for social history includes some of the

most politically important items in British history. Here are just
a few of its highlights, chosen by the curator

Peterloo
Handkerchief
LOCATION: Main gallery one

The Peterloo handkerchief

MEET THE
CURATOR
Development officer
Helen Antrobus has an
MA in museum and gallery
studies and works to engage
audiences with the lives
of the museums radical
heroes. This informed her
research into the lives of
radical women, such as Ellen
Wilkinson and Betty Tebbs,
and how they are interpreted
through the collections.
was made to commemorate
the Peterloo massacre of 1819.
60,000 people gathered to demand
the vote and parliamentary
reform in Saint Peters Fields
in Manchester. 18 people were
killed and 600 injured when the
yeomanry attacked the defenceless
crowds. The handkerchief is an
important reminder of the struggle
for the right to vote and for free
speech. In the margins of the
handkerchief, signicant phrases
are repeated: Universal Suffrage,
Annual Parliaments and Election
by Ballot. These messages have
ABOVE The scene depicted on the handkerchief is one of chaos, as people gathered seeking
resonated through the ages. to protect their human rights

084
 10 TREASURES

Tinplate Workers Society banner

LOCATION: Main gallery one

The Liverpool Tinplate

Workers Society
banner is thought to be
the oldest trade union
banner in the world.
Mission statement
The text within the circle reads
United to support but not
combined to injure, indicating the
values of the society.

The symbols on this

banner have been
used repeatedly over
the centuries on trade
union banners. Perhaps
the most signicant
symbol is the bundle of
sticks, which represents
strength in unity. A single
stick can be broken,
a bundle cannot. The
union ag in the corner
is interesting, it shows
that the union was a
patriotic, not a subversive Allegorical figures
organisation. The two female figures adorning
the banner represent hope and
RIGHT The banner is painted in justice (the scales being a long-
oils on to a piece of linen, and is used recognisable symbol).
the museums oldest banner

Tom Paines desk Pank-A-Squith

LOCATION: Main gallery one LOCATION: Main gallery one

Most famous for his pamphlet writing producing works such as Common Sense The Pank-A-Squith board game was created in 1909 by the Womens
(1776) and Rights Of Man (1791) Thomas Paine was one of Britains most prolific Social and Political Union (WSPU), and was sold to raise funds for the
radicals, whose support of the American War of Independence earned him a place suffragette cause. The name comes from the fight between Emmeline
as a founder of the United States. Pankhurst, the leader of the WSPU, and Prime Minister Herbert Asquith.
Helen told us, At this desk, Thomas Paine wrote Rights Of Man, a pamphlet The aim of the game is to get to the Houses of Parliament first effectively
that advocated the French Revolution and advised a reformation of the British like snakes and ladders.
government. It would enrage the government so much, he had to escape the country. Can you imagine the mixed reactions that this board game would have
He would never return. The desk did not belong to him, but to Thomas Clio Rickman got when first on sale? Shock! Hilarity! Horror! What is interesting about
of Upper Marylebone Street, who Paine stayed with. After Rights Of Man was Pank-A-Squith are the squares depicting the violence and the terrible
published, Rickman would force-feeding that suffragettes faced in prison squares 33 and 25 refer to
show the desk to visitors. these horrific moments. The suffragettes did not overlook the darker and
Thomas Paine was not much more brutal side of their campaign, but rather embraced it as part of
a rich man, nor a celebrity their struggle, Helen said.
he is still relatively unknown
in British history, despite
being such a significant part
of American history. He was
a radical, unafraid to speak
out. By pen and sword,
Paine fought for liberty, RIGHT
The game
democracy and equality,
represents the
and this desk is a testament struggle of
to that. Suffragettes
against the
RIGHT The table belonged authorities
to Thomas Clio Rickman, but to secure
Paine used it during a stay their vote

085
 10 TREASURES

Clement Attlees pipe

LOCATION: Main gallery one
Iconic accessory
Attlee was often photographed
Clement Attlee became prime minister in 1945 when smoking his pipe, and was thought
the Labour Party won a landslide victory over the to use the ritual of lighting and
puffing for time to think.
Conservative Party.
In 1945, Labours coming to power was celebrated with
bonres in the streets and festivities all through the night.
After the horrors of the Great Depression and World War
II, Clement Attlee led a government of reform, promising a
cradle to grave welfare state set out in the Beveridge Report
of 1944. In the election manifesto, there are only two lines
dedicated to a national health service, but this idea and the
report proved so popular that it led to Labours victory.
Attlees pipe was an effective prop to ward off tricky A popular habit
Pipe smoking hit its height of popularity after
questions. He would use the time it took lling and lighting Attlees time as prime minister, in the 1960s,
it to either evade the question entirely or buy himself some and was then favoured by celebrities from prime
ministers to cricketers, such as Fred Trueman.
thinking time.
RIGHT While pipe smoking has declined severely in the last 50 years, it
was a habit kept up by many prime ministers of the 20th century, including
Harold Wilson

