Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
U.S. Department
of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Aeronautical
Information
Official Guide to
Manual Basic Flight Information and ATC Procedures
Record of Changes
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 3
April 27, 2017
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
DECEMBER 10, 2015
4/27/17 AIM
AIM Change 3
Page Control Chart
April 27, 2017
REMOVE PAGES DATED INSERT PAGES DATED
Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 11/10/16 Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 4/27/17
Basic Flt Info & ATC Procedures . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 Basic Flt Info & ATC Procedures . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
Flight Info Publication Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 Flight Info Publication Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 Table of Contents i through xii . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
112 through 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 112 through 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
117 through 1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 117 through 1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
1114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 1114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
1115 and 1116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1115 and 1116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
1117 and 1118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 1117 and 1118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
1119 through 1131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1119 through 1131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
1132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 1132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
1133 through 1134 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1133 through 1135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
219 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 219 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
2110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 2110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
411 and 412 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 411 and 412 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
418 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 418 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
4311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4312 through 4314 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4312 through 4314 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
4315 and 4316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 4315 and 4316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
4317 through 4325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4317 through 4325 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
4326 through 4328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4326 through 4328 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
4329 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4329 through 4331 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
447 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16 447 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
448 through 4411 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 448 through 4412 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
457 through 459 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 457 through 459 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
4510 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4510 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4517 through 4520 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4517 through 4520 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
5113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 5113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
5114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
5129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
5130 through 5132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5130 through 5132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
521 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 521 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
522 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 522 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
523 through 529 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 523 through 529 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4/27/17
iv 4/27/17
v 4/27/17 Section 3. Airport Marking
vi 4/27/17 Aids and Signs
vii 4/27/17 231 12/10/15
viii 4/27/17 232 12/10/15
ix 4/27/17 233 12/10/15
x 4/27/17 Section 2. PerformanceBased 234 12/10/15
xi 4/27/17
Navigation (PBN) and Area 235 12/10/15
Navigation (RNAV) 236 12/10/15
121 12/10/15 237 12/10/15
122 12/10/15 238 12/10/15
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
123 12/10/15 239 12/10/15
Section 1. Navigation Aids 124 12/10/15 2310 12/10/15
111 5/26/16 125 12/10/15 2311 12/10/15
112 4/27/17 126 12/10/15 2312 12/10/15
113 4/27/17 127 11/10/16 2313 12/10/15
114 4/27/17 128 4/27/17 2314 12/10/15
115 4/27/17
2315 12/10/15
116 4/27/17
2316 12/10/15
117 4/27/17
2317 12/10/15
118 4/27/17
2318 12/10/15
119 4/27/17
2319 12/10/15
1110 4/27/17
2320 12/10/15
1111 4/27/17
2321 12/10/15
5452 12/10/15
Available to Pilots 7113 5/26/16
621 12/10/15 7114 5/26/16
5453 12/10/15
622 12/10/15 7115 5/26/16
5454 12/10/15
623 5/26/16 7116 11/10/16
5455 12/10/15
624 12/10/15 7117 5/26/16
5456 12/10/15
625 12/10/15 7118 5/26/16
5457 12/10/15
626 12/10/15 7119 5/26/16
5458 12/10/15
627 12/10/15 7120 5/26/16
5459 12/10/15
628 12/10/15 7121 5/26/16
5460 12/10/15
629 12/10/15 7122 5/26/16
5461 12/10/15
6210 12/10/15 7123 5/26/16
5462 12/10/15
6211 12/10/15 7124 5/26/16
5463 12/10/15
7125 5/26/16
Section 5. Pilot/Controller 7126 5/26/16
Roles and Responsibilities Section 3. Distress and 7127 5/26/16
551 12/10/15 Urgency Procedures 7128 5/26/16
552 12/10/15 631 5/26/16 7129 5/26/16
553 12/10/15 632 5/26/16 7130 5/26/16
554 4/27/17 633 12/10/15 7131 5/26/16
555 12/10/15 634 12/10/15 7132 5/26/16
556 12/10/15 635 12/10/15 7133 5/26/16
557 4/27/17 636 12/10/15 7134 5/26/16
558 4/27/17 637 12/10/15 7135 5/26/16
7136 5/26/16
Section 6. National Security Section 4. Twoway Radio 7137 5/26/16
and Interception Procedures Communications Failure 7138 5/26/16
561 4/27/17 641 12/10/15 7139 5/26/16
562 4/27/17 642 12/10/15 7140 5/26/16
563 4/27/17 7141 5/26/16
564 4/27/17 7142 5/26/16
Section 5. Aircraft Rescue
565 4/27/17 and Fire Fighting 7143 5/26/16
566 4/27/17 Communications 7144 5/26/16
567 4/27/17 651 12/10/15 7145 5/26/16
568 4/27/17 652 12/10/15 7146 5/26/16
569 4/27/17 7147 5/26/16
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 2
November 10, 2016
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
DECEMBER 10, 2015
11/10/16 AIM
a. 212. Visual Glideslope Indicators This change also updates the FAAs RVSM website
address.
Based on a request made at the Aeronautical Charting
Forum, the safe obstruction clearance provided by the f. 519. International Flight Plan (FAA Form
visual glide path of the precision approach path 72334)IFR Flights (For Domestic or
indicator is now 3.4 NM from the runway threshold, International Flights)
rather than 4 SM. The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) has replaced the designation of Minimum
b. 4113. Automatic Terminal Information
Navigation Performance Specification (MNPS) with
Service (ATIS)
the designation North Atlantic (NAT) High Level
This change updates the content and structure of Airspace (HLA), assigned to qualifier code X.
subparagraph b to reflect the current METAR format Airframes that currently have MNPS authorization
and to be in congruence with material in FAA Order will be allowed to operate in the NAT HLA under that
JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 213, authorization until 2020. All who wish to operate in
Content. the NAT HLA, who are not grandfathered in under
MNPS, will need an RNP 4 or RNP 10 approval. TBL
c. 4311. Pilot Responsibilities When 514, Aircraft COM, NAV, and Approach
Conducting Land and Hold Short Operations Equipment Qualifiers, is updated to provide the new
(LAHSO) definition for the qualifier code X.
FIG 437 has been updated to accurately reflect the g. 528. Instrument Departure Procedures
runway orientation. (DP)Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP)
and Standard Instrument Departures (SID)
d. 4412. Speed Adjustments
559. Speed Adjustments This change clarifies that air traffic control (ATC)
cannot modify crossing altitudes and/or speed
This change indicates that controllers are now restrictions on ODPs, as they are needed to ensure
allowed to use 5 knot increments when making speed obstacle avoidance.
adjustments.
h. 545. Instrument Approach Procedure
e. 461. Applicability and RVSM Mandate Charts
(Date/Time and Area) This change provides guidance to pilots regarding
463. Aircraft and Operator Approval what to expect from ATC when receiving assigned
Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and Data- altitudes below the terminal arrival area (TAA).
bases for Aircraft and Operator Approval
i. 546. Approach Clearance
465. Pilot RVSM Operating Practices and
Procedures This change adds Cancel Approach Clearance to
467. Guidance on Wake Turbulence inform the pilot that a previously issued approach
4610. Procedures for Accommodation of clearance is canceled. ATC will also include
NonRVSM Aircraft additional instructions if necessary.
This change reflects updated Reduced Vertical j. 5414. Parallel ILS Approaches
Separation Minimum (RVSM) policy and procedures (Dependent)
and supports changes to Advisory Circular 9185A, This change introduces the use of 1.5 NM radar
Authorization of Aircraft and Operators for Flight in separation diagonally on simultaneous dependent
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace. approaches when runway centerlines are separated by
more than 3,600 feet but no more than 8,300 feet. Flight Rule (VFR) Aeronautical Chart series and
There are no additional conditions or procedures introduces the new Alaska VFR Wall Planning Chart.
required when utilizing the 1.5 NM minimum Examples of these charts have been provided as well.
separation standard. The application of 1.5 NM
l. Pilot/Controller Glossary
diagonal minima ensures aircraft remain staggered on
adjacent approaches and reduces the risk of collision Terms have been added, deleted, or modified within
from aircraft inadvertently deviating from the final this glossary. Please refer to page PCG1 for more
approach course. details.
m. Entire publication.
k. 914. General Description of Each Chart
Series Editorial/format changes were made where neces-
sary. Revision bars were not used when changes are
This change describes the new Caribbean Visual insignificant in nature.
AIM Change 2
Page Control Chart
November 10, 2016
Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 5/26/16 Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 11/10/16
Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
1131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1131 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
1132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1132 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 127 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
352 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 352 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
418 through 4111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 418 through 4111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
4112 and 4113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4112 and 4113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
4114 and 4115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4114 and 4115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
4116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
4117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
4118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
4315 and 4316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 4315 and 4316 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
447 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 447 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
448 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 448 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
461 and 462 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 461 and 462 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
463 through 466 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 463 through 466 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
467 through 4611 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 467 through 4610 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 471 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 472 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
5121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
5122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
5211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 5211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
5212 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 5212 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
541 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 541 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
542 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 542 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
5415 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5415 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
5416 through 5425 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5416 through 5425 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
5426 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 5426 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
5437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
5438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 5438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
553 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 553 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
554 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 554 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
7111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16 7111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11/10/16
iv 11/10/16
v 11/10/16 Section 3. Airport Marking
vi 11/10/16 Aids and Signs
vii 11/10/16 231 12/10/15
viii 11/10/16 232 12/10/15
ix 11/10/16 233 12/10/15
x 11/10/16 Section 2. PerformanceBased 234 12/10/15
xi 11/10/16
Navigation (PBN) and Area 235 12/10/15
Navigation (RNAV) 236 12/10/15
121 12/10/15 237 12/10/15
122 12/10/15 238 12/10/15
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
123 12/10/15 239 12/10/15
Section 1. Navigation Aids 124 12/10/15 2310 12/10/15
111 5/26/16 125 12/10/15 2311 12/10/15
112 5/26/16 126 12/10/15 2312 12/10/15
113 5/26/16 127 11/10/16 2313 12/10/15
114 5/26/16 128 5/26/16 2314 12/10/15
115 12/10/15
2315 12/10/15
116 5/26/16
2316 12/10/15
117 12/10/15
2317 12/10/15
118 12/10/15
2318 12/10/15
119 12/10/15
2319 12/10/15
1110 12/10/15
2320 12/10/15
1111 12/10/15
2321 12/10/15
AERONAUTICAL
INFORMATION
MANUAL
Change 1
May 26, 2016
DO NOT DESTROY
BASIC DATED
DECEMBER 10, 2015
5/26/16 AIM
h. 438. Braking Action Reports and m. 541. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR)
Advisories Procedures
439. Runway Friction Reports and
Advisories This change adds language advising pilots what to
expect when vectored or cleared to deviate off of a
As a result of the Southwest Airlines runway overrun STAR. Pilots should consider the STAR cancelled. If
accident in December 2005, the FAA chartered the the clearance included crossing restrictions,
Takeoff and Landing Performance Assessment controllers will issue an altitude to maintain. It also
(TALPA) Work Group to develop a more accurate adds language advising pilots when to be prepared to
way of assessing and reporting runway conditions, resume the procedure. Since all clearances on STARS
standardize terminology, incorporate airplane will not include Descend Via clearances, the word
performance capability, and provide the pilot with will was replaced with may.
better information for landing distance assessment.
This change, to take effect on October 1, 2016, n. 546. Approach Clearance
updates language to better align with TALPA.
This change contains editorial revisions that account
i. 4322. Option Approach for changes made concerning RNAV (RNP)
approaches with radiustofix (RF) legs. In addition,
This changes adds verbiage advising pilots to inform due to comments received by industry stakeholders,
air traffic control (ATC) as soon as possible of any specific guidance concerning clearing aircraft to the
delay clearing the runway during their stopandgo fix beginning or within an RF leg was moved from a
or full stop landing. note to procedural direction, and corrected the
associated graphic. Content was added to convey to
j. 464. Flight Planning Into RVSM Airspace
controllers not to assign speeds in excess of charted
This change clarifies the filing procedures for speed restrictions at fixes and waypoints.
NonRVSM flight plans so that ATC will be properly
o. 547. Instrument Approach Procedures
alerted on their radar display.
k. 471. Introduction and Background This change adds a note to provide guidance to pilots
472. Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral regarding what to expect when clearances are issued
Separation Initiative Web Page: Policy, Proced- by ATC to altitudes below those published on IAPs.
ures and Guidance for Operators and Regulators p. 624. Emergency Locator Transmitter
475. Provisions for Accommodation of (ELT)
NonRNP10 Aircraft (Aircraft Not Authorized 631. Distress and Urgency Communica-
RNP 10 or RNP 4) tions
477. RNP 10 or RNP 4 Authorization:
Policy and Procedures for Aircraft and Operators This change deletes direction for aircraft to contact
478. Flight Planning Requirements the Flight Service Station during urgent situations
479. Pilot and Dispatcher Procedures: and allows pilots direct contact with Terminal Radar
Basic and InFlight Contingency Procedures Approach Controls or Air Route Traffic Control
Centers.
This change updates outdated material and removes
obsolete information. The content has also been q. 631. Distress and Urgency Communica-
rearranged to allow for better clarity where tions
appropriate.
This change reflects the U.S. Coast Guards
l. 528. Instrument Departure Procedures termination of its radio guard of the international
(DP) Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and voice distress, safety and calling frequency
Standard Instrument Departures (SID) 2182 kHz.
This change adds language advising pilots what to r. 7121. PIREPS Relating to Airframe Icing
expect when vectored or cleared to deviate off of an
SID. This change updates the definition of severe icing.
This change adds a new figure and a listing of Terms have been added, deleted, or modified within
Terminal Weather Information for Pilots System this glossary. Please refer to page PCG1 for more
(TWIP)equipped airports. details.
v. Entire publication.
t. 914. General Description of Each Chart
Series A global search and replace was conducted on the
term A/FD Airport Facility Directory. This term
FIG 911 has been updated to more fully describe is now being referred to as Chart Supplement U.S.
chart coverage and better identify the coverage and
availability of the Grand Canyon VFR Aeronautical Editorial/format changes were made where neces-
Chart. FIG 912 has also been updated to better sary. Revision bars were not used when changes are
depict chart coverage. insignificant in nature.
AIM Change 1
Page Control Chart
May 26, 2016
Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 12/10/15 Checklist of Pages CK1 through CK6 . . . . 5/26/16
Basic Flt Info & ATC Procedures . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 Basic Flt Info & ATC Procedures . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
Flight Info Publication Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 Flight Info Publication Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 Table of Contents i through xi . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
111 through 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 111 through 114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
1114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
1117 and 1118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 1117 and 1118 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
127 and 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 127 and 128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
212 and 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 212 and 213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 214 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
2113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 2113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
2114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 2114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
323 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 323 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 324 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
327 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 327 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
328 and 329 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 328 through 3210 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
351 through 355 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 351 through 355 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
356 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 356 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
411 through 417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 411 through 417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
418 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 418 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4111 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4112 and 4113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4112 and 4113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
4114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4114 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
4117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4117 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4118 through 4123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4118 through 4120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
425 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 425 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
426 and 427 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 426 and 427 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 428 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 433 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 434 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 437 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5/26/16
438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 438 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
4311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15 4311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12/10/15
iii 5/26/16
iv 5/26/16 Section 3. Airport Marking
v 5/26/16 Aids and Signs
vi 5/26/16 231 12/10/15
vii 5/26/16 232 12/10/15
viii 5/26/16 233 12/10/15
ix 5/26/16 Section 2. PerformanceBased 234 12/10/15
x 5/26/16
Navigation (PBN) and Area 235 12/10/15
Navigation (RNAV) 236 12/10/15
xi 5/26/16
121 12/10/15 237 12/10/15
122 12/10/15 238 12/10/15
123 12/10/15 239 12/10/15
Chapter 1. Air Navigation
124 12/10/15 2310 12/10/15
Section 1. Navigation Aids 125 12/10/15 2311 12/10/15
111 5/26/16 126 12/10/15 2312 12/10/15
112 5/26/16 127 5/26/16 2313 12/10/15
113 5/26/16 128 5/26/16 2314 12/10/15
114 5/26/16
2315 12/10/15
115 12/10/15
2316 12/10/15
116 5/26/16
2317 12/10/15
117 12/10/15
2318 12/10/15
118 12/10/15
2319 12/10/15
119 12/10/15
2320 12/10/15
1110 12/10/15
2321 12/10/15
1111 12/10/15
This change adds information to describe how the Safe Flight 21 is now part of the national Surveillance
Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS) is and Broadcast ServicesAutomatic Dependent
marked. It also clarifies guidance regarding taxiing SurveillanceBroadcast (SBS/ADSB) Program.
across the runway. Therefore, this change removes references to the Safe
Flight 21 program and updates its contact
c. 324. Class C Airspace information, including telephone numbers and
424. Aircraft Call Signs website URL information. The guidance that pilots
4310. Intersection Takeoffs report all malfunctions to flight service stations
4414. Visual Separation remains unchanged.
5511. Visual Approach
738. Pilot Responsibility g. 5117. Cold Temperature Operations
739. Air Traffic Wake Turbulence 554. Instrument Approach
Separations 555. Missed Approach
This change adds a new weight class designated as In response to aviation industry concerns over cold
Super and updates the associated guidance as weather effects on indicated altitudes versus that of an
appropriate. It also includes changes to wake aircrafts true altitude, the FAA completed a safety
turbulence separation behind B757 aircraft. study to determine if current 14 CFR Part 97
instrument approach procedures in the United States
d. 4120. Transponder Operation National Airspace System are at risk of compromised
required obstacle clearances during time of extreme
This change updates transponder and Automatic cold temperature. A safety risk management panel
Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) opera- (SRMP) was conducted on the impact to ATC
tional procedures while on the airport surface and operations, and a condition of the SRMP was to add
airborne. content to the Aeronautical Information Manual to
assist in a pilots awareness of the need to apply cold
e. 4319. Taxi During Low Visibility temperature correction. This change adds guidance
under preflight planning to account for Cold
This change updates the runway visual range (RVR) Temperature Correction. It also adds the provision
from 600 RVR to 500 RVR. It also changes Surface under pilot responsibilities that, during instrument
Movement Guidance and Control System (SMGCS) approaches, the pilot must advise ATC when there is
to Low Visibility Operations Surface Movement a need to apply cold temperature correction and, if so,
Guidance and Control System (LVOSMGCS). how much is being applied.
Subscription Information
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Subscription Information
12/10/15 AIM
Comments/Corrections
Proposed changes must be submitted electronically, using the following format, to the Air Traffic Procedures
Correspondence Mailbox at 9-AJV-8-HQ-Correspondence@faa.gov.
Notice to Editor
The following comments/corrections are submitted concerning the information contained in:
Paragraph number Title
Page Dated _________________
Name
Street
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Comments/Corrections
12/10/15 AIM
Comments/Corrections
Proposed changes must be submitted electronically, using the following format, to the Air Traffic Procedures
Correspondence Mailbox at 9-AJV-8-HQ-Correspondence@faa.gov.
Notice to Editor
The following comments/corrections are submitted concerning the information contained in:
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Comments/Corrections
4/27/17 AIM
The Federal Aviation Administration is responsible and the establishment, operation, and maintenance of
for insuring the safe, efficient, and secure use of the a civilmilitary common system of air traffic control
Nations airspace, by military as well as civil (ATC) and navigation facilities; research and
aviation, for promoting safety in air commerce, for development in support of the fostering of a national
encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, system of airports, promulgation of standards and
including new aviation technology, and for support- specifications for civil airports, and administration of
ing the requirements of national defense. Federal grantsinaid for developing public airports;
various joint and cooperative activities with the
The activities required to carry out these responsibili- Department of Defense; and technical assistance
ties include: safety regulations; airspace management (under State Department auspices) to other countries.
