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Early Music, Vol. xxxix, No. 2 The Author 2011. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. 229
doi:10.1093/em/car015, available online at www.em.oup.oxfordjournals.org
Several days later, upon a fourth apparition, Mary
made Castilian roses grow on Tepeyac, and Juan
Diego brought them to the bishop concealed in
his cloak. When he opened the cloak to present the
flowers, the Virgin Marys image appeared embla-
zoned on the garment or tilma he wore. This scene
is depicted in a New Spanish painting by Andrs de
Islas from 1773 (see illus.1). The bishop interpreted
this as a sign, and was convinced to erect the chapel,
although this does not seem to have happened dur-
ing his tenure as bishop.
The image that appeared on Juan Diegos tilma,
believed to have been created by God, is said to be
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multivalent symbol, most evidence points to the Virgin surviving examples of villancicos with music from
of Guadalupe as a devotion promoted primarily by Mexico City Cathedral (see illus.2).14 The oldest
the creole population.12 Recognizing the creole con- Guadalupan piece, Pues el alba aparece, was writ-
text of Guadalupan devotion, and its meanings for ten by Antonio de Salazar (c.16501715) in 1694 (see
their cultural and political goals, helps understand Table 1). Indeed, Salazar wrote the music to six of
the presence of villancicos for her feast at Mexico City the villancicos, and his successor as chapelmas-
Cathedral, an elite space frequented largely by cre- ter, Manuel de Sumaya (16781755), composed the
oles, the small community of peninsular Spaniards, music to five.15 The exception in the group is Qu
and their African slaves. The villancicos appear several apacible, a piece originally composed by Puebla
decades after the principal literary narratives that co- chapelmaster Jos Laso Valero (d.1778) and revised
dified the story, yet before papal approval of the feast, in Mexico City by Mateo Manterola (b.1780) in
and thus they served to promote the devotion and 1812. Distinct in style and orchestration, it repre-
educate the public about its key points.13 sents a one-off revival in the context of the Mexican
2 Antonio de Salazar, Seas ve claras, continuo. (Archivo del Cabildo Catedral Metropolitano de Mxico) (reproduced
with permission of Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes)
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Table 1 Villancicos for the Virgin of Guadalupe at the Archivo del Cabildo Catedral Metropolitano de Mxico (ACCMM)
All of the works laid out in Table 1 formed part scripts (see Appendix 1).20 This percentage would be
of the so-called Estrada Collection, a grouping of even smaller if the repertories of printed music and
122 manuscripts from the ACCMM which had been choral polyphony in choirbook format, which do not
in the personal possession of musicographer Jess contain villancicos, were added to the calculation. (In
Estrada and his heirs during the second half of the contrast, the Latin responsory, which supplemented
20th century.17 Reunited with the rest of the music and largely replaced the villancico, accounts for
manuscripts at the ACCMM since 1998, the grouping about 17 per cent of the music collection.) Yet unlike
initiates the new series of call numbers applied to the the ACCMM as a whole, which contains a significant
music collection in 2009 by the music cataloguing number of European compositions, the vast majority
project (MUSICAT) of the Seminario Nacional of villancicos were written specifically for the cath-
de Msica en la Nueva Espaa y Mxico Indepen- edral by its own chapelmasters as occasional works
diente under official agreement with the cathedral (see Table 2), and thus they provide an informative
administration.18 With 102 distinct villancicos, the snapshot of local compositional practices over time.