Equal pay plate

Michael Foots jacket LOCATION: Main gallery two
LOCATION: Main gallery two
This commemorative plate was designed to celebrate the women
strikers, the Dagenham Ford Machinists, who went on strike for
Michael Foot was the leader of the Labour Party and the leader of equal pay in 1968.
the opposition from 1980 to 1983, while Margaret Thatcher was the Theres something bittersweet about this plate when it
prime minister. was created in 1984, the Dagenham Ford Machinists had still not
In November 1981, at the Remembrance Day commemorative event, achieved their goal and were having to strike again. However, it
celebrates their momentous achievement of getting the Equal Pay
Michael Foot presented his wreath at the cenotaph standing sombrely next
Act passed in 1970.
to Margaret Thatcher. For the bracing, outdoor service, he chose to wear MP Barbara Castle was employment minister at the time and
a coat bought at the department store Harrods, which was subsequently was instrumental in resolving the strike. On the plate, you can see
attacked by the media they dubbed the coat inappropriate, with one the messages of the strikers inked onto their placards. Equal pay for
Labour MP saying he looked like an out of work navvy. work of equal value was their ultimate achievement.
Foots
style of
leadership
often drew
negative
attention in
the press,
similar to
todays leader
Jeremy
Corbyn.
History and
politics does
repeat itself!

RIGHT The jacket

was called a donkey
jacket but does not in
fact conform to this
specific style of coat

ABOVE This plate has immortalised the struggle of women for equal pay

086
 10 TREASURES

Viv Andersons
football shirt
LOCATION: Main gallery two

This is the shirt of Viv Anderson, the first black

footballer to play for England, which he wore during
his debut game in 1978. Football was rife with racism and
Anderson was often the victim of racial abuse.
Helen told us, Viv Anderson said: Yes, its a football
shirt, but it tells a story of how people were starting to
react to black workers, and footballers, succeeding right
across the community at a time of a big cultural shift.

Never going underground t-shirt

LOCATION: Main gallery two

The never going underground t-shirt was
created for a protest rally in Manchester city
centre in 1988, against Section 28.
Homosexual acts between men had only
been legalised 21 years earlier, but the fight for
equality for LGBT+ people was far from over.
In 1988, Section 28 was passed by
government, it stated that local authorities,
shall not intentionally promote homosexuality
or publish material with the intention of
promoting homosexuality.
Helen said, The act provoked national
outcry; there were protests all over the
country, most famously when the six
oclock news was invaded by a group of
lesbian protesters. The rally in Manchester
emphasised the strength of the LGBT+
community in the city, with Ian McKellen,
Tom Robinson and Jimmy Somerville in
attendance. The t-shirt depicts the London
Underground symbol with the words Never
Going Underground/Out and Proud. Going
back to a world where LGBT+ people were
criminalised and devalued was not an option RIGHT The shirt may not seem that iconic at first glance, but it was
they were staying out and they would never its wearer who made it an important symbol of equality in sport
stop fighting.

Parliamentary Labour Party minutes BELOW The policies here would form
the basis of Britains main opposition

LOCATION: Main gallery one

These are the rst ever

minutes of the Parliamentary
Labour Party, from their
meeting in February 1906. Keir
Hardies signature can be seen on
one of the pages.
The policies listed in these
minutes demonstrate how radical
a party Labour was when it rst
won its seats in parliament.
Womens suffrage, child feeding,
Peoples History Museum, Manchester, Fido PR

housing, miners rights, these

were all pioneering reforms that
the Labour Party believed would
change the lives of the working
classes. Theres no foreign policy
its all domestic. After World
War I, the Labour Party began to
discuss foreign policy.