Publication Schedule
Cutoff Date Effective Date
Basic or Change
for Submission of Publication
Basic Manual 6/25/15 12/10/15
Change 1 12/10/15 5/26/16
Change 2 5/26/16 11/10/16
Change 3 11/10/16 4/27/17
Basic Manual 4/27/17 10/12/17
The following is in essence, the statement issued by c. The fact that the agency under one particular
the FAA Administrator and published in the situation or another may or may not furnish in-
December 10, 1964, issue of the Federal Register, formation does not serve as a precedent of the
concerning the FAA policy as pertaining to the type agencys responsibility to the aviation community;
of information that will be published as NOTAMs neither does it give assurance that other information
and in the Aeronautical Information Manual. of the same or similar nature will be advertised, nor,
does it guarantee that any and all information
a. It is a pilots inherent responsibility to be alert known to the agency will be advertised.
at all times for and in anticipation of all circum- d. This publication, while not regulatory, pro-
stances, situations, and conditions affecting the safe vides information which reflects examples of oper-
operation of the aircraft. For example, a pilot should ating techniques and procedures which may be re-
expect to find air traffic at any time or place. At or quirements in other federal publications or
near both civil and military airports and in the vicin- regulations. It is made available solely to assist pi-
ity of known training areas, a pilot should expect lots in executing their responsibilities required by
concentrated air traffic and realize concentrations other publications.
of air traffic are not limited to these places. Consistent with the foregoing, it is the policy of the
Federal Aviation Administration to furnish in-
b. It is the general practice of the agency to adver- formation only when, in the opinion of the agency,
tise by NOTAM or other flight information publica- a unique situation should be advertised and not to
tions such information it may deem appropriate; in- furnish routine information such as concentrations
formation which the agency may from time to time of air traffic, either civil or military. The
make available to pilots is solely for the purpose of Aeronautical Information Manual will not contain
assisting them in executing their regulatory respon- informative items concerning everyday circum-
sibilities. Such information serves the aviation stances that pilots should, either by good practices
community as a whole and not pilots individually. or regulation, expect to encounter or avoid.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents i
AIM 4/27/17
Paragraph Page
2-1-9.Pilot Control of Airport Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-11
2-1-10.Airport/Heliport Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-14
2-1-11.Taxiway Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1-15
Chapter 3.Airspace
Section 1.General
3-1-1.General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-2.General Dimensions of Airspace Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-3.Hierarchy of Overlapping Airspace Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-4.Basic VFR Weather Minimums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-1
3-1-5.VFR Cruising Altitudes and Flight Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1-2
ii Table of Contents
4/27/17 AIM
iv Table of Contents
4/27/17 AIM
Table of Contents v
AIM 4/27/17
vi Table of Contents
4/27/17 AIM
Paragraph Page
5-5-8.See and Avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-4
5-5-9.Speed Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-4
5-5-10.Traffic Advisories (Traffic Information) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-5
5-5-11.Visual Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-5
5-5-12.Visual Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-6
5-5-13.VFRontop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-6
5-5-14.Instrument Departures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-7
5-5-15.Minimum Fuel Advisory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-7
5-5-16.RNAV and RNP Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5-7
Paragraph Page
6-3-5.Fuel Dumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3-7
Section 1.Meteorology
7-1-1.National Weather Service Aviation Weather Service Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-1
7-1-2.FAA Weather Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-2
7-1-3.Use of Aviation Weather Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-2
7-1-4.Preflight Briefing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-5
7-1-5.Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-8
7-1-6.Categorical Outlooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-14
7-1-7.Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-15
7-1-8.Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) (Alaska Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-15
7-1-9.Inflight Weather Broadcasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-15
7-1-10.Flight Information Services (FIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-18
7-1-11.Weather Observing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-22
7-1-12.Weather Radar Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-30
7-1-13.ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-34
7-1-14.Runway Visual Range (RVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-36
7-1-15.Reporting of Cloud Heights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-38
7-1-16.Reporting Prevailing Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-38
7-1-17.Estimating Intensity of Rain and Ice Pellets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-38
7-1-18.Estimating Intensity of Snow or Drizzle (Based on Visibility) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-39
7-1-19.Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-39
7-1-20.PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-40
7-1-21.Definitions of Inflight Icing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-41
7-1-22.PIREPs Relating to Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-43
7-1-23.Wind Shear PIREPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-44
7-1-24.Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-44
7-1-25.Microbursts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-44
7-1-26.PIREPs Relating to Volcanic Ash Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-55
7-1-27.Thunderstorms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-55
7-1-28.Thunderstorm Flying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-56
7-1-29.Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather
Report (METAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1-58
7-1-30.International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Weather Formats . . . . . . . 7-1-60
Table of Contents ix
AIM 4/27/17
Section 4.Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and
Forests
7-4-1.Migratory Bird Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-2.Reducing Bird Strike Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-3.Reporting Bird Strikes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-4.Reporting Bird and Other Wildlife Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-1
7-4-5.Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other Wildlife Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4-2
7-4-6.Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas . 7-4-2
x Table of Contents
4/27/17 AIM
Table of Contents xi
AIM 4/27/17
Appendices
Paragraph Page
Appendix 1. Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1-1
Appendix 2. Volcanic Activity Reporting Form (VAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2-1
Appendix 3. Abbreviations/Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3-1
removed. Some VOR equipment decodes the during a GNSS disruption. For those aircraft that do
identifier and displays it to the pilot for verification not carry DME/DME, the FAA is retaining a limited
to charts, while other equipment simply displays the network of VORs, called the VOR MON, to provide
expected identifier from a database to aid in a basic conventional navigation service for operators
verification to the audio tones. You should be familiar to use if GNSS becomes unavailable. During a GNSS
with your equipment and use it appropriately. If your disruption, the MON will enable aircraft to navigate
equipment automatically decodes the identifier, it is through the affected area or to a safe landing at a
not necessary to listen to the audio identification. MON airport without reliance on GNSS. Navigation
using the MON will not be as efficient as the new
d. Voice identification has been added to numer-
PBN route structure, but use of the MON will provide
ous VORs. The transmission consists of a voice
nearly continuous VOR signal coverage at 5,000 feet
announcement, AIRVILLE VOR alternating with
AGL across the NAS, outside of the Western U.S.
the usual Morse Code identification.
Mountainous Area (WUSMA).
e. The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon NOTE
proper use and adjustment of both ground and There is no plan to change the NAVAID and route structure
airborne equipment. in the WUSMA.
1. Accuracy. The accuracy of course align- The VOR MON has been retained principally for IFR
ment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or aircraft that are not equipped with DME/DME
minus 1 degree. avionics. However, VFR aircraft may use the MON
as desired. Aircraft equipped with DME/DME
2. Roughness. On some VORs, minor course
navigation systems would, in most cases, use
roughness may be observed, evidenced by course
DME/DME to continue flight using RNAV to their
needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are
destination. However, these aircraft may, of course,
more susceptible to these irregularities than others).
use the MON.
At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the
pilot may occasionally observe a brief course needle 1. Distance to a MON airport. Within the
oscillation, similar to the indication of approaching contiguous United States (CONUS), the VOR MON
station. Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are is designed to ensure that an airport that has an
cautioned to be on the alert for these vagaries, and in instrument approach that is not dependent on GPS,
particular, to use the to/from indicator to determine ADF, DME or radar within 100 NM of any location.
positive station passage. These airports are referred to as MON airports and
will have an ILS approach or a VOR approach if an
(a) Certain propeller revolutions per minute ILS is not available. VORs to support these
(RPM) settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause approaches will be retained in the VOR MON. MON
the VOR Course Deviation Indicator to fluctuate as
airports are charted on lowaltitude en route charts
much as plus or minus six degrees. Slight changes to and are contained in the Chart Supplement U.S. and
the RPM setting will normally smooth out this
other appropriate publications.
roughness. Pilots are urged to check for this
modulation phenomenon prior to reporting a VOR NOTE
station or aircraft equipment for unsatisfactory Any suitable airport can be used to land in the event of a
VOR outage. For example, an airport with a DMEre-
operation.
quired ILS approach may be available and could be used
f. The VOR Minimum Operational Network by aircraft that are equipped with DME. The intent of the
(MON). As flight procedures and route structure MON airport is to provide an approach that can be used by
based on VORs are gradually being replaced with aircraft without ADF or DME when radar may not be
PerformanceBased Navigation (PBN) procedures, available.
the FAA is removing selected VORs from service. 2. Navigating to an airport. The VOR MON
PBN procedures are primarily enabled by GPS and its will retain sufficient VORs and increase VOR service
augmentation systems, collectively referred to as volume to ensure that pilots will have nearly
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Aircraft continuous signal reception of a VOR when flying at
that carry DME/DME equipment can also use RNAV 5,000 feet AGL. A key concept of the MON is to
which provides a backup to continue flying PBN ensure that an aircraft will always be within 100 NM
of an airport with an instrument approach that is not WAAS users flying under Part 91 are not required to
dependent on GPS. (See paragraph 118.) If the carry VOR avionics. These users do not have the
pilot encounters a GPS outage, the pilot will be able ability or requirement to use the VOR MON. Prudent
to proceed via VORtoVOR navigation at flight planning, by these WAASonly aircraft, should
5,000 feet AGL through the GPS outage area or to a consider the possibility of a GPS outage.
safe landing at a MON airport or another suitable NOTE
airport, as appropriate. Nearly all VORs inside of the The FAA recognizes that nonGPSbased approaches will
WUSMA and outside the CONUS are being retained. be reduced when VORs are eliminated, and that most
In these areas, pilots use the existing (Victor and Jet) airports with an instrument approach may only have GPS
route structure and VORs to proceed through a GPS or WAASbased approaches. Pilots flying GPS or
outage or to a landing. WAASequipped aircraft that also have VOR/ILS avionics
should be diligent to maintain proficiency in VOR and ILS
3. Using the VOR MON. approaches in the event of a GPS outage.
(a) In the case of a planned GPS outage (for
114. VOR Receiver Check
example, one that is in a published NOTAM), pilots
may plan to fly through the outage using the MON as a. The FAA VOR test facility (VOT) transmits a
appropriate and as cleared by ATC. Similarly, aircraft test signal which provides users a convenient means
not equipped with GPS may plan to fly and land using to determine the operational status and accuracy of a
the MON, as appropriate and as cleared by ATC. VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT is
NOTE located. The airborne use of VOT is permitted;
In many cases, flying using the MON may involve a more however, its use is strictly limited to those
circuitous route than flying GPSenabled RNAV. areas/altitudes specifically authorized in the Chart
Supplement U.S. or appropriate supplement.
(b) In the case of an unscheduled GPS outage,
pilots and ATC will need to coordinate the best b. To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT
outcome for all aircraft. It is possible that a GPS frequency on your VOR receiver. With the Course
outage could be disruptive, causing high workload Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered, the omnibear-
and demand for ATC service. Generally, the VOR ing selector should read 0 degrees with the to/from
MON concept will enable pilots to navigate through indication showing from or the omnibearing
the GPS outage or land at a MON airport or at another selector should read 180 degrees with the to/from
airport that may have an appropriate approach or may indication showing to. Should the VOR receiver
be in visual conditions. operate an RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator), it will
indicate 180 degrees on any omnibearing selector
(1) The VOR MON is a reversionary (OBS) setting. Two means of identification are used.
service provided by the FAA for use by aircraft that One is a series of dots and the other is a continuous
are unable to continue RNAV during a GPS tone. Information concerning an individual test signal
disruption. The FAA has not mandated that preflight can be obtained from the local FSS.
or inflight planning include provisions for GPS or
WAASequipped aircraft to carry sufficient fuel to c. Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most
proceed to a MON airport in case of an unforeseen important. If a receivers Automatic Gain Control or
GPS outage. Specifically, flying to a MON airport as modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to
a filed alternate will not be explicitly required. Of display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into
course, consideration for the possibility of a GPS the VOR or VOT and display outoftolerance
outage is prudent during flight planning as is readings when located at greater distances where
maintaining proficiency with VOR navigation. weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this
deterioration varies between receivers, and is
(2) Also, in case of a GPS outage, pilots generally considered a function of time. The best
may coordinate with ATC and elect to continue assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic
through the outage or land. The VOR MON is calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at
designed to ensure that an aircraft is within 100 NM which time an authorized repair facility should
of an airport, but pilots may decide to proceed to any recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturers
appropriate airport where a landing can be made. specifications.
incorporating more than one operating frequency, receiving equipment which provides for automatic
and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC DME selection assures reception of azimuth and
is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both distance information from a common source when
components of a VORTAC are envisioned as designated VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and
operating simultaneously and providing the three LOC/DME are selected.
services at all times. e. Due to the limited number of available
b. Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is
each identified by threeletter code transmission and required for certain military noncollocated VOR and
are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth with TACAN facilities which serve the same area but
TACAN distance can be assured that both signals which may be separated by distances up to a few
being received are definitely from the same ground miles.
station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the f. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/
TACAN at each VORTAC facility are paired in DME facilities are identified by synchronized
accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne identifications which are transmitted on a time share
operation. basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is
identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or
117. Distance Measuring Equipment a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or
(DME) DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at
1350 Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification
a. In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a is transmitted one time for each three or four times
specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is that the VOR or localizer coded identification is
the interrogation) and are received at the ground transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is
station. The ground station (transponder) then inoperative, it is important to recognize which
transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same identifier is retained for the operative facility. A
pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time single coded identification with a repetition interval
required for the round trip of this signal exchange is of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME
measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated is operative.
into distance (nautical miles) from the aircraft to the
ground station. g. Aircraft equipment which provides for auto-
matic DME selection assures reception of azimuth
b. Operating on the lineofsight principle, DME and distance information from a common source
furnishes distance information with a very high when designated VOR/DME, VORTAC and ILS/
degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received DME navigation facilities are selected. Pilots are
at distances up to 199 NM at lineofsight altitude cautioned to disregard any distance displays from
with an accuracy of better than 1/2 mile or 3 percent automatically selected DME equipment when VOR
of the distance, whichever is greater. Distance or ILS facilities, which do not have the DME feature
information received from DME equipment is installed, are being used for position determination.
SLANT RANGE distance and not actual horizontal
distance. 118. Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service
c. Operating frequency range of a DME according Volumes
to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz. a. Most air navigation radio aids which provide
Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will positive course guidance have a designated standard
receive distance information from a VORTAC service volume (SSV). The SSV defines the reception
automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR limits of unrestricted NAVAIDs which are usable for
must have a separate DME airborne unit. random/unpublished route navigation.
d. VOR/DME, VORTAC, Instrument Landing b. A NAVAID will be classified as restricted if it
System (ILS)/DME, and localizer (LOC)/DME does not conform to flight inspection signal strength
navigation facilities established by the FAA provide and course quality standards throughout the
course and distance information from collocated published SSV. However, the NAVAID should not be
components under a frequency pairing plan. Aircraft considered usable at altitudes below that which could
130 NM
TBL 111
VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes
SSV Class Designator Altitude and Range Boundaries
T (Terminal) . . . . . . . . From 1,000 feet above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000 feet AGL at radial distances out
to 25 NM.
L (Low Altitude) . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM.
H (High Altitude) . . . . From 1,000 feet AGL up to and including 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM. From
14,500 AGL up to and including 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM. From 18,000 feet AGL
up to and including 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM.
TBL 112
NDB Service Volumes
Class Distance (Radius)
Compass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
*Service ranges of individual facilities may be less than 50 nautical miles (NM). Restrictions to service
volumes are first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID in
the Chart Supplement U.S.
FIG 113
Standard Terminal Service Volume
(See FIG 114 for altitudes below 1,000 feet).
25 NM
12,000 ft.
1,000 ft.
FIG 114
Service Volume Lower Edge Terminal
1000
ALTITUDE IN FEET
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
FIG 115
Service Volume Lower Edge
Standard High and Low
1000
ALTITUDE IN FEET
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM
119. Instrument Landing System (ILS) 3. The system may be divided functionally into
three parts:
a. General (a) Guidance information: localizer, glide
slope;
1. The ILS is designed to provide an approach
path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on (b) Range information: marker beacon,
final approach to a runway. DME; and
(c) Visual information: approach lights,
2. The ground equipment consists of two highly
touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights.
directional transmitting systems and, along the
approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The 4. Precision radar, or compass locators located
directional transmitters are known as the localizer at the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM),
and glide slope transmitters. may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when
specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the (a) To 10 degrees either side of the course
OM. along a radius of 18 NM from the antenna; and
5. Where a complete ILS system is installed on (b) From 10 to 35 degrees either side of the
each end of a runway; (i.e., the approach end of course along a radius of 10 NM. (See FIG 116.)
Runway 4 and the approach end of Runway 22) the FIG 116
ILS systems are not in service simultaneously. Limits of Localizer Coverage
b. Localizer
35
1. The localizer transmitter operates on one of
40 ILS channels within the frequency range of 10
108.10 to 111.95 MHz. Signals provide the pilot with
course guidance to the runway centerline.
0 NM
8 NM
RUNWAY
110
118
2. The approach course of the localizer is called LOCALIZER
ANTENNA
parts, e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The NORMAL LIMITS OF LOCALIZER
localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the 35
COVERAGE: THE SAME AREA
APPLIES TO A BACK COURSE
runway. It is adjusted for a course width of (full scale WHEN PROVIDED.
d. Glide Slope/Glide Path actual glide path oncourse indication above the
runway threshold. It is used as a reference for
1. The UHF glide slope transmitter, operating
planning purposes which represents the height above
on one of the 40 ILS channels within the frequency
the runway threshold that an aircrafts glide slope
range 329.15 MHz, to 335.00 MHz radiates its signals
antenna should be, if that aircraft remains on a
in the direction of the localizer front course. The term
trajectory formed by the fourmiletomiddle
glide path means that portion of the glide slope that
marker glidepath segment.
intersects the localizer.
7. Pilots must be aware of the vertical height
CAUTION
False glide slope signals may exist in the area of the
between the aircrafts glide slope antenna and the
localizer back course approach which can cause the glide main gear in the landing configuration and, at the DH,
slope flag alarm to disappear and present unreliable glide plan to adjust the descent angle accordingly if the
slope information. Disregard all glide slope signal published TCH indicates the wheel crossing height
indications when making a localizer back course over the runway threshold may not be satisfactory.
approach unless a glide slope is specified on the approach Tests indicate a comfortable wheel crossing height is
and landing chart. approximately 20 to 30 feet, depending on the type of
aircraft.
2. The glide slope transmitter is located between
750 feet and 1,250 feet from the approach end of the NOTE
runway (down the runway) and offset 250 to 650 feet The TCH for a runway is established based on several
factors including the largest aircraft category that
from the runway centerline. It transmits a glide path
normally uses the runway, how airport layout affects the
beam 1.4 degrees wide (vertically). The signal glide slope antenna placement, and terrain. A higher than
provides descent information for navigation down to optimum TCH, with the same glide path angle, may cause
the lowest authorized decision height (DH) specified the aircraft to touch down further from the threshold if the
in the approved ILS approach procedure. The trajectory of the approach is maintained until the flare.
glidepath may not be suitable for navigation below Pilots should consider the effect of a high TCH on the
the lowest authorized DH and any reference to runway available for stopping the aircraft.
glidepath indications below that height must be e. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
supplemented by visual reference to the runway
environment. Glidepaths with no published DH are 1. When installed with the ILS and specified in
usable to runway threshold. the approach procedure, DME may be used:
(a) In lieu of the OM;
3. The glide path projection angle is normally
adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it (b) As a back course (BC) final approach fix
intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at (FAF); and
about 1,400 feet above the runway elevation. The (c) To establish other fixes on the localizer
glide slope is normally usable to the distance of course.
10 NM. However, at some locations, the glide slope
has been certified for an extended service volume 2. In some cases, DME from a separate facility
which exceeds 10 NM. may be used within Terminal Instrument Procedures
(TERPS) limitations:
4. Pilots must be alert when approaching the
glidepath interception. False courses and reverse (a) To provide ARC initial approach seg-
sensing will occur at angles considerably greater than ments;
the published path. (b) As a FAF for BC approaches; and
5. Make every effort to remain on the indicated (c) As a substitute for the OM.
glide path. f. Marker Beacon
CAUTION 1. ILS marker beacons have a rated power
Avoid flying below the glide path to assure output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array
obstacle/terrain clearance is maintained.
designed to produce an elliptical pattern with
6. The published glide slope threshold crossing dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the antenna, of
height (TCH) DOES NOT represent the height of the approximately 2,400 feet in width and 4,200 feet in
length. Airborne marker beacon receivers with a the middle locator transmits the last two letters of the
selective sensitivity feature should always be localizer identification group.
operated in the low sensitivity position for proper
h. ILS Frequency (See TBL 114.)
reception of ILS marker beacons.
2. Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons TBL 114
associated with an ILS, the OM and MM. Locations Frequency Pairs Allocated for ILS
with a Category II ILS also have an Inner Localizer MHz Glide Slope
Marker (IM). When an aircraft passes over a marker, 108.10 334.70
the pilot will receive the indications shown in 108.15 334.55
TBL 113. 108.3 334.10
108.35 333.95
(a) The OM normally indicates a position at
108.5 329.90
which an aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the
108.55 329.75
localizer course will intercept the ILS glide path.
108.7 330.50
(b) The MM indicates a position approxi- 108.75 330.35
mately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold. This is 108.9 329.30
also the position where an aircraft on the glide path 108.95 329.15
will be at an altitude of approximately 200 feet above 109.1 331.40
the elevation of the touchdown zone. 109.15 331.25
109.3 332.00
(c) The IM will indicate a point at which an
109.35 331.85
aircraft is at a designated decision height (DH) on the
109.50 332.60
glide path between the MM and landing threshold.
109.55 332.45
TBL 113 109.70 333.20
Marker Passage Indications 109.75 333.05
109.90 333.80
Marker Code Light
109.95 333.65
OM BLUE 110.1 334.40
MM AMBER 110.15 334.25
IM WHITE 110.3 335.00
BC WHITE 110.35 334.85
110.5 329.60
3. A back course marker normally indicates the 110.55 329.45
ILS back course final approach fix where approach Localizer MHz Glide Slope
descent is commenced. 110.70 330.20
g. Compass Locator 110.75 330.05
110.90 330.80
1. Compass locator transmitters are often 110.95 330.65
situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters 111.10 331.70
have a power of less than 25 watts, a range of at least 111.15 331.55
15 miles and operate between 190 and 535 kHz. At 111.30 332.30
some locations, higher powered radio beacons, up to 111.35 332.15
400 watts, are used as OM compass locators. These 111.50 332.9
generally carry Transcribed Weather Broadcast 111.55 332.75
(TWEB) information. 111.70 333.5
2. Compass locators transmit two letter identi- 111.75 333.35
fication groups. The outer locator transmits the first 111.90 331.1
two letters of the localizer identification group, and 111.95 330.95
4. Pilots are cautioned that vehicular traffic not c. The approach techniques and procedures used
subject to ATC may cause momentary deviation to in an SDF instrument approach are essentially the
ILS course or glide slope signals. Also, critical areas same as those employed in executing a standard
are not protected at uncontrolled airports or at airports localizer approach except the SDF course may not be
with an operating control tower when weather or aligned with the runway and the course may be wider,
visibility conditions are above those requiring resulting in less precision.
protective measures. Aircraft conducting coupled or
d. Usable offcourse indications are limited to
autoland operations should be especially alert in
35 degrees either side of the course centerline.
monitoring automatic flight control systems.
Instrument indications received beyond 35 degrees
(See FIG 117.)
should be disregarded.
NOTE e. The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway
Unless otherwise coordinated through Flight Standards,
centerline. Because of this, the angle of convergence
ILS signals to Category I runways are not flight inspected
below the point that is 100 feet less than the decision
between the final approach course and the runway
altitude (DA). Guidance signal anomalies may be bearing should be determined by reference to the
encountered below this altitude. instrument approach procedure chart. This angle is
generally not more than 3 degrees. However, it should
be noted that inasmuch as the approach course
1110. Simplified Directional Facility originates at the antenna site, an approach which is
(SDF) continued beyond the runway threshold will lead the
aircraft to the SDF offset position rather than along
a. The SDF provides a final approach course the runway centerline.
similar to that of the ILS localizer. It does not provide f. The SDF signal is fixed at either 6 degrees or
glide slope information. A clear understanding of the 12 degrees as necessary to provide maximum
ILS localizer and the additional factors listed below flyability and optimum course quality.
completely describe the operational characteristics
and use of the SDF. g. Identification consists of a threeletter identifi-
er transmitted in Morse Code on the SDF frequency.
b. The SDF transmits signals within the range of The appropriate instrument approach chart will
108.10 to 111.95 MHz. indicate the identifier used at a particular airport.
FIG 117
FAA Instrument Landing Systems
1111. NAVAID Identifier Removal During detection by the ground monitors. Some of the
Maintenance characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating
performance which should be reported are: erratic
During periods of routine or emergency maintenance, course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full,
coded identification (or code and voice, where flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper
applicable) is removed from certain FAA NAVAIDs. coded identification; poor quality communications
Removal of identification serves as a warning to reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an
pilots that the facility is officially off the air for audible hum or tone accompanying radio communi-
tuneup or repair and may be unreliable even though cations or NAVAID identification. GNSS problems
intermittent or constant signals are received. are often characterized by navigation degradation or
NOTE service loss indications. For instance, pilots conduct-
During periods of maintenance VHF ranges may radiate ing operations in areas where there is GNSS
a TEST code (- D DDD -). interference may be unable to use GPS for navigation,
NOTE and ADSB may be unavailable for surveillance.
DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out Radio frequency interference may affect both
of service even if the identification is present. In certain navigation for the pilot and surveillance by the air
cases, the identification may be transmitted for short traffic controller. Depending on the equipment and
periods as part of the testing. integration, either an advisory light or message may
alert the pilot. Air traffic controllers monitoring
1112. NAVAIDs with Voice ADSB reports may stop receiving ADSB position
messages and associated aircraft tracks.
a. Voice equipped en route radio navigational aids
are under the operational control of either a Flight In addition, malfunctioning, faulty, inappropriately
Service Station (FSS) or an approach control facility. installed, operated, or modified GPS reradiator
The voice communication is available on some systems, intended to be used for aircraft maintenance
facilities. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory activities, have resulted in unintentional disruption
Service (HIWAS) broadcast capability is available on of aviation GNSS receivers. This type of disruption
selected VOR sites throughout the conterminous U.S. could result in unflagged, erroneous position
and does not provide two-way voice communication. information output to primary flight displays/indica-
The availability of two-way voice communication tors and to other aircraft and air traffic control
and HIWAS is indicated in the Chart Supplement systems. Since receiver autonomous integrity
U.S. and aeronautical charts. monitoring (RAIM) is only partially effective against
b. Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio this type of disruption (effectively a signal
navigation aids operate continuously except during spoofing), the pilot may not be aware of any
shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of erroneous navigation indications; ATC may be the
facilities not operating continuously are annotated on only means available for identification of these
charts and in the Chart Supplement U.S. disruptions and detect unexpected aircraft position
while monitoring aircraft for IFR separation.
2. By telephone to the nearest ATC facility weather radar and autopilot, but do not directly
controlling the airspace where the disruption was compute position information.
experienced. d. Aircraft equipped with slaved compass systems
3. Additionally, GNSS problems may be may be susceptible to heading errors caused by
reported by Internet via the GPS Anomaly Reporting exposure to magnetic field disturbances (flux fields)
Form at http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/nas/ found in materials that are commonly located on the
gps_reports/. surface or buried under taxiways and ramps. These
materials generate a magnetic flux field that can be
c. In aircraft equipped with more than one avionics sensed by the aircrafts compass system flux detector
receiver, there are many combinations of potential or gate, which can cause the aircrafts system to
interference between units that could cause align with the materials magnetic field rather than
erroneous navigation indications, or complete or the earths natural magnetic field. The systems
partial blanking out of the display. erroneous heading may not self-correct. Prior to take
NOTE off pilots should be aware that a heading
GPS interference or outages associated with known misalignment may have occurred during taxi. Pilots
testing NOTAMs should not be reported to ATC. are encouraged to follow the manufacturers or other
appropriate procedures to correct possible heading
1114. LORAN misalignment before take off is commenced.
part of the data message embedded in the GPS signal. baroaiding. This allows the GPS receiver to isolate
The GPS coordinate system is the Cartesian the corrupt satellite signal, remove it from the
earthcentered, earthfixed coordinates as specified position solution, and still provide an integrity-as-
in the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). sured position. To ensure that baroaiding is
available, enter the current altimeter setting into the
2. System Availability and Reliability. receiver as described in the operating manual. Do not
(a) The status of GPS satellites is broadcast as use the GPS derived altitude due to the large GPS
part of the data message transmitted by the GPS vertical errors that will make the integrity monitoring
satellites. GPS status information is also available by function invalid.
means of the U.S. Coast Guard navigation (b) There are generally two types of RAIM
information service: (703) 3135907, Internet: fault messages. The first type of message indicates
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/. Additionally, satel- that there are not enough satellites available to
lite status is available through the Notice to Airmen provide RAIM integrity monitoring. The GPS
(NOTAM) system. navigation solution may be acceptable, but the
(b) GNSS operational status depends on the integrity of the solution cannot be determined. The
second type indicates that the RAIM integrity
type of equipment being used. For GPSonly
equipment TSOC129 or TSO-C196(), the opera- monitor has detected a potential error and that there
tional status of nonprecision approach capability for is an inconsistency in the navigation solution for the
given phase of flight. Without RAIM capability, the
flight planning purposes is provided through a
prediction program that is embedded in the receiver pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS
or provided separately. position.
4. Selective Availability. Selective Availability
3. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (SA) is a method by which the accuracy of GPS is
(RAIM). RAIM is the capability of a GPS receiver to intentionally degraded. This feature was designed to
perform integrity monitoring on itself by ensuring deny hostile use of precise GPS positioning data. SA
available satellite signals meet the integrity require- was discontinued on May 1, 2000, but many GPS
ments for a given phase of flight. Without RAIM, the receivers are designed to assume that SA is still
pilot has no assurance of the GPS position integrity. active. New receivers may take advantage of the
RAIM provides immediate feedback to the pilot. This discontinuance of SA based on the performance
fault detection is critical for performance-based values in ICAO Annex 10.
navigation (PBN)(see Paragraph 121, Perform-
anceBased Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation b. Operational Use of GPS. U.S. civil operators
(RNAV), for an introduction to PBN), because delays may use approved GPS equipment in oceanic
of up to two hours can occur before an erroneous airspace, certain remote areas, the National Airspace
satellite transmission is detected and corrected by the System and other States as authorized (please consult
satellite control segment. the applicable Aeronautical Information Publica-
tion). Equipage other than GPS may be required for
(a) In order for RAIM to determine if a the desired operation. GPS navigation is used for both
satellite is providing corrupted information, at least Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight
one satellite, in addition to those required for Rules (IFR) operations.
navigation, must be in view for the receiver to
perform the RAIM function. RAIM requires a 1. VFR Operations
minimum of 5 satellites, or 4 satellites and barometric (a) GPS navigation has become an asset to
altimeter input (baroaiding), to detect an integrity VFR pilots by providing increased navigational
anomaly. Baroaiding is a method of augmenting the capabilities and enhanced situational awareness.
GPS integrity solution by using a non-satellite input Although GPS has provided many benefits to the
source in lieu of the fifth satellite. Some GPS VFR pilot, care must be exercised to ensure that
receivers also have a RAIM capability, called fault system capabilities are not exceeded. VFR pilots
detection and exclusion (FDE), that excludes a failed should integrate GPS navigation with electronic
satellite from the position solution; GPS receivers navigation (when possible), as well as pilotage and
capable of FDE require 6 satellites or 5 satellites with dead reckoning.
(b) GPS receivers used for VFR navigation may occur due to aircraft structure blocking satellite
vary from fully integrated IFR/VFR installation used signals, causing a loss of navigation capability. These
to support VFR operations to handheld devices. losses, coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could
Pilots must understand the limitations of the receivers present erroneous position and navigation informa-
prior to using in flight to avoid misusing navigation tion with no warning to the pilot. While the use of a
information. (See TBL 116.) Most receivers are handheld GPS for VFR operations is not limited by
not intuitive. The pilot must learn the various regulation, modification of the aircraft, such as
keystrokes, knob functions, and displays that are installing a panel or yokemounted holder, is
used in the operation of the receiver. Some governed by 14 CFR Part 43. Consult with your
manufacturers provide computerbased tutorials or mechanic to ensure compliance with the regulation
simulations of their receivers that pilots can use to and safe installation.
become familiar with operating the equipment. (d) Do not solely rely on GPS for VFR
(c) When using GPS for VFR operations, navigation. No design standard of accuracy or
RAIM capability, database currency, and antenna integrity is used for a VFR GPS receiver. VFR GPS
location are critical areas of concern. receivers should be used in conjunction with other
forms of navigation during VFR operations to ensure
(1) RAIM Capability. VFR GPS panel a correct route of flight is maintained. Minimize
mount receivers and handheld units have no RAIM headdown time in the aircraft by being familiar with
alerting capability. This prevents the pilot from being your GPS receivers operation and by keeping eyes
alerted to the loss of the required number of satellites outside scanning for traffic, terrain, and obstacles.
in view, or the detection of a position error. Pilots
(e) VFR Waypoints
should use a systematic crosscheck with other
navigation techniques to verify position. Be (1) VFR waypoints provide VFR pilots
suspicious of the GPS position if a disagreement with a supplementary tool to assist with position
exists between the two positions. awareness while navigating visually in aircraft
equipped with area navigation receivers. VFR
(2) Database Currency. Check the curren- waypoints should be used as a tool to supplement
cy of the database. Databases must be updated for current navigation procedures. The uses of VFR
IFR operations and should be updated for all other waypoints include providing navigational aids for
operations. However, there is no requirement for pilots unfamiliar with an area, waypoint definition of
databases to be updated for VFR navigation. It is not existing reporting points, enhanced navigation in and
recommended to use a moving map with an outdated around Class B and Class C airspace, and enhanced
database in and around critical airspace. Pilots using navigation around Special Use Airspace. VFR pilots
an outdated database should verify waypoints using should rely on appropriate and current aeronautical
current aeronautical products; for example, Chart charts published specifically for visual navigation. If
Supplement U.S., Sectional Chart, or En Route operating in a terminal area, pilots should take
Chart. advantage of the Terminal Area Chart available for
(3) Antenna Location. The antenna loca- that area, if published. The use of VFR waypoints
tion for GPS receivers used for IFR and VFR does not relieve the pilot of any responsibility to
operations may differ. VFR antennae are typically comply with the operational requirements of 14 CFR
placed for convenience more than performance, Part 91.
while IFR installations ensure a clear view is (2) VFR waypoint names (for computer
provided with the satellites. Antennae not providing entry and flight plans) consist of five letters
a clear view have a greater opportunity to lose the beginning with the letters VP and are retrievable
satellite navigational signal. This is especially true from navigation databases. The VFR waypoint
in the case of handheld GPS receivers. Typically, names are not intended to be pronounceable, and they
suction cups are used to place the GPS antennas on are not for use in ATC communications. On VFR
the inside of cockpit windows. While this method has charts, standalone VFR waypoints will be portrayed
great utility, the antenna location is limited to the using the same fourpoint star symbol used for IFR
cockpit or cabin which rarely provides a clear view waypoints. VFR waypoints collocated with visual
of all available satellites. Consequently, signal losses check points on the chart will be identified by small
magenta flag symbols. VFR waypoints collocated GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation,
with visual check points will be pronounceable based instrument approaches, or as a principal instrument
on the name of the visual check point and may be used flight reference.
for ATC communications. Each VFR waypoint name
will appear in parentheses adjacent to the geographic (2) Aircraft using un-augmented GPS
location on the chart. Latitude/longitude data for all (TSO-C129() or TSO-C196()) for navigation under
established VFR waypoints may be found in the IFR must be equipped with an alternate approved and
appropriate regional Chart Supplement U.S. operational means of navigation suitable for
navigating the proposed route of flight. (Examples of
(3) VFR waypoints may not be used on IFR alternate navigation equipment include VOR or
flight plans. VFR waypoints are not recognized by the DME/DME/IRU capability). Active monitoring of
IFR system and will be rejected for IFR routing alternative navigation equipment is not required
purposes. when RAIM is available for integrity monitoring.
Active monitoring of an alternate means of
(4) Pilots may use the fiveletter identifier
navigation is required when the GPS RAIM
as a waypoint in the route of flight section on a VFR
capability is lost.
flight plan. Pilots may use the VFR waypoints only
when operating under VFR conditions. The point (3) Procedures must be established for use
may represent an intended course change or describe in the event that the loss of RAIM capability is
the planned route of flight. This VFR filing would be predicted to occur. In situations where RAIM is
similar to how a VOR would be used in a route of predicted to be unavailable, the flight must rely on
flight. other approved navigation equipment, re-route to
where RAIM is available, delay departure, or cancel
(5) VFR waypoints intended for use during
the flight.
flight should be loaded into the receiver while on the
ground. Once airborne, pilots should avoid program- (4) The GPS operation must be conducted
ming routes or VFR waypoint chains into their in accordance with the FAAapproved aircraft flight
receivers. manual (AFM) or flight manual supplement. Flight
crew members must be thoroughly familiar with the
(6) Pilots should be vigilant to see and
particular GPS equipment installed in the aircraft, the
avoid other traffic when near VFR waypoints. With
receiver operation manual, and the AFM or flight
the increased use of GPS navigation and accuracy,
manual supplement. Operation, receiver presenta-
expect increased traffic near VFR waypoints.
tion and capabilities of GPS equipment vary. Due to
Regardless of the class of airspace, monitor the
these differences, operation of GPS receivers of
available ATC frequency for traffic information on
different brands, or even models of the same brand,
other aircraft operating in the vicinity. See Paragraph
under IFR should not be attempted without thorough
752, VFR in Congested Areas, for more
operational knowledge. Most receivers have a
information.
builtin simulator mode, which allows the pilot to
2. IFR Use of GPS become familiar with operation prior to attempting
operation in the aircraft.
(a) General Requirements. Authorization
to conduct any GPS operation under IFR requires: (5) Aircraft navigating by IFRapproved
GPS are considered to be performancebased
(1) GPS navigation equipment used for IFR navigation (PBN) aircraft and have special equip-
operations must be approved in accordance with the ment suffixes. File the appropriate equipment suffix
requirements specified in Technical Standard Order in accordance with TBL 513 on the ATC flight
(TSO) TSOC129(), TSOC196(), TSOC145(), or plan. If GPS avionics become inoperative, the pilot
TSOC146(), and the installation must be done in should advise ATC and amend the equipment suffix.
accordance with Advisory Circular AC 20138(),
Airworthiness Approval of Positioning and Naviga- (6) Prior to any GPS IFR operation, the
tion Systems. Equipment approved in accordance pilot must review appropriate NOTAMs and
with TSOC115a does not meet the requirements of aeronautical information. (See GPS NOTAMs/Aero-
TSOC129. Visual flight rules (VFR) and handheld nautical Information).
(b) Database Requirements. The onboard orientation to each other is as found on the procedure
navigation data must be current and appropriate for chart, both laterally and vertically.
the region of intended operation and should include NOTE
the navigation aids, waypoints, and relevant coded There is no specific requirement to check each waypoint
terminal airspace procedures for the departure, latitude and longitude, type of waypoint and/or altitude
arrival, and alternate airfields. constraint, only the general relationship of waypoints in
the procedure, or the logic of an individual waypoints
(1) Further database guidance for terminal location.
and en route requirements may be found in AC
[3] If the cursory check of procedure
90-100(), U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
logic or individual waypoint location, specified in [b]
Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
above, indicates a potential error, do not use the
(2) Further database guidance on Required retrieved procedure or waypoint until a verification of
Navigation Performance (RNP) instrument approach latitude and longitude, waypoint type, and altitude
operations, RNP terminal, and RNP en route constraints indicate full conformity with the
requirements may be found in AC 90-105(), Approval published data.
Guidance for RNP Operations and Barometric (5) Air carrier and commercial operators
Vertical Navigation in the U.S. National Airspace must meet the appropriate provisions of their
System. approved operations specifications.