manuscripts of the former Estrada Collection count That said, the moderately low number of villan-
as the principal source of the genre from Mexico cicos at the ACCMM results from the vicissitudes
City Cathedral in the period 16901730 and show the
Table 2 Number of unique villancicos at the ACCMM
knowledge and assimilation of current stylistic and
listed by composer
formal procedures in European and Spanish music,
and the response of New Spanish composers.19
Despite the importance of the sources from the Composer Number of Villancicos
former Estrada Collection, it might be surprising to chapelmasters
readers that only a moderate number of villancicos Antonio de Salazar 52
survives at the ACCMM, otherwise the largest re- Manuel de Sumaya 33
pository of New Spanish music sources. In addition Ignacio Jerusalem 32
to these 102 villancicos, the archive contains 47 more, Mateo Tollis de la Roca 1
some incomplete, as well as a small number of frag- Antonio Juanas 1
ments. Thus, in sum, the archive preserves 149 vil- others
lancicos with music composed between 1693 and the Anonymous 19
early 19th century, a quantity that equals less than 5 Jos Roca 2
Jos de Torres 3
per cent of the approximately 3,500 unique pieces
6 others 1 each
present in the cathedrals archive of music manu-
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of preservation rather than compositional history, An important lesson reinforced by studying the
as the number of villancicos written at the cathedral entire corpus of 149 villancicos at the ACCMM,
since at least the time of chapelmaster Francisco as well as the scattered sources listed in Table 3,
Lpez Capillas (161474) would have totalled in the acknowledges that literary factors such as a villan-
thousands. This is not simply first-principles logic; cicos character, the nature of its poetic glossing and
for example, the title-page of an imprint relays that troping, and the content of its narrative define the
cathedral musician Jos de Loaysa y Agurto (c.1625 genre more than formal elements alone do. Imprints
c.1695) set villancico texts by Sor Juana Ins de la of villancico cycles from both sides of the Atlantic ex-
Cruz for the feast of the Assumption in 1676, even hibit a preference for formal and topical variety, and
though the music is now lost.21 Cathedral chapel- even when forms remain consistent, the texts vary in
masters, cantors and succentors built music archives length, poetic voice and other factors. Whereas most
primarily to organize the music chapels living rep- of the villancicos by Salazar and Sumaya follow the
ertory rather than for purposes of conservation. common villancico process of juxtaposing a topical
Table 3 New Spanish villancicos for the Virgin of Guadalupe in other sources
El mundo se admire Salazar 1690 text only, Mndez Placarte, Los villancicos
Hola a quien digo Salazar 1690 text only, Mndez Placarte, Los villancicos
Pronstico que publica Salazar 1690 text only, Mndez Placarte, Los villancicos
Vengan a ver una zarza Salazar 1690 text only, Mndez Placarte, Los villancicos
A coger las flores Salazar c.1690s music incomplete, Puebla Cathedral, leg. 19
Al alba que brilla Sumaya c.1720s music incomplete, Oaxaca Cathedral, 49.14
Al prodigio mayor Sumaya c.1720s complete, Guatemala City Cathedral, 834
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233
popular audiences or teach it to the uninformed, ism of the Spanish poet Luis de Gngora y Argote
but rather elevate it by using the same techniques (15611627), such as inverted word order, plays with
of glossing and troping found in villancicos that words, neologisms, erudite references, and descrip-
engage ideas from Catholic doctrine for other tions of nature.29 Interplay among Christian and
devotions. Yet unlike other feasts celebrated with classical mythologies abounds in these Gongoresque
villancicos, the Guadalupe story had not yet attained texts of the late 17th century, often in order to con-
the status of universal doctrine. Rather, it expressed struct Mexico as a new Rome or Jerusalem.
local identity and exception by constructing a sense For example, the estribillo of Seas ve claras relates
of regional mexicanidad (or Mexico City-ness) the idea that the people of New Spain recognize the
for an educated public within the legitimizing con- Virgin of Guadalupe as their protectress when they
fines of the cathedral.26 This type of literary rhet- contemplate her image.30 The opening word of the
oric, which was more difficult to understand than text, seas (signs), glosses the moment in accounts
visual representations of the story, was probably of the apparitions in which Zumrraga orders Juan
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Now that the Virgin of Guadalupe has descended displays authorial erudition and owes some debt to
to Mexico City, the ensuing two coplas present belli- literary whimsey, but at the same time this and other
cose imagery that rehearses the iconography of the similar references throughout the Guadalupan rep-
Woman of the Apocalypse and evokes the theme ertory make it very clear that writers were promoting
of the Militant and Triumphant Church by pitting the apparitions as acts of God of the greatest magni-
images of violence against a pacific sea of Marian tude that would bestow especial favour upon New
grace. Finally, the last two coplas relax the tone by in- Spain. Those born in New Spain stand allegorically as
voking natural elements associated with Tepeyac in a chosen people, proxy Israelites, in a construction of
the Guadalupe narratives, such as malezas (weeds), great political value as the creole population, among
zarzas (brambles) and espinas (thorns), as allegor- others, developed increasingly nationalist sentiments.