087
 HERITAGE HERO
F A B I A N WA R E
CUSTODIAN OF
T H E WA R D E A D
F
abian Ware was one of the hundreds of
thousands of patriotic men who heeded
Lord Kitcheners call to arms at the
outbreak of World War I, but he found
himself surplus to requirements aged 45, the
former editor of the Morning Post was turned
away in favour of other, younger recruits. However,
Ware was determined to serve his country in some
way. He volunteered for the Red Cross instead, taking
command of a mobile ambulance unit on 19 September
1914 and using donated cars to treat and transport
wounded soldiers.
Soldiers who died were often buried hurriedly by
French civilians so Ware and his men also took it upon
themselves to record any graves they came across. As the
088
Western Front sank into the attrition of trench warfare,
death rates increased and the resting places of soldiers
were easily lost, especially given the arbitrary destruction
caused by artillery re. Recording graves took more and
more of Wares time and in early 1915 he founded the
Graves Registration Commission. Within months it was
subsumed by the army and Ware was promoted to major.
Ware grappled with the fundamental principles that
would guide the new body, particularly after the death
of one particular soldier. Lieutenant William Gladstone,
ABOVE Ware was knighted grandson of the former prime minister, died on 15 April
by King George V in 1920
and awarded the Legion of
1915. His body was returned home and buried with his
Honor by France ancestors in the churchyard at Hawarden, but Ware
realised that this was a kind of social discrimination
repatriation of remains was only available to those who
 HERITAGE HERO
Fabian Ware ensured that the
soldiers who were buried in the
corners of foreign fields would

Rows of simple white never be forgotten

headstones... proclaiming the

equality of all beneath the cross
which is graven on the monument
FA B I A N WA R E

MAKING
A HERO
1
Securing the
cemeteries
He negotiated that Britain
was granted land used for
cemeteries in perpetuity.
2
Memorials to
the missing
The commission also built
memorials for missing
soldiers who had no
known graves.
could afford it. Although it overruled the wishes of many, in a garden setting augmented by two sculptures, a Cross 3
Ware pushed through a regulation banning the returning of Sacrice and a Stone of Remembrance. Creative freedom
of bodies to Britain. He wanted those who died in the war The cemeteries of the Western Front became a place Ware recruited the
greatest artistic minds to
to be treated equally, regardless of rank or class. of pilgrimage for those visiting the graves of their loved
aid the commissions work
At the Armistice in November 1918, Ware was given ones. After Wares death in 1949, the numbers of visitors such as Rudyard Kipling.
the opportunity to see his egalitarian vision become to the cemeteries increased more than he would ever 4
reality. Now vice-chairman of the Imperial War have expected; now it is not only the fallen soldiers Rural campaigner
Graves Commission (since 1960 the Commonwealth descendants but also schoolchildren, servicemen and Ware was a member of the
War Graves Commission), he oversaw the building of tourists who come to view the rows of white headstones. Council for Preservation of
1,000 cemeteries containing 580,000 separate graves. Rudyard Kipling described building WWI cemeteries Rural England.

Wares guiding principles were simplicity, equality and as, the single biggest piece of work since the pharaohs 5
uniformity. Each grave was marked by a white headstone and they only worked in their own country. That work Return to duty
Getty, Thinkstock

Ware, 69, returned to

with a design that recorded the same basic details. There was largely down to Fabian Ware. He ensured soldiers duty in WWII as the War
was no distinction between officers and men, nor between who had made the ultimate sacrice were treated equally Offices director of Graves
different services or nationalities. The graves were placed and with respect. Registration and Enquiries.
Untold stories of the world's greatest monarchs
w w w.h i s t o r y a n s w e r s .c o.u k

Available
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 QUICK GUIDES TO SOME AMAZING PLACES

Rura fe museums
in East Anglia
East Anglia has a rich and varied rural history that
goes back centuries; here are just a few of the
museums that celebrate it
Gressenhall Farm
and Workhouse
Discover life in the Victorian workhouse
before watching different farming techniques
in action. It offers a wide programme of
events for all ages, as well as a rare breed farm
dedicated to preserving Victorian techniques.

EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS
8Openforsummerseasonfrom5March
Adults: 11.50 ($14), Child: 9.80 ($12)
www.museums.norfolk.gov.uk/visit_us/gressenhall_
farm_and_workhouse
HLIGHT
Y HIG
OR
ST KING
WOR ILL
HI

M
WIND

Museum of East Museum of West Stow Anglo- Burwell

Anglian Life
This museum is dedicated to
bringing East Anglias farming
past back to life. The extensive
site consists of cottages,
farmhouses and a windmill
and the hands-on exhibits and
living history demonstrations
offer visitors a vivid chance to
experience rural life of the past.
Cambridge
Formerly the Cambridge and
Country Folk Museum, the
Museum of Cambridge is home
to a rich collection of East
Anglian artefacts. Situated in
an evocative former tavern,
the museum tells the story of
three centuries of local life in a
changing world.
Saxon village
This unique attraction is set in
an extensive country park that
is rich in all kinds of wildlife.
In West Stow, an Anglo-Saxon
village, time has stood still and
visitors can take the chance to
dress up in period costume and
try out what life would be like as
an Anglo-Saxon for themselves.
Museum
No visit to Burwell Museum
would be complete without a
visit to its working fully restored
windmill, but the site offers
plenty of other attractions too.
From vintage farm vehicles
to recreated village buildings,
Burwell offers something for all
the family.

8Tues-Sat: 10am-6pm 8 Tues-Sat: 10.30am-5pm 8 Mon-Sun: 9am-5pm 8 Thurs/Sun/Bank hol Mon: 11am-5pm
Entrance for all ages: 2.50 ($3) Adults: 4 ($4.95), Child: Free Adults: 5 ($6), Child: 3 ($3.50) Adult: 4 ($5), Child: 2 ($2.50)
Annual membership options available Concessions available Concessions available Concessions available
www.eastanglianlife.org.uk www.folkmuseum.org.uk www.weststow.org www.burwellmuseum.org.uk

091
 Mini Guides Japanese Buddhas
Nanzoin Buddha
t Buddhas Just 21 years old, the Nanzoin Buddha is the worlds largest reclining
Buddha statue. Its also the worlds largest bronze structure at 41 metres
long. The statue contains the ashes of Buddha, as well as sand from the
of Japan shrines that stand along the route of the revered Shikoku Pilgrimage.

Japan is rich in Buddhist history and EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS

awestruck visitors can view the countys 8Mon-Sun: 9am-5pm
remarkable giant Buddha statues. Here Entrance to the temple is free although there is a 500-yen
charge to enter the prayer room underneath.
are five that you shouldnt miss

RY HIGHLIGHT
TO
IS EN
HIDD

H
GEM

Ueno Daibutsu Ushiku Daibutsu Takaoka Daibutsu Tokyo Daibutsu

All that remains of this once
magnicent copper statue,
which was constructed in
1631 is Buddhas face set into a
shrine. Sadly, the remainder of
the statue was lost when it was
melted down for soldiers to use
in Japanese munitions during
World War II.
Standing at 120 metres high,
Japans tallest Buddha is also one
of the countrys most popular.
Situated in some of the most
idyllic, tranquil gardens that
are rich in ora and marine life,
the statue is actually home to a
museum that contains more than
3,000 golden Buddhas.
The rst Takaoka Buddha
was constructed in 1221 but
since that time several statues
have stood at the site. With
the original wooden Buddhas
ravaged by time and on
occasion by re, the current
copper Buddha of Takaoka was
completed in 1933.
This is one of the lesser-
visited Buddha statues, and
is a great place to visit for
travellers in need of some
quiet contemplation. Set amid
beautiful and secluded grounds,
it is an ideal place to spend some
time enjoying a little peace amid
the bustle of Tokyo.

8 Open 24 hours 8 Mon-Sun: 9.30am-5pm 8Mon-Sun: 6am-6pm 8Mon-Sun: 8am-5pm

Entrance is free Museum entrance: Adults: 800 yen Entrance is free Take a Tbu Tj train from Ikebukuro
Just outside the JR Ueno Station (5/$6). Accessible by car, bus and train 10-15 minute walk from Takaoka Station to Narimasu and walk to Jouren-ji