(3) All approach procedures to be flown [a] During domestic operations for com-
must be retrievable from the current airborne merce or for hire, operators must have a second
navigation database supplied by the equipment navigation system capable of reversion or contin-
manufacturer or other FAAapproved source. The gency operations.
system must be able to retrieve the procedure by name
from the aircraft navigation database, not just as a [b] Operators must have two independ-
manually entered series of waypoints. Manual entry ent navigation systems appropriate to the route to be
of waypoints using latitude/longitude or place/bear- flown, or one system that is suitable and a second,
ing is not permitted for approach procedures. independent backup capability that allows the
operator to proceed safely and land at a different
(4) Prior to using a procedure or waypoint airport, and the aircraft must have sufficient fuel
retrieved from the airborne navigation database, the (reference 14 CFR 121.349, 125.203, 129.17, and
pilot should verify the validity of the database. This 135.165). These rules ensure the safety of the
verification should include the following preflight operation by preventing a single point of failure.
and inflight steps: NOTE
[a] Preflight: An aircraft approved for multi-sensor navigation and
equipped with a single navigation system must maintain an
[1] Determine the date of database ability to navigate or proceed safely in the event that any
issuance, and verify that the date/time of proposed one component of the navigation system fails, including the
use is before the expiration date/time. flight management system (FMS). Retaining a FMS-inde-
pendent VOR capability would satisfy this requirement.
[2] Verify that the database provider
[c] The requirements for a second
has not published a notice limiting the use of the
system apply to the entire set of equipment needed to
specific waypoint or procedure.
achieve the navigation capability, not just the
[b] Inflight: individual components of the system such as the radio
navigation receiver. For example, to use two RNAV
[1] Determine that the waypoints
systems (e.g., GPS and DME/DME/IRU) to comply
and transition names coincide with names found on
with the requirements, the aircraft must be equipped
the procedure chart. Do not use waypoints which do
with two independent radio navigation receivers and
not exactly match the spelling shown on published
two independent navigation computers (e.g., flight
procedure charts.
management systems (FMS)). Alternatively, to
[2] Determine that the waypoints are comply with the requirements using a single RNAV
logical in location, in the correct order, and their system with an installed and operable VOR
capability, the VOR capability must be independent mentation system (WAAS) system is installed and
of the FMS. operating. WAAS is the U.S. version of a
satellite-based augmentation system (SBAS).
[d] To satisfy the requirement for two
independent navigation systems, if the primary [a] In Alaska, aircraft may operate on
navigation system is GPSbased, the second system GNSS Q-routes with GPS (TSO-C129 () or
must be independent of GPS (for example, VOR or TSO-C196 ()) equipment while the aircraft remains
DME/DME/IRU). This allows continued navigation in Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar surveillance or
in case of failure of the GPS or WAAS services. with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 () or TSO-C146 ())
Recognizing that GPS interference and test events which does not require ATC radar surveillance.
resulting in the loss of GPS services have become [b] In Alaska, aircraft may only operate
more common, the FAA requires operators conduct- on GNSS T-routes with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 () or
ing IFR operations under 14 CFR 121.349, 125.203, TSO-C146 ()) equipment.
129.17 and 135.65 to retain a non-GPS navigation
capability consisting of either DME/DME, IRU, or (2) Groundbased navigation equipment
VOR for en route and terminal operations, and VOR is not required to be installed and operating for en
and ILS for final approach. Since this system is to be route IFR operations when using GPS/WAAS
used as a reversionary capability, single equipage is navigation systems. All operators should ensure that
sufficient. an alternate means of navigation is available in the
unlikely event the GPS/WAAS navigation system
3. Oceanic, Domestic, En Route, and becomes inoperative.
Terminal Area Operations
(3) Q-routes and T-routes outside Alaska.
(a) Conduct GPS IFR operations in oceanic Q-routes require system performance currently met
areas only when approved avionics systems are by GPS, GPS/WAAS, or DME/DME/IRU RNAV
installed. TSOC196() users and TSOC129() GPS systems that satisfy the criteria discussed in AC
users authorized for Class A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, or C2 90100(), U.S. Terminal and En Route Area
operations may use GPS in place of another approved Navigation (RNAV) Operations. T-routes require
means of longrange navigation, such as dual INS. GPS or GPS/WAAS equipment.
(See TBL 115 and TBL 116.) Aircraft with a REFERENCE
single installation GPS, meeting the above specifica- AIM, Paragraph 534 , Airways and Route Systems
tions, are authorized to operate on short oceanic (c) GPS IFR approach/departure operations
routes requiring one means of longrange navigation can be conducted when approved avionics systems
(reference AC 20-138(), Appendix 1). are installed and the following requirements are met:
(b) Conduct GPS domestic, en route, and (1) The aircraft is TSOC145() or TSO
terminal IFR operations only when approved C146() or TSOC196() or TSOC129() in Class A1,
avionics systems are installed. Pilots may use GPS B1, B3, C1, or C3; and
via TSOC129() authorized for Class A1, B1, B3,
C1, or C3 operations GPS via TSO-C196(); or (2) The approach/departure must be re-
GPS/WAAS with either TSO-C145() or trievable from the current airborne navigation
TSO-C146(). When using TSO-C129() or database in the navigation computer. The system
TSO-C196() receivers, the avionics necessary to must be able to retrieve the procedure by name from
receive all of the groundbased facilities appropriate the aircraft navigation database. Manual entry of
for the route to the destination airport and any waypoints using latitude/longitude or place/bearing
required alternate airport must be installed and is not permitted for approach procedures.
operational. Groundbased facilities necessary for (3) The authorization to fly instrument
these routes must be operational. approaches/departures with GPS is limited to U.S.
airspace.
(1) GPS en route IFR operations may be
conducted in Alaska outside the operational service (4) The use of GPS in any other airspace
volume of groundbased navigation aids when a must be expressly authorized by the FAA Adminis-
TSOC145() or TSOC146() GPS/wide area aug- trator.
(5) GPS instrument approach/departure approaches. Overlay approach criteria is based on the
operations outside the U.S. must be authorized by design criteria used for groundbased NAVAID ap-
the appropriate sovereign authority. proaches.
(b) Standalone approach procedures spe-
4. Departures and Instrument Departure
cifically designed for GPS systems have replaced
Procedures (DPs)
many of the original overlay approaches. All
The GPS receiver must be set to terminal (1 NM) approaches that contain GPS in the title (e.g.,
CDI sensitivity and the navigation routes contained in VOR or GPS RWY 24, GPS RWY 24, or
the database in order to fly published IFR charted RNAV (GPS) RWY 24) can be flown using GPS.
departures and DPs. Terminal RAIM should be GPSequipped aircraft do not need underlying
automatically provided by the receiver. (Terminal groundbased NAVAIDs or associated aircraft
RAIM for departure may not be available unless the avionics to fly the approach. Monitoring the
waypoints are part of the active flight plan rather than underlying approach with groundbased NAVAIDs is
proceeding direct to the first destination.) Certain suggested when able. Existing overlay approaches
segments of a DP may require some manual may be requested using the GPS title; for example,
intervention by the pilot, especially when radar the VOR or GPS RWY 24 may be requested as GPS
vectored to a course or required to intercept a specific RWY 24. Some GPS procedures have a Terminal
course to a waypoint. The database may not contain Arrival Area (TAA) with an underlining RNAV
all of the transitions or departures from all runways approach.
and some GPS receivers do not contain DPs in the (c) For flight planning purposes,
database. It is necessary that helicopter procedures be TSO-C129() and TSO-C196()equipped users
flown at 70 knots or less since helicopter departure (GPS users) whose navigation systems have fault
procedures and missed approaches use a 20:1 detection and exclusion (FDE) capability, who
obstacle clearance surface (OCS), which is double perform a preflight RAIM prediction for the
the fixedwing OCS, and turning areas are based on approach integrity at the airport where the RNAV
this speed as well. (GPS) approach will be flown, and have proper
5. GPS Instrument Approach Procedures knowledge and any required training and/or
approval to conduct a GPS-based IAP, may file
(a) GPS overlay approaches are designated based on a GPSbased IAP at either the destination
nonprecision instrument approach procedures that or the alternate airport, but not at both locations. At
pilots are authorized to fly using GPS avionics. the alternate airport, pilots may plan for:
Localizer (LOC), localizer type directional aid
(1) Lateral navigation (LNAV) or circling
(LDA), and simplified directional facility (SDF)
minimum descent altitude (MDA);
procedures are not authorized. Overlay procedures
are identified by the name of the procedure and or (2) LNAV/vertical navigation (LNAV/
GPS (e.g., VOR/DME or GPS RWY 15) in the title. VNAV) DA, if equipped with and using approved
Authorized procedures must be retrievable from a barometric vertical navigation (baro-VNAV) equip-
current onboard navigation database. The naviga- ment;
tion database may also enhance position orientation
by displaying a map containing information on (3) RNP 0.3 DA on an RNAV (RNP) IAP,
conventional NAVAID approaches. This approach if they are specifically authorized users using
information should not be confused with a GPS approved baro-VNAV equipment and the pilot has
overlay approach (see the receiver operating verified required navigation performance (RNP)
manual, AFM, or AFM Supplement for details on availability through an approved prediction program.
how to identify these approaches in the navigation (d) If the above conditions cannot be met, any
database). required alternate airport must have an approved
NOTE instrument approach procedure other than GPS
Overlay approaches do not adhere to the design criteria based that is anticipated to be operational and
described in Paragraph 545m, Area Navigation (RNAV) available at the estimated time of arrival, and which
Instrument Approach Charts, for standalone GPS the aircraft is equipped to fly.
(e) Procedures for Accomplishing GPS approach sensitivity. Beginning 2 NM prior to the
Approaches FAWP, the full scale CDI sensitivity will smoothly
change from 1 NM to 0.3 NM at the FAWP. As
(1) An RNAV (GPS) procedure may be sensitivity changes from 1 NM to 0.3 NM
associated with a Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). The approaching the FAWP, with the CDI not centered,
basic design of the RNAV procedure is the T design the corresponding increase in CDI displacement
or a modification of the T (See Paragraph 5-4-5d, may give the impression that the aircraft is moving
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), for complete informa- further away from the intended course even though it
tion). is on an acceptable intercept heading. Referencing the
(2) Pilots cleared by ATC for an RNAV digital track displacement information (cross track
(GPS) approach should fly the full approach from an error), if it is available in the approach mode, may
Initial Approach Waypoint (IAWP) or feeder fix. help the pilot remain position oriented in this
Randomly joining an approach at an intermediate fix situation. Being established on the final approach
does not assure terrain clearance. course prior to the beginning of the sensitivity change
at 2 NM will help prevent problems in interpreting the
(3) When an approach has been loaded in CDI display during ramp down. Therefore, request-
the navigation system, GPS receivers will give an ing or accepting vectors which will cause the aircraft
arm annunciation 30 NM straight line distance to intercept the final approach course within 2 NM of
from the airport/heliport reference point. Pilots the FAWP is not recommended.
should arm the approach mode at this time if not
(6) When receiving vectors to final, most
already armed (some receivers arm automatically).
receiver operating manuals suggest placing the
Without arming, the receiver will not change from
receiver in the nonsequencing mode on the FAWP
en route CDI and RAIM sensitivity of 5 NM either
and manually setting the course. This provides an
side of centerline to 1 NM terminal sensitivity.
extended final approach course in cases where the
Where the IAWP is inside this 30 mile point, a CDI
aircraft is vectored onto the final approach course
sensitivity change will occur once the approach mode
outside of any existing segment which is aligned with
is armed and the aircraft is inside 30 NM. Where the
the runway. Assigned altitudes must be maintained
IAWP is beyond 30 NM from the airport/heliport
until established on a published segment of the
reference point and the approach is armed, the CDI
approach. Required altitudes at waypoints outside the
sensitivity will not change until the aircraft is within
FAWP or stepdown fixes must be considered.
30 miles of the airport/heliport reference point.
Calculating the distance to the FAWP may be
Feeder route obstacle clearance is predicated on the
required in order to descend at the proper location.
receiver being in terminal (1 NM) CDI sensitivity
and RAIM within 30 NM of the airport/heliport (7) Overriding an automatically selected
reference point; therefore, the receiver should always sensitivity during an approach will cancel the
be armed (if required) not later than the 30 NM approach mode annunciation. If the approach mode
annunciation. is not armed by 2 NM prior to the FAWP, the approach
mode will not become active at 2 NM prior to the
(4) The pilot must be aware of what bank FAWP, and the equipment will flag. In these
angle/turn rate the particular receiver uses to compute conditions, the RAIM and CDI sensitivity will not
turn anticipation, and whether wind and airspeed are ramp down, and the pilot should not descend to MDA,
included in the receivers calculations. This informa- but fly to the MAWP and execute a missed approach.
tion should be in the receiver operating manual. Over The approach active annunciator and/or the receiver
or under banking the turn onto the final approach should be checked to ensure the approach mode is
course may significantly delay getting on course and active prior to the FAWP.
may result in high descent rates to achieve the next
segment altitude. (8) Do not attempt to fly an approach unless
the procedure in the onboard database is current and
(5) When within 2 NM of the Final identified as GPS on the approach chart. The
Approach Waypoint (FAWP) with the approach navigation database may contain information about
mode armed, the approach mode will switch to nonoverlay approach procedures that enhances
active, which results in RAIM and CDI changing to position orientation generally by providing a map,
while flying these approaches using conventional (12) If a visual descent point (VDP) is
NAVAIDs. This approach information should not be published, it will not be included in the sequence of
confused with a GPS overlay approach (see the waypoints. Pilots are expected to use normal piloting
receiver operating manual, AFM, or AFM Supple- techniques for beginning the visual descent, such as
ment for details on how to identify these procedures ATD.
in the navigation database). Flying point to point on (13) Unnamed stepdown fixes in the final
the approach does not assure compliance with the approach segment may or may not be coded in the
published approach procedure. The proper RAIM waypoint sequence of the aircrafts navigation
sensitivity will not be available and the CDI database and must be identified using ATD.
sensitivity will not automatically change to 0.3 Stepdown fixes in the final approach segment of
NM. Manually setting CDI sensitivity does not RNAV (GPS) approaches are being named, in
automatically change the RAIM sensitivity on some addition to being identified by ATD. However, GPS
receivers. Some existing nonprecision approach avionics may or may not accommodate waypoints
procedures cannot be coded for use with GPS and will between the FAF and MAP. Pilots must know the
not be available as overlays. capabilities of their GPS equipment and continue to
identify stepdown fixes using ATD when necessary.
(9) Pilots should pay particular attention
to the exact operation of their GPS receivers for (f) Missed Approach
performing holding patterns and in the case of (1) A GPS missed approach requires pilot
overlay approaches, operations such as procedure action to sequence the receiver past the MAWP to the
turns. These procedures may require manual missed approach portion of the procedure. The pilot
intervention by the pilot to stop the sequencing of must be thoroughly familiar with the activation
waypoints by the receiver and to resume automatic procedure for the particular GPS receiver installed in
GPS navigation sequencing once the maneuver is the aircraft and must initiate appropriate action after
complete. The same waypoint may appear in the route the MAWP. Activating the missed approach prior to
of flight more than once consecutively (for example, the MAWP will cause CDI sensitivity to immediately
IAWP, FAWP, MAHWP on a procedure turn). Care change to terminal (1NM) sensitivity and the
must be exercised to ensure that the receiver is receiver will continue to navigate to the MAWP. The
sequenced to the appropriate waypoint for the receiver will not sequence past the MAWP. Turns
segment of the procedure being flown, especially if should not begin prior to the MAWP. If the missed
one or more flyovers are skipped (for example, approach is not activated, the GPS receiver will
FAWP rather than IAWP if the procedure turn is not display an extension of the inbound final approach
flown). The pilot may have to sequence past one or course and the ATD will increase from the MAWP
more flyovers of the same waypoint in order to start until it is manually sequenced after crossing the
GPS automatic sequencing at the proper place in the MAWP.
sequence of waypoints. (2) Missed approach routings in which the
first track is via a course rather than direct to the next
(10) Incorrect inputs into the GPS receiver waypoint require additional action by the pilot to set
are especially critical during approaches. In some the course. Being familiar with all of the inputs
cases, an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to required is especially critical during this phase of
leave the approach mode. flight.
(11) A fix on an overlay approach identi- (g) GPS NOTAMs/Aeronautical Informa-
fied by a DME fix will not be in the waypoint tion
sequence on the GPS receiver unless there is a (1) GPS satellite outages are issued as
published name assigned to it. When a name is GPS NOTAMs both domestically and internation-
assigned, the along track distance (ATD) to the ally. However, the effect of an outage on the intended
waypoint may be zero rather than the DME stated on operation cannot be determined unless the pilot has a
the approach chart. The pilot should be alert for this RAIM availability prediction program which allows
on any overlay procedure where the original excluding a satellite which is predicted to be out of
approach used DME. service based on the NOTAM information.
(2) The terms UNRELIABLE and MAY (4) The military provides airfield specific
NOT BE AVAILABLE are used in conjunction with GPS RAIM NOTAMs for nonprecision approach
GPS NOTAMs. Both UNRELIABLE and MAY NOT procedures at military airfields. The RAIM outages
BE AVAILABLE are advisories to pilots indicating are issued as Mseries NOTAMs and may be obtained
the expected level of service may not be available. for up to 24 hours from the time of request.
UNRELIABLE does not mean there is a problem
with GPS signal integrity. If GPS service is available, (5) Receiver manufacturers and/or data-
pilots may continue operations. If the LNAV or base suppliers may supply NOTAM type
LNAV/VNAV service is available, pilots may use the information concerning database errors. Pilots
displayed level of service to fly the approach. GPS should check these sources, when available, to ensure
operation may be NOTAMed UNRELIABLE or that they have the most current information
MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE due to testing or concerning their electronic database.
anomalies. (Pilots are encouraged to report GPS (h) Receiver Autonomous Integrity Moni-
anomalies, including degraded operation and/or loss toring (RAIM)
of service, as soon as possible, reference paragraph
1113.) When GPS testing NOTAMS are published (1) RAIM outages may occur due to an
and testing is actually occurring, Air Traffic Control insufficient number of satellites or due to unsuitable
will advise pilots requesting or cleared for a GPS or satellite geometry which causes the error in the
RNAV (GPS) approach that GPS may not be position solution to become too large. Loss of satellite
available and request intentions. If pilots have reception and RAIM warnings may occur due to
reported GPS anomalies, Air Traffic Control will aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle).
request the pilots intentions and/or clear the pilot for Antenna location on the aircraft, satellite position
an alternate approach, if available and operational. relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may affect
reception of one or more satellites. Since the relative
EXAMPLE
positions of the satellites are constantly changing,
The following is an example of a GPS testing NOTAM:
!GPS 06/001 ZAB NAV GPS (INCLUDING WAAS, GBAS,
prior experience with the airport does not guarantee
AND ADS-B) MAY NOT BE AVAILABLE WITHIN A reception at all times, and RAIM availability should
468NM RADIUS CENTERED AT 330702N1062540W always be checked.
(TCS 093044) FL400-UNL DECREASING IN AREA
WITH A DECREASE IN ALTITUDE DEFINED AS:
(2) If RAIM is not available, use another
425NM RADIUS AT FL250, 360NM RADIUS AT type of navigation and approach system, select
10000FT, 354NM RADIUS AT 4000FT AGL, 327NM another route or destination, or delay the trip until
RADIUS AT 50FT AGL. 1406070300-1406071200. RAIM is predicted to be available on arrival. On
longer flights, pilots should consider rechecking the
(3) Civilian pilots may obtain GPS RAIM RAIM prediction for the destination during the flight.
availability information for nonprecision approach This may provide an early indication that an
procedures by using a manufacturer-supplied RAIM unscheduled satellite outage has occurred since
prediction tool, or using the Service Availability takeoff.
Prediction Tool (SAPT) on the FAA en route and
terminal RAIM prediction web site. Pilots can also (3) If a RAIM failure/status annunciation
request GPS RAIM aeronautical information from a occurs prior to the final approach waypoint
flight service station during preflight briefings. GPS (FAWP), the approach should not be completed since
RAIM aeronautical information can be obtained for GPS no longer provides the required integrity. The
a period of 3 hours (for example, if you are scheduled receiver performs a RAIM prediction by 2 NM prior
to arrive at 1215 hours, then the GPS RAIM to the FAWP to ensure that RAIM is available as a
information is available from 1100 to 1400 hours) or condition for entering the approach mode. The pilot
a 24hour timeframe at a particular airport. FAA should ensure the receiver has sequenced from
briefers will provide RAIM information for a period Armed to Approach prior to the FAWP (normally
of 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA hour, unless occurs 2 NM prior). Failure to sequence may be an
a specific timeframe is requested by the pilot. If flying indication of the detection of a satellite anomaly,
a published GPS departure, a RAIM prediction failure to arm the receiver (if required), or other
should also be requested for the departure airport. problems which preclude flying the approach.