ical symbols. In sum, the text calls upon New Spain Yet detractors to the idea that God chose New
to recognize the signs of the Virgin of Guadalupes Spain in this way required proof of the veracity of
patronage by imagining her iconography coming the apparitions. A central controversy was the divine
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235
In sum, as literary works, these villancico texts offer a Spaniard who spent most of his career in New
a window onto how cathedral authorities promoted Spain.42 In a manner more subtle than the villan-
Guadalupan devotion at the end of the 17th and into cico texts, Salazars music helped shape the identity
the 18th century. While each of the texts merits closer of Guadalupan devotion by adapting European tra-
analysis and discussion, the excerpts presented here ditions of musical signification to the New Spanish
show that the main poetic themes gloss period literary content. This is especially clear in his use of martial
works on the subject, show inspiration in the icon- music reminiscent of the batalla tradition initi-
ography of the image itself, and acquire additional ated by the second part of Clment Janequins 16th-
meanings through biblical and erudite mythological century chanson La bataille and appropriated in a
references. These meanings helped build New Spanish variety of Masses and other pieces by, among many
identityespecially creole identityas both Euro- others, Francisco Guerrero, Toms Luis de Victoria
pean and American, ancient and modern. and Francisco Lpez Capillas, Salazars creole pre-
decessor as chapelmaster at Mexico City.43 Battle
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Ex.1 Antonio de Salazar, Al arma toquen, excerpt
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237
Ex.2 Manuel de Sumaya, Cerca de Mxico el templo, excerpt
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Appendix 1
List of villancicos at the Archivo del Cabildo Catedral Metropolitano de Mxico
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239
Appendix 1 Continued
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Appendix 1 Continued
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241
Appendix 1 Continued
1 Villancicos have recently been est la noche, as the original source music: contemporary performance and
defined as all learned songs in the from Puebla remains in the private the colonial legacy, ed. J. Sturman
vernacular performed in a sacred collection of the heirs of Gabriel (2007), http://web.cfa.arizona.edu/stu
context, in Devotional music in the Saldvar; A siolo Flasiquiyo also appears rman/CLAM/Pub1/Davies1.html; G.
Iberian world, 14501800: the villancico in J. W. Hill, Anthology of Baroque Baker, Latin American Baroque:
and related genres, ed. T. Knighton and music (New York, 2005); Los coflades de performance as post-colonial act?
. Torrente (Aldershot, 2007), p.3. la estleya is in J. P. Burkholder and C. Early Music, xxxvi/3 (2008),
This refreshing definition moves Palisca, Norton anthology of Western pp.4418.
beyond formal characteristics to music, 2 vols. (New York, 5/2005). 5 G. Baker, The ethnic villancico
consider the function and contexts of Among the commercial recordings of and racial politics in 17th-century
the genre. In this article, however, I do these works are Missa Mexicana with Mexico, in Devotional music in the
not refer to works that could otherwise the Harp Consort and Andrew Iberian world, pp.399408; J. M. Lipski,
be considered arias, cantadas, duets, Lawrence-King (Harmonia Mundi A history of Afro-Hispanic language: five
motets or alabanzas as villancicos. hmu 907293, 2002); New World centuries, five continents (Cambridge,
2 This canon contains A la jcara symphonies with Ex Cathedra and 2005); and P. R. Laird, Towards a
jacarilla and A siolo Flasiquiyo by Juan Jeffrey Skidmore (Hyperion cda67380, history of the Spanish villancico
Gutirrez de Padilla (Puebla, 1653); 2002); and Nueva Espaa: Close (Warren, MI, 1997), pp.1689.
Convidando est la noche by Juan encounters in the New World, 15901690
6 For discussion of late 18th-century
Garca de Cspedes (Puebla, c.1670); with the Boston Camerata and Joel
Guadalupan processions with music in
and Los coflades de la estleya by Juan de Cohen (Erato 2292 45977-2, 1993).
San Luis Potos, see D. E. Davies,
Araujo (La Plata/Sucre, late 17th 3 R. M. Stevenson, Puebla Making music, writing myth: urban
century). The first two works appear in chapelmasters and organists: sixteenth Guadalupan ritual in eighteenth-
Juan Gutirrez de Padilla, Tres and seventeenth centuries. Part II, century New Spain, in Music and
Cuadernos de Navidad, 1653, 1655 y 1657, Inter-American Music Review, vi/1 urban society in colonial Latin America,
ed. M. Palacios et al. (Caracas, 1998), (1984), pp.29139, at p.87. ed. T. Knighton and G. Baker
edited from sources at Puebla 4 D. E. Davies, Nationalism, (Cambridge, 2010), pp.6482.