092
 Mini Guides Prague synagogues
The Old-New
Synagogue
The Old-New Synagogue was
constructed in 1270 and is the
oldest surviving twin-nave
synagogue in the world. It also
Synagogues houses a richly embroidered ag
that was awarded to the Jewish
in Prague people of Prague in honour of
their bravery during the Thirty
Years War. A key site to visit in
The history of the Jewish people in Prague is long, the Jewish quarter.
rich and tragic. That history is told through the
synagogues that are open to the public 8Sun-Fri: 9am-6pm
Adults: CZK200 (6/$7), Child: CZK140
(4/$5). www.prague.eu
EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS
8Sun-Fri: 9am-6pm
Adults: CZK300 (9/$11), Child: CZK200 (6/$7)
www.jewishmuseum.cz/maisel-synagogue/
The Spanish
Synagogue
Visitors to the Spanish
Synagogue will nd a fascinating
and beautifully decorated
synagogue, complete with
glorious colours. Left derelict
after occupation by rst the Nazi
and then communist regimes,
this synagogue was restored in
the 1990s and entrusted to the
The Maisel Synagogue Jewish Museum in Prague.
Situated in the former Jewish Ghetto, this 16th-century synagogue
was closed in the late 1980s due to structural collapse. Now fully
8Sun-Fri: 9am-6pm
restored, the synagogue tells the story of the Czech Jewish people Adults: CZK300 (9/$11),
from the 9th century to the 18th and is a popular stop for travellers. Child: CZK200 (6/$7)
The Pinkas
Synagogue
This 16th-century synagogue
is dedicated to honouring
the memory of nearly 80,000
Czech and Moravian-Jewish
victims of the Holocaust, with
the name of each written on
the wall. Although the museum
was closed during the Soviet
occupation of Prague, it survived
to tell its remarkable story.
8Sun-Fri: 9am-6pm
Adults: CZK300 (9/$11),
Child: CZK200 (6/$7)
The Klausen
Synagogue
The largest synagogue in the
Prague Jewish quarter, visitors
to this wonderful Baroque
building will be richly rewarded.
Through an exhibition curated by
the Jewish Museum, travellers
can learn about Jewish festive
and family traditions, as well as
view an extensive collection of
ancient Hebrew manuscripts.
8Sun-Fri: 9am-6pm
Adults: CZK300 (9/$11),
Child: CZK200 (6/$7)
093
 Mini Guides Belgian Memorials

Battle memorials
in Belgium
The war memorials of Belgium commemorate
those who gave their lives in conflict through the
centuries. From Waterloo to World War II, here
are five that span the ages
STORY HIG
HI
MUS HLIG
Mardasson Memorial ON EUM

H
SITE

T
The Mardasson memorial honours more
than 76,000 American soldiers who were
killed or wounded at the Battle of the Bulge.
The memorial is in the shape of a ve pointed
American star.
The Bastogne War Museum is also
situated nearby on the site and it tells the
story of the battle and those who fell there.

EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS
8 Mon-Sun: 9.30am-6pm (Closed January)
Adults: 14 (11/$14), Children: 8 (6/$8)
www.bastognewarmuseum.be

The Lions Mound
This enormous manmade hill,
topped with a magnicent
stone lion, commemorates the
legendary Battle of Waterloo
and was immortalised in
Victor Hugos classic novel,
Les Misrables. For those who
climb the more than 200 steps
to the top of the mound, an
unparalleled view over the
battleeld awaits.
Elsie and Mairi
Memorial
Teenage nurses Elsie Knocker
and Mairi Chisholm battled
through gas attacks to nurse
troops on the front. Working in
terrible conditions, the women
were given special permission by
German commanders to retrieve
the wounded from the battleeld
and this memorial to them at
Ypres was unveiled just last year.
Memorial Museum The Menin Gate
Passchendaele The Menin Gate of Ypres
1917 commemorates those who died
In the space of just 100 and were never given a proper
days, 500,000 men died at grave. It is also known as the
Passchendaele, giving their lives Memorial to the Missing.
to claim less than ten kilometres. Highly controversial when
They are honoured in this former it was unveiled in 1927, the
chateau, where visitors can triumphal arch of the Menin
examine a replica trench and Gate is one of the most visited
dugout, as well as an extensive war memorial sites throughout
collection of evocative artefacts. all of Belgium.

8Mon-Sun: 10am-6pm 8Open 24 hours 8Mon-Sun: 9am-6pm 8Open 24 hours

Adults: 19 (16/$19), Concessions: Entrance is free Adults: 8.50 (7/$9), Children: 5 Entrance is free
15 (12/$15). waterloo1815.be Located at the Hotel Ariane in Ypres (4/$5). www.passchendaele.be Traffic stops at 8pm for the Last Post