(4) If the receiver does not sequence into Pilots are not to use CNFs for point to point
the approach mode or a RAIM failure/status navigation (proceed direct), filing a flight plan, or in
annunciation occurs prior to the FAWP, the pilot must aircraft/ATC communications. CNFs that do appear
not initiate the approach or descend, but instead on aeronautical charts allow pilots increased
proceed to the missed approach waypoint ( MAWP) situational awareness by identifying points in the
via the FAWP, perform a missed approach, and aircraft database route of flight with points on the
contact ATC as soon as practical. The GPS receiver aeronautical chart. CNFs are random five-letter
may continue to operate after a RAIM flag/status identifiers, not pronounceable like waypoints and
annunciation appears, but the navigation information placed in parenthesis. Eventually, all CNFs will begin
should be considered advisory only. Refer to the with the letters CF followed by three consonants
receiver operating manual for specific indications (for example, CFWBG). This five-letter identifier
and instructions associated with loss of RAIM prior will be found next to an x on enroute charts and
to the FAF. possibly on an approach chart. On instrument
approach procedures (charts) in the terminal
(5) If the RAIM flag/status annunciation procedures publication, CNFs may represent un-
appears after the FAWP, the pilot should initiate a named DME fixes, beginning and ending points of
climb and execute the missed approach. The GPS DME arcs, and sensor (ground-based signal i.e.,
receiver may continue to operate after a RAIM VOR, NDB, ILS) final approach fixes on GPS
flag/status annunciation appears, but the navigation overlay approaches. These CNFs provide the GPS
information should be considered advisory only. with points on the procedure that allow the overlay
Refer to the receiver operating manual for operating approach to mirror the ground-based sensor
mode information during a RAIM annunciation. approach. These points should only be used by the
(i) Waypoints GPS system for navigation and should not be used by
pilots for any other purpose on the approach. The
(1) GPS receivers navigate from one CNF concept has not been adopted or recognized by
defined point to another retrieved from the aircrafts the International Civil Aviation Organization
onboard navigational database. These points are (ICAO).
waypoints (5-letter pronounceable name), existing
VHF intersections, DME fixes with 5letter (3) GPS approaches use flyover and
pronounceable names and 3-letter NAVAID IDs. flyby waypoints to join route segments on an
Each waypoint is a geographical location defined by approach. Flyby waypoints connect the two
a latitude/longitude geographic coordinate. These segments by allowing the aircraft to turn prior to the
5letter waypoints, VHF intersections, 5letter current waypoint in order to roll out on course to the
pronounceable DME fixes and 3letter NAVAID IDs next waypoint. This is known as turn anticipation and
are published on various FAA aeronautical naviga- is compensated for in the airspace and terrain
tion products (IFR Enroute Charts, VFR Charts, clearances. The MAWP and the missed approach
Terminal Procedures Publications, etc.). holding waypoint (MAHWP) are normally the only
two waypoints on the approach that are not flyby
(2) A Computer Navigation Fix (CNF) is waypoints. Flyover waypoints are used when the
also a point defined by a latitude/longitude coordinate aircraft must overfly the waypoint prior to starting a
and is required to support PerformanceBased turn to the new course. The symbol for a fly-over
Navigation (PBN) operations. The GPS receiver uses waypoint is a circled waypoint. Some waypoints may
CNFs in conjunction with waypoints to navigate from have dual use; for example, as a flyby waypoint
point to point. However, CNFs are not recognized by when used as an IF for a NoPT route and as a fly-over
ATC. ATC does not maintain CNFs in their database waypoint when the same waypoint is also used as an
and they do not use CNFs for any air traffic control IAF/IF hold-in-lieu of PT. When this occurs, the less
purpose. CNFs may or may not be charted on FAA restrictive (fly-by) symbology will be charted.
aeronautical navigation products, are listed in the Overlay approach charts and some early standalone
chart legends, and are for advisory purposes only. GPS approach charts may not reflect this convention.
(4) Unnamed waypoints for each airport course. Every leg of an instrument procedure is first
will be uniquely identified in the database. Although computed along a desired ground track with reference
the identifier may be used at different airports (for to true north. A magnetic variation correction is then
example, RW36 will be the identifier at each airport applied to the true course in order to calculate a
with a runway 36), the actual point, at each airport, is magnetic course for publication. The type of
defined by a specific latitude/longitude coordinate. procedure will determine what magnetic variation
value is added to the true course. A groundbased
(5) The runway threshold waypoint, nor-
NAVAID IFP applies the facility magnetic variation
mally the MAWP, may have a fiveletter identifier
of record to the true course to get the charted magnetic
(for example, SNEEZ) or be coded as RW## (for
course. Magnetic courses on PBN procedures are
example, RW36, RW36L). MAWPs located at the
calculated two different ways. SID/STAR procedures
runway threshold are being changed to the RW##
use the airport magnetic variation of record, while
identifier, while MAWPs not located at the threshold
IFR enroute charts use magnetic reference bearing.
will have a fiveletter identifier. This may cause the
PBN systems make a correction to true north by
approach chart to differ from the aircraft database
adding a magnetic variation calculated with an
until all changes are complete. The runway threshold
algorithm based on aircraft position, or by adding the
waypoint is also used as the center of the Minimum
magnetic variation coded in their navigational
Safe Altitude (MSA) on most GPS approaches.
database. This may result in the PBN system and the
(j) Position Orientation. procedure designer using a different magnetic
variation, which causes the magnetic course
Pilots should pay particular attention to position
displayed by the PBN system and the magnetic course
orientation while using GPS. Distance and track
charted on the IFP plate to be different. It is important
information are provided to the next active
to understand, however, that PBN systems, (with the
waypoint, not to a fixed navigation aid. Receivers
exception of VOR/DME RNAV equipment) navigate
may sequence when the pilot is not flying along an
by reference to true north and display magnetic
active route, such as when being vectored or
course only for pilot reference. As such, a properly
deviating for weather, due to the proximity to another
functioning PBN system, containing a current and
waypoint in the route. This can be prevented by
accurate navigational database, should fly the
placing the receiver in the non-sequencing mode.
correct ground track for any loaded instrument
When the receiver is in the non-sequencing mode,
procedure, despite differences in displayed magnetic
bearing and distance are provided to the selected
course that may be attributed to magnetic variation
waypoint and the receiver will not sequence to the
application. Should significant differences between
next waypoint in the route until placed back in the
the approach chart and the PBN system avionics
auto sequence mode or the pilot selects a different
application of the navigation database arise, the
waypoint. The pilot may have to compute the ATD
published approach chart, supplemented by NOT-
to stepdown fixes and other points on overlay
AMs, holds precedence.
approaches, due to the receiver showing ATD to the
next waypoint rather than DME to the VOR or ILS (2) The course into a waypoint may not
ground station. always be 180 degrees different from the course
leaving the previous waypoint, due to the PBN
(k) Impact of Magnetic Variation on PBN
system avionics computation of geodesic paths,
Systems
distance between waypoints, and differences in
(1) Differences may exist between PBN magnetic variation application. Variations in
systems and the charted magnetic courses on distances may also occur since PBN system
groundbased NAVAID instrument flight procedures distancetowaypoint values are ATDs computed to
(IFP), enroute charts, approach charts, and Standard the next waypoint and the DME values published on
Instrument Departure/Standard Terminal Arrival underlying procedures are slantrange distances
(SID/STAR) charts. These differences are due to the measured to the station. This difference increases
magnetic variance used to calculate the magnetic with aircraft altitude and proximity to the NAVAID.
TBL 115
GPS IFR Equipment Classes/Categories
TSOC129
Int. Nav. Sys. to Nonprecision
Equipment
RAIM Prov. RAIM Oceanic En Route Terminal Approach
Class
Equiv. Capable
Class A GPS sensor and navigation capability.
A1 yes yes yes yes yes
A2 yes yes yes yes no
Class B GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (i.e., FMS, multisensor navigation system, etc.).
B1 yes yes yes yes yes
B2 yes yes yes yes no
B3 yes yes yes yes yes
B4 yes yes yes yes no
Class C GPS sensor data to an integrated navigation system (as in Class B) which provides enhanced guidance to an autopilot, or
flight director, to reduce flight tech. errors. Limited to 14 CFR Part 121 or equivalent criteria.
C1 yes yes yes yes yes
C2 yes yes yes yes no
C3 yes yes yes yes yes
C4 yes yes yes yes no
TBL 116
GPS Approval Required/Authorized Use
Installation Operational
Equipment Approval Approval IFR IFR IFR Oceanic In Lieu of
Type1 Required Required En Route2 Terminal2 Approach3 Remote ADF and/or
DME3
Hand held4 X5
VFR Panel Mount4 X
IFR En Route X X X X X
and Terminal
IFR Oceanic/ X X X X X X
Remote
IFR En Route, X X X X X X
Terminal, and
Approach
NOTE
1To determine equipment approvals and limitations, refer to the AFM, AFM supplements, or pilot guides.
2Requires verification of data for correctness if database is expired.
3Requires current database or verification that the procedure has not been amended since the expiration of the database.
4VFR and handheld GPS systems are not authorized for IFR navigation, instrument approaches, or as a primary instrument
flight reference. During IFR operations they may be considered only an aid to situational awareness.
5Handheld receivers require no approval. However, any aircraft modification to support the handheld receiver;
i.e., installation of an external antenna or a permanent mounting bracket, does require approval.
operator obtains a fault detection and exclusion ABLE (AVBL) NOTAMs indicate loss or
(FDE) prediction program. malfunction of the WAAS system. In flight, Air
Traffic Control will advise pilots requesting a GPS or
4. Air carrier and commercial operators must
RNAV (GPS) approach of WAAS NOT AVBL
meet the appropriate provisions of their approved
NOTAMs if not contained in the ATIS broadcast.
operations specifications.
EXAMPLE
5. Prior to GPS/WAAS IFR operation, the pilot For unscheduled loss of signal or service, an example
must review appropriate Notices to Airmen (NOT- NOTAM is: !FDC FDC NAV WAAS NOT AVBL
AMs) and aeronautical information. This 1311160600 1311191200EST.
information is available on request from a Flight For scheduled loss of signal or service, an example
Service Station. The FAA will provide NOTAMs to NOTAM is: !FDC FDC NAV WAAS NOT AVBL
advise pilots of the status of the WAAS and level of 1312041015- 1312082000EST.
service available.
(c) Sitespecific WAAS MAY NOT BE
(a) The term MAY NOT BE AVBL is used in AVBL NOTAMs indicate an expected level of
conjunction with WAAS NOTAMs and indicates that service; for example, LNAV/VNAV, LP, or LPV may
due to ionospheric conditions, lateral guidance may not be available. Pilots must request sitespecific
still be available when vertical guidance is WAAS NOTAMs during flight planning. In flight,
unavailable. Under certain conditions, both lateral Air Traffic Control will not advise pilots of WAAS
and vertical guidance may be unavailable. This MAY NOT BE AVBL NOTAMs.
NOTAM language is an advisory to pilots indicating
NOTE
the expected level of WAAS service (LNAV/VNAV, Though currently unavailable, the FAA is updating its
LPV, LP) may not be available. prediction tool software to provide this site-service in the
EXAMPLE future.
!FDC FDC NAV WAAS VNAV/LPV/LP MINIMA MAY
NOT BE AVBL 1306111330-1306141930EST
(d) Most of North America has redundant
or coverage by two or more geostationary satellites. One
!FDC FDC NAV WAAS VNAV/LPV MINIMA NOT AVBL, exception is the northern slope of Alaska. If there is
WAAS LP MINIMA MAY NOT BE AVBL a problem with the satellite providing coverage to this
1306021200-1306031200EST area, a NOTAM similar to the following example will
be issued:
WAAS MAY NOT BE AVBL NOTAMs are
predictive in nature and published for flight planning EXAMPLE
purposes. Upon commencing an approach at !FDC 4/3406 (PAZA A0173/14) ZAN NAV WAAS SIGNAL
locations NOTAMed WAAS MAY NOT BE AVBL, MAY NOT BE AVBL NORTH OF LINE FROM
if the WAAS avionics indicate LNAV/VNAV or LPV 7000N150000W TO 6400N16400W. RMK WAAS USERS
service is available, then vertical guidance may be SHOULD CONFIRM RAIM AVAILABILITY FOR IFR
OPERATIONS IN THIS AREA. T-ROUTES IN THIS
used to complete the approach using the displayed
SECTOR NOT AVBL. ANY REQUIRED ALTERNATE
level of service. Should an outage occur during the AIRPORT IN THIS AREA MUST HAVE AN APPROVED
approach, reversion to LNAV minima or an alternate INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE OTHER
instrument approach procedure may be required. THAN GPS THAT IS ANTICIPATED TO BE OPERA-
When GPS testing NOTAMS are published and TIONAL AND AVAILABLE AT THE ESTIMATED TIME
testing is actually occurring, Air Traffic Control will OF ARRIVAL AND WHICH THE AIRCRAFT IS
advise pilots requesting or cleared for a GPS or EQUIPPED TO FLY. 1406030812-1406050812EST .
RNAV (GPS) approach that GPS may not be
6. When GPStesting NOTAMS are published
available and request intentions. If pilots have
and testing is actually occurring, Air Traffic Control
reported GPS anomalies, Air Traffic Control will
will advise pilots requesting or cleared for a GPS or
request the pilots intentions and/or clear the pilot for
RNAV (GPS) approach that GPS may not be
an alternate approach, if available and operational.
available and request intentions. If pilots have
(b) WAAS area-wide NOTAMs are origin- reported GPS anomalies, Air Traffic Control will
ated when WAAS assets are out of service and impact request the pilots intentions and/or clear the pilot for
the service area. Areawide WAAS NOT AVAIL- an alternate approach, if available and operational.
dramatically from the 0.3 NM (556 meter) limit for algorithm called FDE. In most cases this operation
GPS, LNAV, and LNAV/VNAV approach mode, to will be invisible to the pilot since the receiver will
40 meters for LPV. It also provides vertical integrity continue to operate with other available satellites
monitoring, which bounds the vertical error to 50 after excluding the bad signal. This capability
meters for LNAV/VNAV and LPVs with minima of increases the reliability of navigation.
250 or above, and bounds the vertical error to 35
4. Both lateral and vertical scaling for the
meters for LPVs with minima below 250.
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approach procedures are
2. When an approach procedure is selected and different than the linear scaling of basic GPS. When
active, the receiver will notify the pilot of the most the complete published procedure is flown, 1 NM
accurate level of service supported by the combina- linear scaling is provided until two (2) NM prior to the
tion of the WAAS signal, the receiver, and the FAF, where the sensitivity increases to be similar to
selected approach, using the naming conventions on the angular scaling of an ILS. There are two differ-
the minima lines of the selected approach procedure. ences in the WAAS scaling and ILS: 1) on long final
For example, if an approach is published with LPV approach segments, the initial scaling will be
minima and the receiver is only certified for 0.3 NM to achieve equivalent performance to GPS
LNAV/VNAV, the equipment would indicate (and better than ILS, which is less sensitive far from
LNAV/VNAV available, even though the WAAS the runway); 2) close to the runway threshold, the
signal would support LPV. If flying an existing scaling changes to linear instead of continuing to
LNAV/VNAV procedure with no LPV minima, the become more sensitive. The width of the final
receiver will notify the pilot LNAV/VNAV approach course is tailored so that the total width is
available, even if the receiver is certified for LPV usually 700 feet at the runway threshold. Since the
and the signal supports LPV. If the signal does not origin point of the lateral splay for the angular portion
support vertical guidance on procedures with LPV of the final is not fixed due to antenna placement like
and/or LNAV/VNAV minima, the receiver annunci- localizer, the splay angle can remain fixed, making a
ation will read LNAV available. On lateral only consistent width of final for aircraft being vectored
procedures with LP and LNAV minima the receiver onto the final approach course on different length
will indicate LP available or LNAV available runways. When the complete published procedure is
based on the level of lateral service available. Once not flown, and instead the aircraft needs to capture the
the level of service notification has been given, the extended final approach course similar to ILS, the
receiver will operate in this mode for the duration of vector to final (VTF) mode is used. Under VTF, the
the approach procedure, unless that level of service scaling is linear at 1 NM until the point where the
becomes unavailable. The receiver cannot change ILS angular splay reaches a width of 1 NM
back to a more accurate level of service until the next regardless of the distance from the FAWP.
time an approach is activated. 5. The WAAS scaling is also different than GPS
NOTE TSOC129() in the initial portion of the missed
Receivers do not fail down to lower levels of service approach. Two differences occur here. First, the
once the approach has been activated. If only the scaling abruptly changes from the approach scaling to
vertical off flag appears, the pilot may elect to use the the missed approach scaling, at approximately the
LNAV minima if the rules under which the flight is departure end of the runway or when the pilot selects
operating allow changing the type of approach being flown missed approach guidance rather than ramping as
after commencing the procedure. If the lateral integrity GPS does. Second, when the first leg of the missed
limit is exceeded on an LP approach, a missed approach
approach is a Track to Fix (TF) leg aligned within 3
will be necessary since there is no way to reset the lateral
alarm limit while the approach is active.
degrees of the inbound course, the receiver will
change to 0.3 NM linear sensitivity until the turn
3. Another additional feature of WAAS receiv- initiation point for the first waypoint in the missed
ers is the ability to exclude a bad GPS signal and approach procedure, at which time it will abruptly
continue operating normally. This is normally change to terminal (1 NM) sensitivity. This allows
accomplished by the WAAS correction information. the elimination of close in obstacles in the early part
Outside WAAS coverage or when WAAS is not of the missed approach that may otherwise cause the
available, it is accomplished through a receiver DA to be raised.
6. There are two ways to select the final 2. LAAS was developed as an ILS lookalike
approach segment of an instrument approach. Most system from the pilot perspective. LAAS is based on
receivers use menus where the pilot selects the GPS signals augmented by ground equipment and has
airport, the runway, the specific approach procedure been developed to provide GLS precision approaches
and finally the IAF, there is also a channel number similar to ILS at airfields.
selection method. The pilot enters a unique 5digit
3. GLS provides guidance similar to ILS
number provided on the approach chart, and the
approaches for the final approach segment; portions
receiver recalls the matching final approach segment
of the GLS approach prior to and after the final
from the aircraft database. A list of information
approach segment will be based on Area Navigation
including the available IAFs is displayed and the pilot
(RNAV) or Required Navigation Performance
selects the appropriate IAF. The pilot should confirm
(RNP).
that the correct final approach segment was loaded by
cross checking the Approach ID, which is also 4. The equipment consists of a GBAS Ground
provided on the approach chart. Facility (GGF), four reference stations, a VHF Data
Broadcast (VDB) uplink antenna, and an aircraft
7. The AlongTrack Distance (ATD) during the
GBAS receiver.
final approach segment of an LNAV procedure (with
a minimum descent altitude) will be to the MAWP. On b. Procedure
LNAV/VNAV and LPV approaches to a decision 1. Pilots will select the five digit GBAS channel
altitude, there is no missed approach waypoint so the number of the associated approach within the Flight
alongtrack distance is displayed to a point normally Management System (FMS) menu or manually select
located at the runway threshold. In most cases, the the five digits (system dependent). Selection of the
MAWP for the LNAV approach is located on the GBAS channel number also tunes the VDB.
runway threshold at the centerline, so these distances
will be the same. This distance will always vary 2. Following procedure selection, confirmation
slightly from any ILS DME that may be present, since that the correct LAAS procedure is loaded can be
the ILS DME is located further down the runway. accomplished by cross checking the charted
Initiation of the missed approach on the LNAV/ Reference Path Indicator (RPI) or approach ID with
VNAV and LPV approaches is still based on reaching the cockpit displayed RPI or audio identification of
the decision altitude without any of the items listed in the RPI with Morse Code (for some systems).
14 CFR Section 91.175 being visible, and must not be 3. The pilot will fly the GLS approach using the
delayed while waiting for the ATD to reach zero. The same techniques as an ILS, once selected and
WAAS receiver, unlike a GPS receiver, will identified.
automatically sequence past the MAWP if the missed
approach procedure has been designed for RNAV.