Cathedral; the final three in R. M. exoticism and colonialist 7 C. Bargellini, Originality and
Stevenson, Latin American colonial appropriation: the historiographic invention in the painting of New
music anthology (Washington, DC, decontextualization of music from Spain, in Painting a New World:
1975); Stevensons edition is the only New Spain, in Latin American choral Mexican art and life 15211821, ed. D.
available manifestation of Convidando
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Pierce, R. Ruiz Gomar and C. S. Poole, The Guadalupan controversies in Catedral Metropolitano de Mxico,
Bargellini (Denver, 2004), pp.7991. Mexico (Stanford, 2006), pp.125. Cuadernos del Seminario Nacional de
The image does not include the dragon 14 The oldest dated villancico with Msica en la Nueva Espaa y Mxico
from Revelation 12; it also presents music at the ACCMM is Antonio de Independiente, iv (2009), pp.570. This
iconography of the Immaculate Salazars Arde afable hermosura, which article, as well as additional data about
Conception of Mary. dates to Christmas 1693. Note that the conservation of the manuscripts,
8 The painter, identified as Marcos, villancicos with music survive at and digital images of every folio in the
indio pintor, is believed to be Marcos Puebla from as early as Juan Gutirrez former collection, is freely available to
Griego, who was likely the same person de Padillas 1651 Christmas cycle, and the public at the seminars website,
as the painters Marcos Aquino and the Cancionero of Gaspar Fernndez, www.musicat.unam.mx. The new call
Marcos Cipac. See P. ngeles Jimnez, preserved at Oaxaca, contains numbers (signaturas) consist of the
Apeles y tlacuilos: Marcos Griego y la chanzonetas with Puebla provenance letter A plus four numerical digits
pintura cristiano indgena del siglo XVI dating to the 1610s. and replace former nomenclatures.
en la Nueva Espaa, in De arquitectura, 15 It is interesting that the earlier 19 Marn Lpez, Una desconocida
pintura y otras artes. Homenaje a Elisa villancicos coincide with the construction coleccin, p.331. In Gua a la
Vargaslugo, ed. C. Gutirrez Arriola et al. of the Basilica of Guadalupe at Tepeyac Coleccin, we gave the number of
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2 43
in the private collection of Federico national consciousness 15311813, trans. of the divinity of the image, noting
Gmez de Orozco in Mexico City. B. Keen (Chicago, 1976), p.78. that it was painted by heaven.
23 No villancicos for the Virgin of 29 D. Schons, The influence of 38 See L. K. Stein, Songs of mortals,
Guadalupe dating to the viceregal Gngora on Mexican literature during dialogues of the Gods: music and theatre
period appear to survive at the Baslica the seventeenth century, Hispanic in seventeenth-century Spain (Oxford,
de Guadalupe in Mexico City, at least Review, vii/1 (1939), pp.2234; 1993), pp.3267.
as can be discerned in L. Guerberof J. Joaqun Blanco, La literatura en la 39 One of the few writings on this
Hahn, Archivo Musical: Catlogo Nueva Espaa 2: Esplendores y miserias characteristically Spanish notation
(Mexico City, 2006). Villancicos for de los criollos (Mexico City, 1989). system is J. V. Gonzlez Valle, La
other feasts are present there. Data in Schons describes New Spanish notacin de la msica vocal espaola
Table 3 are drawn from A. Tello, Gongorism as imitative. del siglo XVII. Cambio y significado
Archivo Musical de la Catedral de 30 All translations are mine. In Seas segn la teora y prctica musical de la
Oaxaca. Catlogo (Mexico City, 1990); ve claras, I acknowledge some poca, in Altes im Neuen: Festschrift
Stevenson, Renaissance and Baroque; indebtedness to a translation prepared Theodor Gllner zum 65. Geburtstag, ed.
and Stanford, Catlogo de los acervos. by Joseph R. Jones for a performance B. Edelmann and M. H. Schmid
Many of Sumayas pieces preserved at of the piece with the Orchestra of New (Tutzing, 1995), pp.17791.
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