094
 MiniGuides Welsh Castles
HLIGHT
Y HIG
OR
ST FACTS
ARTE IDE

HI
INS

Powis Castle Flint Castle

This Medieval stronghold was
originally built in the 13th
century and is now owned by
the National Trust. It really
does have something on offer for
everyone of all ages, including
acres of gorgeous grounds in
which to take an afternoon stroll
and an enormous collection of
The strategically important Flint
Castle was the rst in Edward Is
so-called Iron Ring, intended
to take control of Wales.
Immortalised in Shakespeares
play Richard II as the location
of Richards capture, this castle
may now be in ruins but it
still remains an evocative and

Castles in eastern antiquities, assembled by

Clive of India.
historic site for its hundreds
of visitors.

north Wales 8 Mon-Sun: 11am-4pm

Adult: 13.40 ($16), Child: 6.70 ($8)
8 Mon-Sun: 10am-4pm
Entrance is free
Visitors to north Wales will be spoilt for choice when www.nationaltrust.org.uk cadw.gov.wales/flintcastle
it comes to castles. From ruined strongholds to
unfinished fortresses, theres plenty to enjoy

EX P L O R E RS ESSENTIALS
8Mon-Sun: 9.30am-5pm
Adult: 6 ($7), Child: 4.20 ($5), concessions available
www.harlech.com

Beaumaris Castle Bodelwyddan

Situated on the Isle of Anglesey,
conduction on Beaumaris began
in 1282 as part of Edward Is
famed Iron Ring but work was
halted when nances and ran out
before it reached its full height.
Despite its ruined state, the
unnished castle of Beaumaris
is a UNESCO World Heritage
Site and an excellent example of
concentric fortications.
Harlech Castle
Another example of the Iron Ring, Harlech Castle glowers down
8 Mon-Sun: 9.30am-5pm
over the Irish Sea. It has played a vital part in Welsh history, from its Adult: 6 ($7), Child: 4.20 ($5)
construction in the 13th century to the British Civil Wars and beyond. www.beaumaris.com
In this evocative castle, time really does seem to have stood still.
Castle
Constructed in 1460 to showcase
the wealth of an important
Welsh family, Bodelwyddan has
been used as a private home, a
hospital for wounded servicemen
and even a private school. The
castle now houses an extensive
at collection and its stunning
grounds are a wonderful place to
spend a sunny afternoon.
8 Tues-Thurs, Sat-Sun: 10am-3.30pm
Adult: 5 ($6), Child: 4 ($5)
bodelwyddan-castle.co.uk

095
 ARCHAEOLOGY & TRAVEL
Exploring the history and prehistory
of Britain and the Mediterranean

Informed Travel Beautiful Locations Expert Guides

Small Groups Relaxed Itineraries Local Airports

Cyprus: North & South Crete & Santorini

Pompeii & Campania Malta's Millennia
Origins of England Ancient Greece
Sicilian Civilisations Romney Marsh

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PLUS: Heritage Hero: Augustus Pitt Rivers, Copenhagens incredible palaces, temples of
Kathmandu, Georgian stately homes, Churches in Dumfries and Galloway and more

THE WONDERFUL BARN
Located in County Kildare, Ireland to the east
of Castledown, the Wonderful Barn is a truly
unique and fascinating piece of architecture.
The intriguing corkscrew shaped building
dates to 1743 and is known most of all for its
unusual shape. The inverted funnel of rock
towers more than 21 metres high with 94
steps of winding external stairs wrapping
around it, resembling more a Medieval keep
than a barn.
The Wonderful Barn was a later addition
to the 222-hectare estate of William Conolly,
098
Strange Places
speaker of the Irish House of Commons at
the start of the Georgian period. The unique
structure has two smaller dovecote towers
either side of it and is adjoined by a large,
derelict residence called Barnhall House.
There are several theories for the barns
original purpose, with some claiming it to
be a dovecote to store the birds, which were
considered a delicacy, however, its generally
believed to be a granary, in order to keep stock
nearby after the devastation of the 1740-41
Irish famine. This theory is supported by
the presence of a hole in each oor for the
grain to pass through. It is likely that the
construction of the distinctive structure was
also seen as a way to employ the local poor,
and the seven oors within give credence to
the idea that the servants slept within the
walls. However, the Wonderful Barns unique
shape seems to have existed only to add
character to the landscape. There is one other
building in Ireland bearing resemblance,
Bottle Tower in Dublin, which is believed to
be a later imitation.
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 www.germany.travel

Discover the connection between Great Britain and Germanys Royal Houses. To explore the
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_a royal welcome

North elevation of Sigmaringen Castle Schloss Sigmaringen