The pilot may also select missed approach prior to the 1120. Precision Approach Systems other
MAWP; however, navigation will continue to the than ILS and GLS
MAWP prior to waypoint sequencing taking place. a. General
Approval and use of precision approach systems
1119. Ground Based Augmentation other than ILS and GLS require the issuance of
System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS) special instrument approach procedures.
a. General b. Special Instrument Approach Procedure
1. The GLS provides precision navigation 1. Special instrument approach procedures
guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft must be issued to the aircraft operator if pilot training,
on approach to a runway. It provides differential aircraft equipment, and/or aircraft performance is
augmentation to the Global Navigation Satellite different than published procedures. Special instru-
System (GNSS). ment approach procedures are not distributed for
NOTE general public use. These procedures are issued to an
GBAS is the ICAO term for Local Area Augmentation aircraft operator when the conditions for operations
System (LAAS). approval are satisfied.
2. General aviation operators requesting ap- course and glidepath based on the position of the
proval for special procedures should contact the local tracked aircraft. Flying the TLS corrections com-
Flight Standards District Office to obtain a letter of puted for another aircraft will not provide guidance
authorization. Air carrier operators requesting relative to the approach; therefore, aircrews must not
approval for use of special procedures should contact use the TLS signal for navigation unless they have
their Certificate Holding District Office for authoriz- received approach clearance and completed the
ation through their Operations Specification. required coordination with the TLS ground equip-
ment operator. Navigation fixes based on
c. Transponder Landing System (TLS)
conventional NAVAIDs or GPS are provided in the
1. The TLS is designed to provide approach special instrument approach procedure to allow
guidance utilizing existing airborne ILS localizer, aircrews to verify the TLS guidance.
glide slope, and transponder equipment.
d. Special Category I Differential GPS (SCAT
2. Ground equipment consists of a transponder I DGPS)
interrogator, sensor arrays to detect lateral and
vertical position, and ILS frequency transmitters. The 1. The SCATI DGPS is designed to provide
TLS detects the aircrafts position by interrogating its approach guidance by broadcasting differential
transponder. It then broadcasts ILS frequency signals correction to GPS.
to guide the aircraft along the desired approach path. 2. SCATI DGPS procedures require aircraft
3. TLS instrument approach procedures are equipment and pilot training.
designated Special Instrument Approach Procedures.
3. Ground equipment consists of GPS receivers
Special aircrew training is required. TLS ground
and a VHF digital radio transmitter. The SCATI
equipment provides approach guidance for only one
DGPS detects the position of GPS satellites relative
aircraft at a time. Even though the TLS signal is
to GPS receiver equipment and broadcasts differen-
received using the ILS receiver, no fixed course or
tial corrections over the VHF digital radio.
glidepath is generated. The concept of operation is
very similar to an air traffic controller providing radar 4. Category I Ground Based Augmentation
vectors, and just as with radar vectors, the guidance System (GBAS) will displace SCATI DGPS as the
is valid only for the intended aircraft. The TLS public use service.
ground equipment tracks one aircraft, based on its REFERENCE
transponder code, and provides correction signals to AIM, Paragraph 547 f, Instrument Approach Procedures
should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft (b) RNAV Leg Types. A leg type describes
navigation system to ensure RNAV procedures are the desired path proceeding, following, or between
flown in an appropriate manner. In addition, pilots waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types are
should have an understanding of the various identified by a twoletter code that describes the path
waypoint and leg types used in RNAV procedures; (e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination
these are discussed in more detail below. point (e.g., the path terminates at an altitude, distance,
fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design are
(a) Waypoints. A waypoint is a predeter-
included in the aircraft navigation database, but not
mined geographical position that is defined in terms
normally provided on the procedure chart. The
of latitude/longitude coordinates. Waypoints may be
narrative depiction of the RNAV chart describes how
a simple named point in space or associated with
a procedure is flown. The path and terminator
existing navaids, intersections, or fixes. A waypoint
concept defines that every leg of a procedure has a
is most often used to indicate a change in direction,
termination point and some kind of path into that
speed, or altitude along the desired path. RNAV
termination point. Some of the available leg types are
procedures make use of both flyover and flyby
described below.
waypoints.
(1) Flyby waypoints. Flyby waypoints (1) Track to Fix. A Track to Fix (TF) leg
are used when an aircraft should begin a turn to the is intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the
next course prior to reaching the waypoint separating following waypoint. Track to a Fix legs are
the two route segments. This is known as turn sometimes called pointtopoint legs for this reason.
anticipation. Narrative: direct ALPHA, then on course to
BRAVO WP. See FIG 123.
(2) Flyover waypoints. Flyover way-
points are used when the aircraft must fly over the (2) Direct to Fix. A Direct to Fix (DF) leg
point prior to starting a turn. is a path described by an aircrafts track from an initial
area direct to the next waypoint. Narrative: turn
NOTE right direct BRAVO WP. See FIG 124.
FIG 122 illustrates several differences between a flyby
and a flyover waypoint.
FIG 122
Flyby and Flyover Waypoints FIG 123
Track to Fix Leg Type
support LNAV minima. LNAV/VNAV incorporates (6) RNP 4. RNP 4 will apply to oceanic and
LNAV lateral with vertical path guidance for systems remote operations only with a lateral accuracy value
and operators capable of either barometric or WAAS of 4.
vertical. Pilots are required to use WAAS to fly to the
(7) RNP 0.3. RNP 0.3 will apply to
LPV or LP minima. RNP APCH has a lateral
rotorcraft only. This Nav Spec requires a lateral
accuracy value of 1 in the terminal and missed
accuracy value of 0.3 for all phases of flight except for
approach segments and essentially scales to RNP 0.3
oceanic and remote and the final approach segment.
in the final approach. (See paragraph 1118.)
(b) Application of Standard Lateral Ac-
(2) RNP AR APCH. RNP AR APCH curacy Values. U.S. standard lateral accuracy values
procedures are titled RNAV (RNP). RNP AR APCH typically used for various routes and procedures
vertical navigation performance is based upon supporting RNAV operations may be based on use of
barometric VNAV or WAAS. RNP AR is intended to a specific navigational system or sensor such as GPS,
provide specific benefits at specific locations. It is not or on multisensor RNAV systems having suitable
intended for every operator or aircraft. RNP AR performance.
capability requires specific aircraft performance,
design, operational processes, training, and specific (c) Depiction of Lateral Accuracy Values.
procedure design criteria to achieve the required The applicable lateral accuracy values will be
target level of safety. RNP AR APCH has lateral depicted on affected charts and procedures.
accuracy values that can range below 1 in the terminal c. Other RNP Applications Outside the U.S.
and missed approach segments and essentially scale The FAA and ICAO member states have led
to RNP 0.3 or lower in the final approach. Operators initiatives in implementing the RNP concept to
conducting these approaches should refer to AC oceanic operations. For example, RNP10 routes
90-101A, Approval Guidance for RNP Procedures have been established in the northern Pacific
with AR. (See paragraph 5418.) (NOPAC) which has increased capacity and
efficiency by reducing the distance between tracks
(3) Advanced RNP (A-RNP). Advanced to 50 NM. (See paragraph 471.)
RNP includes a lateral accuracy value of 2 for oceanic
and remote operations but not planned for U.S. d. Aircraft and Airborne Equipment Eligibility
implementation and may have a 2 or 1 lateral for RNP Operations. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria
accuracy value for domestic enroute segments. will have an appropriate entry including special
Except for the final approach, A-RNP allows for conditions and limitations in its Aircraft Flight
scalable RNP lateral navigation accuracies. Its Manual (AFM), or supplement. Operators of aircraft
applications in the U.S. are still in progress. not having specific AFMRNP certification may be
issued operational approval including special condi-
(4) RNP 1. RNP 1 requires a lateral tions and limitations for specific RNP lateral
accuracy value of 1 for arrival and departure in the accuracy values.
terminal area and the initial and intermediate NOTE
approach phase. Some airborne systems use Estimated Position Uncer-
tainty (EPU) as a measure of the current estimated
(5) RNP 2. RNP 2 will apply to both navigational performance. EPU may also be referred to as
domestic and oceanic/remote operations with a Actual Navigation Performance (ANP) or Estimated
lateral accuracy value of 2. Position Error (EPE).
TBL 121
U.S. Standard RNP Levels
123. Use of Suitable Area Navigation or route based on operational VOR using that RNAV
(RNAV) Systems on Conventional system without monitoring the VOR.
Procedures and Routes NOTE
1. Additional information and associated requirements
a. Discussion. This paragraph sets forth policy, are available in Advisory Circular 90-108 titled Use of
while providing operational and airworthiness Suitable RNAV Systems on Conventional Routes and
guidance regarding the suitability and use of RNAV Procedures.
systems when operating on, or transitioning to,
2. Good planning and knowledge of your RNAV system are
conventional, nonRNAV routes and procedures critical for safe and successful operations.
within the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS):
3. Pilots planning to use their RNAV system as a substitute
1. Use of a suitable RNAV system as a means of navigation guidance in lieu of an outofservice
Substitute Means of Navigation when a VeryHigh NAVAID may need to advise ATC of this intent and
Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional Range (VOR), capability.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME), Tactical Air 4. The navigation database should be current for the
Navigation (TACAN), VOR/TACAN (VORTAC), duration of the flight. If the AIRAC cycle will change
VOR/DME, Nondirectional Beacon (NDB), or during flight, operators and pilots should establish
compass locator facility including locator outer procedures to ensure the accuracy of navigation data,
marker and locator middle marker is outofservice including suitability of navigation facilities used to define
(that is, the navigation aid (NAVAID) information is the routes and procedures for flight. To facilitate validating
not available); an aircraft is not equipped with an database currency, the FAA has developed procedures for
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) or DME; or the publishing the amendment date that instrument approach
installed ADF or DME on an aircraft is not procedures were last revised. The amendment date follows
operational. For example, if equipped with a suitable the amendment number, e.g., Amdt 4 14Jan10. Currency of
graphic departure procedures and STARs may be
RNAV system, a pilot may hold over an outof
ascertained by the numerical designation in the procedure
service NDB.
title. If an amended chart is published for the procedure, or
2. Use of a suitable RNAV system as an the procedure amendment date shown on the chart is on or
after the expiration date of the database, the operator must
Alternate Means of Navigation when a VOR, DME,
not use the database to conduct the operation.
VORTAC, VOR/DME, TACAN, NDB, or compass
locator facility including locator outer marker and b. Types of RNAV Systems that Qualify as a
locator middle marker is operational and the Suitable RNAV System. When installed in accord-
respective aircraft is equipped with operational ance with appropriate airworthiness installation
navigation equipment that is compatible with requirements and operated in accordance with
conventional navaids. For example, if equipped with applicable operational guidance (e.g., aircraft flight
a suitable RNAV system, a pilot may fly a procedure manual and Advisory Circular material), the
using TSOC145/C146 WAAS equipment. For the onset of GPS interference. Pilots may find
further WAAS guidance, see paragraph 1118. crosschecks of other airborne systems (for example,
DME/DME/IRU or VOR) useful to mitigate this
1. For flight planning purposes, TSO-C129()
otherwise undetected hazard.
and TSO-C196() equipped users (GPS users) whose
navigation systems have fault detection and REFERENCE
AIM Paragraph 1117, Global Positioning System (GPS)
exclusion (FDE) capability, who perform a preflight AIM Paragraph 1118, Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
RAIM prediction at the airport where the RNAV
b. During preflight planning, pilots should be
(GPS) approach will be flown, and have proper
particularly alert for NOTAMs which could affect
knowledge and any required training and/or approval
navigation (GPS or WAAS) along their route of
to conduct a GPS-based IAP, may file based on a
flight, such as Department of Defense electronic
GPS-based IAP at either the destination or the
signal tests with GPS.
alternate airport, but not at both locations. At the
REFERENCE
alternate airport, pilots may plan for applicable AIM Paragraph 1117, Global Positioning System (GPS)
alternate airport weather minimums using: AIM Paragraph 1118, Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
(a) Lateral navigation (LNAV) or circling c. If the pilot experiences interruptions while
minimum descent altitude (MDA); navigating with GPS, the pilot and ATC may both
incur a higher workload. In the aircraft, the pilot may
(b) LNAV/vertical navigation (LNAV/ need to change to groundbased NAVAIDs (for
VNAV) DA, if equipped with and using approved example, DME/DME/IRU or VOR). If the pilots
barometric vertical navigation (baro-VNAV) equip- aircraft is under ATC radar or multilateration
ment; surveillance, ATC may be able to provide radar
(c) RNP 0.3 DA on an RNAV (RNP) IAP, if vectors out of the interference affected area or to an
they are specifically authorized users using approved alternate destination upon pilot request. An ADSB
baro-VNAV equipment and the pilot has verified Out aircrafts broadcast information may be incorrect
required navigation performance (RNP) availability and should not be relied upon for surveillance when
through an approved prediction program. interference or spoofing is suspected unless its
accuracy can be verified by independent means.
2. If the above conditions cannot be met, any During the approach phase, a pilot might elect to
required alternate airport must have an approved continue in visual conditions or may need to execute
instrument approach procedure other than GPS that is the published missed approach. If the published
anticipated to be operational and available at the missed approach procedure is GPSbased, the pilot
estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is will need alternate instructions. If the pilot were to
equipped to fly. choose to continue in visual conditions, the pilot
3. This restriction does not apply to could aid the controller by cancelling his/her IFR
TSO-C145() and TSO-C146() equipped users flight plan and proceeding to the airport to land. ATC
(WAAS users). For further WAAS guidance, see would cancel the pilots IFR clearance and issue a
paragraph 1118. VFR squawk; freeing up the controller to handle
other aircraft.
124. Pilots and Air Traffic Controllers d. The FAA requests that pilots notify ATC if they
Recognizing Interference or Spoofing experience interruptions to their GPS navigation or
surveillance. GPS interference or outages associated
a. Pilots need to maintain position awareness with a known testing NOTAM should not be reported
while navigating. This awareness may be facilitated to ATC unless the interference/outage affects the
by keeping relevant groundbased, legacy naviga- pilots ability to navigate his/her aircraft.
tional aids tuned and available. By utilizing this
REFERENCE
practice, situational awareness is promoted and AIM Paragraph 1113, User Reports Requested on NAVAID or Global
guards against significant pilot delay in recognizing Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Performance or Interference.
211. Approach Light Systems (ALS) while the upper glide path, provided by the middle
and far bars, is normally 1/4 degree higher. This
a. ALS provide the basic means to transition from
higher glide path is intended for use only by high
instrument flight to visual flight for landing.
cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold
Operational requirements dictate the sophistication
crossing height. Although normal glide path angles
and configuration of the approach light system for a
are three degrees, angles at some locations may be as
particular runway.
high as 4.5 degrees to give proper obstacle clearance.
b. ALS are a configuration of signal lights starting Pilots of high performance aircraft are cautioned that
at the landing threshold and extending into the use of VASI angles in excess of 3.5 degrees may cause
approach area a distance of 24003000 feet for an increase in runway length required for landing and
precision instrument runways and 14001500 feet for rollout.
nonprecision instrument runways. Some systems
include sequenced flashing lights which appear to the 3. The basic principle of the VASI is that of color
pilot as a ball of light traveling towards the runway at differentiation between red and white. Each light unit
high speed (twice a second). (See FIG 211.) projects a beam of light having a white segment in the
upper part of the beam and red segment in the lower
212. Visual Glideslope Indicators part of the beam. The light units are arranged so that
the pilot using the VASIs during an approach will see
a. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) the combination of lights shown below.
1. VASI installations may consist of either 2, 4,
4. The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to
6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to as
provide visual descent guidance information during
near, middle, and far bars. Most VASI installations
the approach to a runway. These lights are visible
consist of 2 bars, near and far, and may consist of 2,
from 35 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or
4, or 12 light units. Some VASIs consist of three bars,
more at night. The visual glide path of the VASI
near, middle, and far, which provide an additional
provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or
visual glide path to accommodate high cockpit
minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline
aircraft. This installation may consist of either 6 or
and to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent,
16 light units. VASI installations consisting of 2, 4, or
using the VASI, should not be initiated until the
6 light units are located on one side of the runway,
aircraft is visually aligned with the runway. Lateral
usually the left. Where the installation consists of
course guidance is provided by the runway or runway
12 or 16 light units, the units are located on both sides
lights. In certain circumstances, the safe obstruction
of the runway.
clearance area may be reduced by narrowing the
2. Twobar VASI installations provide one beam width or shortening the usable distance due to
visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees. local limitations, or the VASI may be offset from the
Threebar VASI installations provide two visual extended runway centerline. This will be noted in the
glide paths. The lower glide path is provided by the Chart Supplement U.S. and/or applicable notices to
near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees airmen (NOTAM).
FIG 211
Precision & Nonprecision Configurations
NOTE
Civil ALSF2 may be operated as SSALR during favorable weather conditions.
FIG 212
2Bar VASI
Far Bar
= Red
Near Bar = White
FIG 213
3Bar VASI
Far Bar
Middle Bar
Near Bar
FIG 214
VASI Variations
b. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). with the runway. The row of light units is normally
The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses installed on the left side of the runway and the glide
light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a path indications are as depicted. Lateral course
single row of either two or four light units. These guidance is provided by the runway or runway lights.
lights are visible from about 5 miles during the day In certain circumstances, the safe obstruction
and up to 20 miles at night. The visual glide path of clearance area may be reduced by narrowing the
the PAPI typically provides safe obstruction beam width or shortening the usable distance due to
clearance within plus or minus 10 degrees of the local limitations, or the PAPI may be offset from the
extended runway centerline and to 3.4 NM from the extended runway centerline. This will be noted in the
runway threshold. Descent, using the PAPI, should Chart Supplement U.S. and/or applicable NOTAMs.
not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned (See FIG 215.)
FIG 215
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)
Red
c. Tricolor Systems. Tricolor visual approach the on glide path indication is green. These types of
slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit indicators have a useful range of approximately
projecting a threecolor visual approach path into the onehalf to one mile during the day and up to
final approach area of the runway upon which the five miles at night depending upon the visibility
indicator is installed. The below glide path indication conditions. (See FIG 216.)
is red, the above glide path indication is amber, and
FIG 216
TriColor Visual Approach Slope Indicator
Amber
Green
th
Pa
de
e Gli th
Amber
ov e Pa Red
Ab On Glid
ath
w G lide P
Belo
NOTE
1. Since the tricolor VASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots
should exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.
2. When the aircraft descends from green to red, the pilot may see a dark amber color during the transition from green to
red.
FIG 217
Pulsating Visual Approach Slope Indicator
PULSATING WHITE
STEADY WHITE
th
e Pa
d
Gli
bove ath
A
i d eP STEADY RED
G l Path
On low Glide
tly Be
Sligh
ath
Glide P PULSATING RED
Below
Threshold
NOTE
Since the PVASI consists of a single light source which could possibly be confused with other light sources, pilots should
exercise care to properly locate and identify the light signal.
FIG 218
Alignment of Elements
d. Pulsating Systems. Pulsating visual ap- glide slope. The useful range of the system is about
proach slope indicators normally consist of a single four miles during the day and up to ten miles at night.
light unit projecting a twocolor visual approach (See FIG 217.)
path into the final approach area of the runway upon
which the indicator is installed. The on glide path e. Alignment of Elements Systems. Alignment
indication is a steady white light. The slightly below of elements systems are installed on some small
glide path indication is a steady red light. If the general aviation airports and are a lowcost system
aircraft descends further below the glide path, the red consisting of painted plywood panels, normally black
light starts to pulsate. The above glide path indication and white or fluorescent orange. Some of these
is a pulsating white light. The pulsating rate increases systems are lighted for night use. The useful range of
as the aircraft gets further above or below the desired these systems is approximately threequarter miles.
To use the system the pilot positions the aircraft so the located along the runway centerline and are spaced at
elements are in alignment. The glide path indications 50foot intervals. When viewed from the landing
are shown in FIG 218. threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until
the last 3,000 feet of the runway. The white lights
begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and
213. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)
for the last 1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline
REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid lights are red.
and positive identification of the approach end of a b. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL). Touch-
particular runway. The system consists of a pair of down zone lights are installed on some precision
synchronized flashing lights located laterally on each approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone
side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either when landing under adverse visibility conditions.
omnidirectional or unidirectional facing the approach They consist of two rows of transverse light bars
area. They are effective for: disposed symmetrically about the runway centerline.
a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a The system consists of steadyburning white lights
preponderance of other lighting. which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and
extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or
b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.
with surrounding terrain.
c. Taxiway Centerline LeadOff Lights. Taxi-
c. Identification of a runway during reduced way centerline leadoff lights provide visual
visibility. guidance to persons exiting the runway. They are
colorcoded to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that
214. Runway Edge Light Systems they are within the runway environment or
instrument landing system (ILS) critical area,
a. Runway edge lights are used to outline the whichever is more restrictive. Alternate green and
edges of runways during periods of darkness or yellow lights are installed, beginning with green,
restricted visibility conditions. These light systems from the runway centerline to one centerline light
are classified according to the intensity or brightness position beyond the runway holding position or ILS
they are capable of producing: they are the High critical area holding position.
Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL), Medium Intensity
Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity d. Taxiway Centerline LeadOn Lights. Taxi-
Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL and MIRL way centerline leadon lights provide visual
systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the guidance to persons entering the runway. These
LIRLs normally have one intensity setting. leadon lights are also colorcoded with the same
color pattern as leadoff lights to warn pilots and
b. The runway edge lights are white, except on vehicle drivers that they are within the runway
instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last environment or instrument landing system (ILS)
2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is critical area, whichever is more conservative. The
less, to form a caution zone for landings. fixtures used for leadon lights are bidirectional, i.e.,
c. The lights marking the ends of the runway emit one side emits light for the leadon function while the
red light toward the runway to indicate the end of other side emits light for the leadoff function. Any
runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward fixture that emits yellow light for the leadoff
from the runway end to indicate the threshold to function must also emit yellow light for the leadon
landing aircraft. function. (See FIG 2114.)
e. Land and Hold Short Lights. Land and hold
215. Inrunway Lighting short lights are used to indicate the hold short point on
certain runways which are approved for Land and
a. Runway Centerline Lighting System Hold Short Operations (LAHSO). Land and hold
(RCLS). Runway centerline lights are installed on short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights
some precision approach runways to facilitate installed across the runway at the hold short point.
landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are Where installed, the lights will be on anytime
LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be off when 1. REL Operating Characteristics Departing
LAHSO is not in effect. Aircraft:
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 4311 , Pilot Responsibilities When Conducting Land
When a departing aircraft reaches a site adaptable
and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO) speed of approximately 30 knots, all taxiway
intersections with REL arrays along the runway
ahead of the aircraft will illuminate (see FIG 219).
216. Runway Status Light (RWSL)
As the aircraft approaches an REL equipped taxiway
System
intersection, the lights at that intersection extinguish
a. Introduction. approximately 3 to 4 seconds before the aircraft
reaches it. This allows controllers to apply
RWSL is a fully automated system that provides anticipated separation to permit ATC to move
runway status information to pilots and surface traffic more expeditiously without compromising
vehicle operators to clearly indicate when it is unsafe safety. After the aircraft is declared airborne by the
to enter, cross, takeoff from, or land on a runway. The system, all REL lights associated with this runway
RWSL system processes information from surveil- will extinguish.
lance systems and activates Runway Entrance Lights
(REL), Takeoff Hold Lights (THL), Runway 2. REL Operating Characteristics Arriving
Intersection Lights (RIL), and Final Approach Aircraft:
Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS) in accordance When an aircraft on final approach is approximately
with the position and velocity of the detected surface 1 mile from the runway threshold, all sets of taxiway
traffic and approach traffic. REL, THL, and RIL are REL light arrays that intersect the runway illuminate.
in-pavement light fixtures that are directly visible to The distance is adjustable and can be configured for
pilots and surface vehicle operators. FAROS alerts specific operations at particular airports. Lights
arriving pilots that the approaching runway is extinguish at each equipped taxiway intersection
occupied by flashing the Precision Approach Path approximately 3 to 4 seconds before the aircraft
Indicator (PAPI). FAROS may be implemented as an reaches it to apply anticipated separation until the
add-on to the RWSL system or implemented as a aircraft has slowed to approximately 80 knots (site
stand-alone system at airports without a RWSL adjustable parameter). Below 80 knots, all arrays that
system. RWSL is an independent safety enhancement are not within 30 seconds of the aircrafts forward
that does not substitute for or convey an ATC path are extinguished. Once the arriving aircraft
clearance. Clearance to enter, cross, takeoff from, slows to approximately 34 knots (site adjustable
land on, or operate on a runway must still be received parameter), it is declared to be in a taxi state, and all
from ATC. Although ATC has limited control over lights extinguish.
the system, personnel do not directly use and may not
be able to view light fixture activations and 3. What a pilot would observe: A pilot at or
deactivations during the conduct of daily ATC approaching the hold line to a runway will observe
operations. RELs illuminate and extinguish in reaction to an
aircraft or vehicle operating on the runway, or an
b. Runway Entrance Lights (REL): The REL arriving aircraft operating less than 1 mile from the
system is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, runway threshold.
unidirectional light fixtures that are parallel to and
focused along the taxiway centerline and directed 4. When a pilot observes the red lights of the
toward the pilot at the hold line. An array of REL REL, that pilot will stop at the hold line or remain
lights include the first light at the hold line followed stopped. The pilot will then contact ATC for
by a series of evenly spaced lights to the runway edge; resolution if the clearance is in conflict with the
one additional light at the runway centerline is in line lights. Should pilots note illuminated lights under
with the last two lights before the runway edge (see circumstances when remaining clear of the runway is
FIG 219 and FIG 2112). When activated, the impractical for safety reasons (for example, aircraft
red lights indicate that there is high speed traffic on is already on the runway), the crew should proceed
the runway or there is an aircraft on final approach according to their best judgment while understanding
within the activation area. the illuminated lights indicate the runway is unsafe to
c. Takeoff Hold Lights (THL) : The THL system (see FIG 219.) Once that aircraft or vehicle exits
is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, the runway, the THLs extinguish. A pilot may notice
unidirectional light fixtures in a double longitudinal lights extinguish prior to the downfield aircraft or
row aligned either side of the runway centerline vehicle being completely clear of the runway but still
lighting. Fixtures are focused toward the arrival end moving. Like RELs, THLs have an anticipated
of the runway at the line up and wait point. THLs separation feature.
extend for 1,500 feet in front of the holding aircraft NOTE
starting at a point 375 feet from the departure When the THLs extinguish, this is not clearance to begin a
threshold (see FIG 2113). Illuminated red lights takeoff roll. All takeoff clearances will be issued by ATC.
provide a signal, to an aircraft in position for takeoff 2. What a pilot would observe: A pilot in
or rolling, that it is unsafe to takeoff because the position to depart from a runway, or has begun takeoff
runway is occupied or about to be occupied by roll, will observe THLs illuminate in reaction to an
another aircraft or ground vehicle. Two aircraft, or a aircraft or vehicle on the runway or entering or
surface vehicle and an aircraft, are required for the crossing it. Lights will extinguish when the runway is
lights to illuminate. The departing aircraft must be in clear. A pilot may observe several cycles of
position for takeoff or beginning takeoff roll. Another illumination and extinguishing depending on the
aircraft or a surface vehicle must be on or about to amount of crossing traffic.
cross the runway.
3. When a pilot observes the red light of the
1. THL Operating Characteristics Departing THLs, the pilot should safely stop if its feasible or
Aircraft: remain stopped. The pilot must contact ATC for
resolution if any clearance is in conflict with the
THLs will illuminate for an aircraft in position for lights. Should pilots note illuminated lights while in
departure or departing when there is another aircraft takeoff roll and under circumstances when stopping
or vehicle on the runway or about to enter the runway is impractical for safety reasons, the crew should
proceed according to their best judgment while e. The Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal
understanding the illuminated lights indicate that (FAROS) is communicated by flashing of the
continuing the takeoff is unsafe. Contact ATC at the Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) (see FIG
earliest possible opportunity. 2-1-9). When activated, the light fixtures of the PAPI
flash or pulse to indicate to the pilot on an approach
d. Runway Intersection Lights (RIL): The RIL that the runway is occupied and that it may be unsafe
system is composed of flush mounted, inpavement, to land.
unidirectional light fixtures in a double longitudinal
row aligned either side of the runway centerline NOTE
lighting in the same manner as THLs. Their FAROS is an independent automatic alerting system that
appearance to a pilot is similar to that of THLs. does not rely on ATC control or input.
Fixtures are focused toward the arrival end of the 1. FAROS Operating Characteristics:
runway, and they extend for 3,000 feet in front of an
aircraft that is approaching an intersecting runway. If an aircraft or surface vehicle occupies a FAROS
They end at the Land and Hold Short Operation equipped runway, the PAPI(s) on that runway will
(LASHO) light bar or the hold short line for the flash. The glide path indication will not be affected,
intersecting runway. and the allotment of red and white PAPI lights
observed by the pilot on approach will not change.
1. RIL Operating Characteristics Departing The FAROS system will flash the PAPI when traffic
Aircraft: enters the runway and there is an aircraft on approach
and within 1.5 nautical miles of the landing threshold.
RILs will illuminate for an aircraft departing or in
position to depart when there is high speed traffic 2. What a pilot would observe: A pilot on
operating on the intersecting runway (see approach to the runway will observe the PAPI flash if
FIG 219). Note that there must be an aircraft or there is traffic on the runway and will notice the PAPI
vehicle in a position to observe the RILs for them to ceases to flash when the traffic moves outside the
illuminate. Once the conflicting traffic passes hold short lines for the runway.
through the intersection, the RILs extinguish.
3. When a pilot observes a flashing PAPI at 500
2. RIL Operating Characteristics Arriving feet above ground level (AGL), the contact height,
Aircraft: the pilot must look for and acquire the traffic on the
runway. At 300 feet AGL, the pilot must contact ATC
RILs will illuminate for an aircraft that has landed and
for resolution if the FAROS indication is in conflict
is rolling out when there is high speed traffic on the
with the clearance. If the PAPI continues to flash, the
intersecting runway that is 5 seconds of meeting at
pilot must execute an immediate go around and
the intersection. Once the conflicting traffic passes
contact ATC at the earliest possible opportunity.
through the intersection, the RILs extinguish.
f. Pilot Actions:
3. What a pilot would observe: A pilot departing
or arriving will observe RILs illuminate in reaction to 1. When operating at airports with RWSL, pilots
the high speed traffic operation on the intersecting will operate with the transponder On when
runway. The lights will extinguish when that traffic departing the gate or parking area until it is shutdown
has passed through the runway intersection. upon arrival at the gate or parking area. This ensures
interaction with the FAA surveillance systems such
4. Whenever a pilot observes the red light of the
as ASDE-X/Airport Surface Surveillance Capability
RIL array, the pilot will stop before the LAHSO stop (ASSC) which provide information to the RWSL
bar or the hold line for the intersecting runway. If a system.
departing aircraft is already at high speed in the
takeoff roll when the RILs illuminate, it may be 2. Pilots must always inform the ATCT when
impractical to stop for safety reasons. The crew they have either stopped, are verifying a landing
should safely operate according to their best clearance, or are executing a go-around due to RWSL
judgment while understanding the illuminated lights or FAROS indication that are in conflict with ATC
indicate that continuing the takeoff is unsafe. Contact instructions. Pilots must request clarification of the
ATC at the earliest possible opportunity. taxi, takeoff, or landing clearance.
3. Never cross over illuminated red lights. Automatic Terminal Information System (ATIS)
Under normal circumstances, RWSL will confirm the must be updated.
pilots taxi or takeoff clearance previously issued by
ATC. If RWSL indicates that it is unsafe to takeoff 217. Stand-Alone Final Approach
from, land on, cross, or enter a runway, immediately Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS)
notify ATC of the conflict and re-confirm the
clearance. a. Introduction:
4. Do not proceed when lights have extin- The stand-alone FAROS system is a fully automated
guished without an ATC clearance. RWSL verifies an system that provides runway occupancy status to
ATC clearance; it does not substitute for an ATC pilots on final approach to indicate whether it may be
clearance. unsafe to land. When an aircraft or vehicle is detected
on the runway, the Precision Approach Path Indicator
5. Never land if PAPI continues to flash. (PAPI) light fixtures flash as a signal to indicate that
Execute a go around and notify ATC. the runway is occupied and that it may be unsafe to
g. ATC Control of RWSL System: land. The stand-alone FAROS system is activated by
localized or comprehensive sensors detecting aircraft
1. Controllers can set inpavement lights to one
or ground vehicles occupying activation zones.
of five (5) brightness levels to assure maximum
conspicuity under all visibility and lighting condi- The stand-alone FAROS system monitors specific
tions. REL, THL, and RIL subsystems may be areas of the runway, called activation zones, to
independently set. determine the presence of aircraft or ground vehicles
in the zone (see FIG 2110). These activation zones
2. System lights can be disabled should RWSL
are defined as areas on the runway that are frequently
operations impact the efficient movement of air
occupied by ground traffic during normal airport
traffic or contribute, in the opinion of the assigned
operations and could present a hazard to landing
ATC Manager, to unsafe operations. REL, THL, RIL,
aircraft. Activation zones may include the full-length
and FAROS light fixtures may be disabled separately.
departure position, the midfield departure position, a
Disabling of the FAROS subsystem does not
frequently crossed intersection, or the entire runway.
extinguish PAPI lights or impact its glide path
function. Whenever the system or a component is Pilots can refer to the airport specific FAROS pilot
disabled, a NOTAM must be issued, and the information sheet for activation zone configuration.
FIG 2110
FAROS Activation Zones
Clearance to land on a runway must be issued by Air control over the system and may not be able to view
Traffic Control (ATC). ATC personnel have limited the FAROS signal.
Pilots should inform the ATCT when they have flashing lights (SFL) may be turned on and off. Some
executed a go around due to a FAROS indication that sequenced flashing light systems also have intensity
is in conflict with ATC instructions. control.
NOTE
At this time, the stand-alone FAROS system is not widely 219. Pilot Control of Airport Lighting
implemented and is used for evaluation purposes.
Radio control of lighting is available at selected
218. Control of Lighting Systems airports to provide airborne control of lights by
keying the aircrafts microphone. Control of lighting
a. Operation of approach light systems and
systems is often available at locations without
runway lighting is controlled by the control tower
specified hours for lighting and where there is no
(ATCT). At some locations the FSS may control the
control tower or FSS or when the tower or FSS is
lights where there is no control tower in operation.
closed (locations with a parttime tower or FSS) or
b. Pilots may request that lights be turned on or off. specified hours. All lighting systems which are radio
Runway edge lights, inpavement lights and controlled at an airport, whether on a single runway
approach lights also have intensity controls which or multiple runways, operate on the same radio
may be varied to meet the pilots request. Sequenced frequency. (See TBL 211 and TBL 212.)
FIG 2112
Runway Entrance Lights
FIG 2113
Takeoff Hold Lights
FIG 2114
Taxiway LeadOn Light Configuration
TBL 211
Runways With Approach Lights
No. of Int. Status During Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks
Lighting System
Steps Nonuse Period
3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks
Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 2 Off Low Low High
Approach Lights (Med. Int.) 3 Off Low Med High
MIRL 3 Off or Low u u u
HIRL 5 Off or Low u u u
VASI 2 Off L L L
NOTES: u Predetermined intensity step.
L Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
TBL 212
Runways Without Approach Lights
No. of Int. Status During Intensity Step Selected Per No. of Mike Clicks
Lighting System
Steps Nonuse Period
3 Clicks 5 Clicks 7 Clicks
MIRL 3 Off or Low Low Med. High
HIRL 5 Off or Low Step 1 or 2 Step 3 Step 5
LIRL 1 Off On On On
VASIL 2 Off u u u
REILL 1 Off Off On/Off On
REILL 3 Off Low Med. High
NOTES: u Low intensity for night use. High intensity for day use as determined by photocell control.
L The control of VASI and/or REIL may be independent of other lighting systems.
b. The colors and color combinations of beacons portions, on the centerline of curved portions, and
are: along designated taxiing paths in portions of
runways, ramp, and apron areas. Taxiway centerline
1. White and Green Lighted land airport.
lights are steady burning and emit green light.
2. *Green alone Lighted land airport.
c. Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights
3. White and Yellow Lighted water airport. are installed at holding positions on taxiways in order
4. *Yellow alone Lighted water airport. to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in
low visibility conditions. They may also be installed
5. Green, Yellow, and White Lighted heliport. to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway
NOTE during periods of darkness. Clearance bars consist of
*Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection three inpavement steadyburning yellow lights.
with a whiteandgreen or whiteandyellow beacon
display, respectively. d. Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights
c. Military airport beacons flash alternately white are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They
and green, but are differentiated from civil beacons are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of
by dualpeaked (two quick) white flashes between the taxiway/runway intersections during low visibility
green flashes. conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions.
Runway guard lights consist of either a pair of
d. In Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side
areas, operation of the airport beacon during the hours of the taxiway, or a row of inpavement yellow lights
of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway
is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling is less than holding position marking.
1,000 feet. ATC clearance in accordance with
14 CFR Part 91 is required for landing, takeoff and NOTE
Some airports may have a row of three or five inpavement
flight in the traffic pattern. Pilots should not rely
yellow lights installed at taxiway/runway intersections.
solely on the operation of the airport beacon to They should not be confused with clearance bar lights
indicate if weather conditions are IFR or VFR. At described in paragraph 2111 c, Clearance Bar Lights.
some locations with operating control towers, ATC
personnel turn the beacon on or off when controls are e. Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when
in the tower. At many airports the airport beacon is installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to
turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks and enter or cross the active runway in low visibility
ATC personnel cannot control them. There is no conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual Range). A
regulatory requirement for daylight operation and it stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional,
is the pilots responsibility to comply with proper steadyburning inpavement lights installed across
preflight planning as required by 14 CFR the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and
Section 91.103. elevated steadyburning red lights on each side. A
controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the
taxiway centerline leadon lights which extend from
2111. Taxiway Lights
the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC
a. Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights are clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the
used to outline the edges of taxiways during periods leadon lights are turned on. The stop bar and leadon
of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup
fixtures emit blue light. timer.
NOTE CAUTION
At most major airports these lights have variable intensity Pilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even
settings and may be adjusted at pilot request or when if an ATC clearance has been given to proceed onto or
deemed necessary by the controller. across the runway.
b. Taxiway Centerline Lights. Taxiway center- NOTE
line lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under If after crossing a stop bar, the taxiway centerline leadon
low visibility conditions. They are located along the lights inadvertently extinguish, pilots should hold their
taxiway centerline in a straight line on straight position and contact ATC for further instructions.
wire span. The lights are beamed towards the and towers, as obstructions to air navigation. The
companion structure and identify the area of the wire lights provide a 360 degree coverage about the
span. structure at 40 flashes per minute and consist of from
one to seven levels of lights depending upon the
d. High intensity flashing white lights are also height of the structure. Where more than one level is
employed to identify tall structures, such as chimneys used the vertical banks flash simultaneously.
a. Airport pavement markings and signs provide a. General. For the purpose of this presentation
information that is useful to a pilot during takeoff, the Airport Pavement Markings have been grouped
landing, and taxiing. into four areas:
1. Runway Markings.
b. Uniformity in airport markings and signs from
one airport to another enhances safety and improves 2. Taxiway Markings.
efficiency. Pilots are encouraged to work with the
3. Holding Position Markings.
operators of the airports they use to achieve the
marking and sign standards described in this section. 4. Other Markings.
c. Pilots who encounter ineffective, incorrect, or b. Marking Colors. Markings for runways are
confusing markings or signs on an airport should white. Markings defining the landing area on a
make the operator of the airport aware of the problem. heliport are also white except for hospital heliports
These situations may also be reported under the which use a red H on a white cross. Markings for
Aviation Safety Reporting Program as described in taxiways, areas not intended for use by aircraft
Paragraph 761, Aviation Safety Reporting Pro- (closed and hazardous areas), and holding positions
gram. Pilots may also report these situations to the (even if they are on a runway) are yellow.
FAA regional airports division.
233. Runway Markings
d. The markings and signs described in this
section of the AIM reflect the current FAA a. General. There are three types of markings for
recommended standards. runways: visual, nonprecision instrument, and
precision instrument. TBL 231 identifies the
REFERENCE
AC 150/53401, Standards for Airport Markings.
marking elements for each type of runway and
AC 150/534018, Standards for Airport Sign Systems. TBL 232 identifies runway threshold markings.
TBL 231
Runway Marking Elements
Nonprecision Precision
Marking Element Visual Runway Instrument Instrument
Runway Runway
Designation X X X
Centerline X X X
Threshold X1 X X
Aiming Point X2 X X
Touchdown Zone X
Side Stripes X
1 On runways used, or intended to be used, by international commercial transports.
2 On runways 4,000 feet (1200 m) or longer used by jet aircraft.
FIG 231
Precision Instrument Runway Markings
b. Runway Designators. Runway numbers and d. Runway Aiming Point Marking. The aiming
letters are determined from the approach direction. point marking serves as a visual aiming point for a
The runway number is the whole number nearest landing aircraft. These two rectangular markings
one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of consist of a broad white stripe located on each side of
the runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic the runway centerline and approximately 1,000 feet
north. The letters, differentiate between left (L), from the landing threshold, as shown in FIG 231,
right (R), or center (C), parallel runways, as Precision Instrument Runway Markings.
applicable: e. Runway Touchdown Zone Markers. The
1. For two parallel runways L R. touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown
zone for landing operations and are coded to provide
2. For three parallel runways L C R. distance information in 500 feet (150m) increments.
c. Runway Centerline Marking. The runway These markings consist of groups of one, two, and
centerline identifies the center of the runway and three rectangular bars symmetrically arranged in
provides alignment guidance during takeoff and pairs about the runway centerline, as shown in
landings. The centerline consists of a line of FIG 231, Precision Instrument Runway Markings.
uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. For runways having touchdown zone markings on
both ends, those pairs of markings which extend to
within 900 feet (270m) of the midpoint between the
thresholds are eliminated.
FIG 232
Nonprecision Instrument Runway and Visual Runway Markings
AIMING POINT
MARKING
20
DESIGNATION PAVEMENT EDGE
THRESHOLD THRESHOLD MARKING
MARKINGS
NONPRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS
AIMING POINT
MARKING
20
DESIGNATION MARKING
PAVEMENT EDGE
THRESHOLD
VISUAL RUNWAY MARKINGS
f. Runway Side Stripe Marking. Runway side dimensions disposed symmetrically about the
stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They runway centerline, as shown in FIG 231, or the
provide a visual contrast between runway and the number of stripes is related to the runway width as
abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of indicated in TBL 232. A threshold marking helps
continuous white stripes located on each side of the identify the beginning of the runway that is available
runway as shown in FIG 234. for landing. In some instances the landing threshold
may be relocated or displaced.
g. Runway Shoulder Markings. Runway shoul-
der stripes may be used to supplement runway side TBL 232
stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to the Number of Runway Threshold Stripes
runway sides that are not intended for use by aircraft. Runway Width Number of Stripes
Runway Shoulder stripes are Yellow. 60 feet (18 m) 4
(See FIG 235.)
75 feet (23 m) 6
h. Runway Threshold Markings. Runway 100 feet (30 m) 8
threshold markings come in two configurations. They 150 feet (45 m) 12
either consist of eight longitudinal stripes of uniform 200 feet (60 m) 16
1. Relocation of a Threshold. Sometimes located across the width of the runway at the
construction, maintenance, or other activities require displaced threshold. White arrows are located along
the threshold to be relocated towards the rollout end the centerline in the area between the beginning of the
of the runway. (See FIG 233.) When a threshold is runway and displaced threshold. White arrow heads
relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the are located across the width of the runway just prior
approach end of a runway, but also shortens the length to the threshold bar, as shown in FIG 234.
of the opposite direction runway. In these cases, a NOTE
NOTAM should be issued by the airport operator Airport operator. When reporting the relocation or
identifying the portion of the runway that is closed, displacement of a threshold, the airport operator should
e.g., 10/28 W 900 CLSD. Because the duration of the avoid language which confuses the two.
relocation can vary from a few hours to several i. Demarcation Bar. A demarcation bar delin-
months, methods identifying the new threshold may eates a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast
vary. One common practice is to use a ten feet wide pad, stopway or taxiway that precedes the runway. A
white threshold bar across the width of the runway. demarcation bar is 3 feet (1m) wide and yellow, since
Although the runway lights in the area between the it is not located on the runway as shown in
old threshold and new threshold will not be FIG 236.
illuminated, the runway markings in this area may or
may not be obliterated, removed, or covered. 1. Chevrons. These markings are used to show
pavement areas aligned with the runway that are
unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing. Chevrons
2. Displaced Threshold. A displaced thresh-
are yellow. (See FIG 237.)
old is a threshold located at a point on the runway
other than the designated beginning of the runway. j. Runway Threshold Bar. A threshold bar
Displacement of a threshold reduces the length of delineates the beginning of the runway that is
runway available for landings. The portion of runway available for landing when the threshold has been
behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs relocated or displaced. A threshold bar is 10 feet (3m)
in either direction and landings from the opposite in width and extends across the width of the runway,
direction. A ten feet wide white threshold bar is as shown in FIG 234.
FIG 233
Relocation of a Threshold with Markings for Taxiway Aligned with Runway
FIG 234
Displaced Threshold Markings
45 45
1. Continuous Markings. These consist of a
continuous double yellow line, with each line being
RUNWAY THRESHOLD at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches
(15 cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway
edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved
surface not intended for use by aircraft.
FIG 236
Markings for Blast Pad or Stopway or Taxiway Preceding a Displaced Threshold
FIG 237
Markings for Blast Pads and Stopways
FIG 238 to the left being on the left side of the taxiway
Enhanced Taxiway Centerline centerline and signs indicating turns to the right being
on the right side of the centerline. (See FIG 2311.)
FIG 2310
Taxi Shoulder Markings
RUNWAY
PAVEMENT EDGE
YELLOW STRIPES
TAXIWAY EDGE
MARKINGS
FIG 2311
Surface Painted Signs
235. Holding Position Markings Areas. These markings are used at some airports
a. Runway Holding Position Markings. For where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway
runways, these markings indicate where an aircraft is located in the approach or departure area of a runway
supposed to stop when approaching a runway. They so that the aircraft does not interfere with the
consist of four yellow lines, two solid and two dashed, operations on that runway. This marking is collocated
spaced six or twelve inches apart, and extending with the runway approach area holding position sign.
across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid When specifically instructed by ATC Hold short of
lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to (runway xx approach area) the pilot should stop so
hold. There are three locations where runway holding no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding
position markings are encountered. position marking. (See subparagraph 238b2,
1. Runway Holding Position Markings on Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign, and
Taxiways. These markings identify the locations on FIG 2315.)
a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when b. Holding Position Markings for Instrument
it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway. Landing System (ILS). Holding position markings
Generally, runway holding position markings also for ILS critical areas consist of two yellow solid lines
identify the boundary of the runway safety area for spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines
aircraft exiting the runway. The runway holding spaced ten feet apart extending across the width of the
position markings are shown in FIG 2313 and taxiway as shown. (See FIG 2316.) A sign with an
FIG 2316. When instructed by ATC to, Hold short inscription in white on a red background is installed
of (runway xx), the pilot must stop so that no part adjacent to these hold position markings. When the
of the aircraft extends beyond the runway holding ILS critical area is being protected, the pilot should
position marking. When approaching the runway, a stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the
pilot should not cross the runway holding position holding position marking. When approaching the
marking without ATC clearance at a controlled holding position marking, a pilot should not cross the
airport, or without making sure of adequate marking without ATC clearance. ILS critical area is
separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the
airports. An aircraft exiting a runway is not clear of applicable holding position marking.
the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 119 , Instrument Landing System (ILS)
the applicable holding position marking. c. Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 4320 , Exiting the Runway After Landing Taxiway Intersections. Holding position markings
2. Runway Holding Position Markings on for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single
Runways. These markings are installed on runways dashed line extending across the width of the taxiway
only if the runway is normally used by air traffic as shown. (See FIG 2317.) They are installed on
control for land, hold short operations or taxiing taxiways where air traffic control normally holds
operations and have operational significance only for aircraft short of a taxiway intersection. When
those two types of operations. A sign with a white instructed by ATC hold short of (taxiway) the pilot
inscription on a red background is installed adjacent should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond
to these holding position markings. (See the holding position marking. When the marking is
FIG 2314.) The holding position markings are not present the pilot should stop the aircraft at a point
placed on runways prior to the intersection with which provides adequate clearance from an aircraft
another runway, or some designated point. Pilots on the intersecting taxiway.
receiving instructions cleared to land, runway xx d. Surface Painted Holding Position Signs.
from air traffic control are authorized to use the entire Surface painted holding position signs have a red
landing length of the runway and should disregard background with a white inscription and supplement
any holding position markings located on the runway. the signs located at the holding position. This type of
Pilots receiving and accepting instructions cleared marking is normally used where the width of the
to land runway xx, hold short of runway yy from holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200
air traffic control must either exit runway xx, or feet(60m). It is located to the left side of the taxiway
stop at the holding position prior to runway yy. centerline on the holding side and prior to the holding
3. Taxiways Located in Runway Approach position marking. (See FIG 2311.)
FIG 2312
Geographic Position Markings
FIG 2313
Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiway
15
RUNWAY TAXIWAY/RUNWAY
HOLDING POSITION
MARKINGS
HOLDING
BAY
TAXIWAY
FIG 2314
Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways
FIG 2315
Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Area
FIG 2316
Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area
15
RUNWAY HOLDING
DETAIL 1 POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
ILS HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 2
ILS CRITICAL
AREA
DETAIL 2
236. Other Markings the middle; the arrow is aligned in the direction of the
checkpoint azimuth. This marking, and an associated
a. Vehicle Roadway Markings. The vehicle
sign, is located on the airport apron or taxiway at a
roadway markings are used when necessary to define
point selected for easy access by aircraft but where
a pathway for vehicle operations on or crossing areas
other airport traffic is not to be unduly obstructed.
that are also intended for aircraft. These markings
(See FIG 2320.)
consist of a white solid line to delineate each edge of
the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes within NOTE
the edges of the roadway. In lieu of the solid lines, The associated sign contains the VOR station identification
zipper markings may be used to delineate the edges letter and course selected (published) for the check, the
of the vehicle roadway. (See FIG 2318.) Details of words VOR check course, and DME data (when
applicable). The color of the letters and numerals are black
the zipper markings are shown in FIG 2319.
on a yellow background.
b. VOR Receiver Checkpoint Markings. The EXAMPLE
VOR receiver checkpoint marking allows the pilot to DCA 176356
check aircraft instruments with navigational aid VOR check course
signals. It consists of a painted circle with an arrow in DME XXX
FIG 2317
Holding Position Markings: Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
TAXIWAY HOLDING
POSITION MARKINGS,
YELLOW, SEE
DETAIL 1
DETAIL 1
FIG 2318
Vehicle Roadway Markings
1 2
3
4
5
1. WHITE
2. YELLOW
3. YELLOW ARROW ALIGNED TOWARD THE FACILITY
4. INTERIOR OF CIRCLE BLACK (CONCRETE SURFACE ONLY)
5. CIRCLE MAY BE BORDERED ON INSIDE AND OUTSIDE WITH
6" BLACK BAND IF NECESSARY FOR CONTRAST
FIG 2321
Nonmovement Area Boundary Markings
DASHED LINE ON
MOVEMENT SIDE BOTH LINES
ARE YELLOW
SOLID LINE ON
NONMOVEMENT
SIDE
FIG 2322
Closed or Temporarily Closed Runway
and Taxiway Markings
FIG 2323
Helicopter Landing Areas
e. Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways. f. Helicopter Landing Areas. The markings
To provide a visual indication to pilots that a runway illustrated in FIG 2323 are used to identify the
is temporarily closed, crosses are placed on the landing and takeoff area at a public use heliport and
runway only at each end of the runway. The crosses hospital heliport. The letter H in the markings is
are yellow in color. (See FIG 2322.) oriented to align with the intended direction of
approach. FIG 2323 also depicts the markings for
1. A raised lighted yellow cross may be placed
a closed airport.
on each runway end in lieu of the markings described
in subparagraph e,Temporarily Closed Runways and
Taxiways, to indicate the runway is closed.
237. Airport Signs
2. A visual indication may not be present
depending on the reason for the closure, duration of
There are six types of signs installed on airfields:
the closure, airfield configuration and the existence
mandatory instruction signs, location signs, direction
and the hours of operation of an airport traffic control
signs, destination signs, information signs, and
tower. Pilots should check NOTAMs and the
runway distance remaining signs. The characteristics
Automated Terminal Information System (ATIS) for
and use of these signs are discussed in Para-
local runway and taxiway closure information.
graph 238, Mandatory Instruction Signs, through
3. Temporarily closed taxiways are usually Paragraph 2313, Runway Distance Remaining
treated as hazardous areas, in which no part of an Signs.
aircraft may enter, and are blocked with barricades.
REFERENCE
However, as an alternative a yellow cross may be AC150/534018, Standards for Airport Sign Systems for Detailed
installed at each entrance to the taxiway. Information on Airport Signs.
FIG 2324
Runway Holding Position Sign
FIG 2325
Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway
238. Mandatory Instruction Signs runways. The inscription on the sign contains the
designation of the intersecting runway as shown in
a. These signs have a red background with a white
FIG 2324. The runway numbers on the sign are
inscription and are used to denote:
arranged to correspond to the respective runway
1. An entrance to a runway or critical area and; threshold. For example, 1533 indicates that the
2. Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the
entering. threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.
FIG 2326
Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways
FIG 2327
Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area
(b) If the sign is located on a taxiway that position markings are described in paragraph 235,
intersects the intersection of two runways, the Holding Position Markings.
designations for both runways will be shown on the
sign along with arrows showing the approximate 2. Runway Approach Area Holding Position
alignment of each runway as shown in FIG 2326. Sign. At some airports, it is necessary to hold an
In addition to showing the approximate runway aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach or
alignment, the arrow indicates the direction to the departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does
threshold of the runway whose designation is not interfere with operations on that runway. In these
immediately next to the arrow. situations, a sign with the designation of the approach
end of the runway followed by a dash () and letters
(c) A runway holding position sign on a APCH will be located at the holding position on the
taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position taxiway. Holding position markings in accordance
markings on the taxiway pavement. On runways, with paragraph 235, Holding Position Markings,
holding position markings will be located only on the will be located on the taxiway pavement. An example
runway pavement adjacent to the sign, if the runway of this sign is shown in FIG 2327. In this example,
is normally used by air traffic control for Land, Hold the sign may protect the approach to Runway 15
Short operations or as a taxiway. The holding and/or the departure for Runway 33.
FIG 2328
Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area
FIG 2329
Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area
3. ILS Critical Area Holding Position 4. No Entry Sign. This sign, shown in
Sign. At some airports, when the instrument landing FIG 2329, prohibits an aircraft from entering an
system is being used, it is necessary to hold an aircraft area. Typically, this sign would be located on a
on a taxiway at a location other than the holding taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or
position described in paragraph 235, Holding at the intersection of vehicle roadways with runways,
Position Markings. In these situations the holding taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be
position sign for these operations will have the mistaken as a taxiway or other aircraft movement
inscription ILS and be located adjacent to the surface.
holding position marking on the taxiway described in NOTE
paragraph 235. An example of this sign is shown The holding position sign provides the pilot with a visual
in FIG 2328. cue as to the location of the holding position marking. The
operational significance of holding position markings are
described in the notes for paragraph 235, Holding
Position Markings.
FIG 2330
Taxiway Location Sign
FIG 2331
Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with Runway Holding Position Sign
FIG 2332
Runway Location Sign
FIG 2333
Runway Boundary Sign
2. Runway Location Sign. This sign has a 3. Runway Boundary Sign. This sign has a
black background with a yellow inscription and yellow background with a black inscription with a
yellow border as shown in FIG 2332. The graphic depicting the pavement holding position
inscription is the designation of the runway on which marking as shown in FIG 2333. This sign, which
the aircraft is located. These signs are intended to faces the runway and is visible to the pilot exiting the
complement the information available to pilots runway, is located adjacent to the holding position
through their magnetic compass and typically are marking on the pavement. The sign is intended to
installed where the proximity of two or more runways provide pilots with another visual cue which they can
to one another could cause pilots to be confused as to use as a guide in deciding when they are clear of the
which runway they are on. runway.
FIG 2334
ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign
4. ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign. This taxiway designations by either a vertical message
sign has a yellow background with a black inscription divider or a taxiway location sign as shown in
with a graphic depicting the ILS pavement holding FIG 2335.
position marking as shown in FIG 2334. This sign
c. Direction signs are normally located on the left
is located adjacent to the ILS holding position
prior to the intersection. When used on a runway to
marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots
indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side
leaving the critical area. The sign is intended to
of the runway as the exit. FIG 2336 shows a
provide pilots with another visual cue which they can
direction sign used to indicate a runway exit.
use as a guide in deciding when they are clear of the
ILS critical area. d. The taxiway designations and their associated
arrows on the sign are arranged clockwise starting
2310. Direction Signs from the first taxiway on the pilots left.
(See FIG 2335.)
a. Direction signs have a yellow background with
a black inscription. The inscription identifies the e. If a location sign is located with the direction
designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading signs, it is placed so that the designations for all turns
out of the intersection that a pilot would normally be to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the
expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each designations for continuing straight ahead or for all
designation is accompanied by an arrow indicating turns to the right would be located to the right of the
the direction of the turn. location sign. (See FIG 2335.)
b. Except as noted in subparagraph e, each f. When the intersection is comprised of only one
taxiway designation shown on the sign is accompa- crossing taxiway, it is permissible to have two arrows
nied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway associated with the crossing taxiway as shown in
designation is shown on the sign each designation and FIG 2337. In this case, the location sign is located
its associated arrow is separated from the other to the left of the direction sign.
FIG 2335
Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection
FIG 2336
Direction Sign for Runway Exit
FIG 2337
Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection
FIG 2338
Destination Sign for Military Area
FIG 2339
Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways
2311. Destination Signs areas, and fixed base operators. An abbreviation may
be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these
a. Destination signs also have a yellow back- destinations.
ground with a black inscription indicating a
destination on the airport. These signs always have an c. When the inscription for two or more
arrow showing the direction of the taxiing route to destinations having a common taxiing route are
that destination. FIG 2338 is an example of a placed on a sign, the destinations are separated by a
typical destination sign. When the arrow on the dot () and one arrow would be used as shown in
destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located FIG 2339. When the inscription on a sign contains
prior to the intersection. two or more destinations having different taxiing
routes, each destination will be accompanied by an
b. Destinations commonly shown on these types arrow and will be separated from the other
of signs include runways, aprons, terminals, military destinations on the sign with a vertical black message
areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international divider as shown in FIG 2340.
FIG 2340
Destination Sign for Different Taxiing Routes to Two Runways
3
with information on such things as areas that cannot
be seen from the control tower, applicable radio
frequencies, and noise abatement procedures. The
airport operator determines the need, size, and
location for these signs.
FIG 2342
Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS)
2315. Security Identifications Display 2. Measures used to perform the access control
Area (Airport Ramp Area) functions required under CFR 49 Part
1542.201(b)(1);
a. Security Identification Display Areas (SIDA)
are limited access areas that require a badge issued in 3. Procedures to control movement within the
accordance with procedures in CFR 49 Part 1542. secured area, including identification media required
Movement through or into these areas is prohibited under CFR 49 Part 1542.201(b)(3); and
without proper identification being displayed. If you
are unsure of the location of a SIDA, contact the 4. A description of the notification signs
airport authority for additional information. Airports required under CFR 49 Part 1542.201(b)(6).
that have a SIDA must have the following
b. Pilots or passengers without proper identifica-
information available:
tion that are observed entering a SIDA (ramp area)
1. A description and map detailing boundaries may be reported to TSA or airport security. Pilots are
and pertinent features; advised to brief passengers accordingly.
Chapter 3. Airspace
Section 1. General
General 311
AIM 12/10/15
TBL 311
Basic VFR Weather Minimums
If your magnetic course And you are more than 3,000 feet above the And you are above 18,000 feet
(ground track) is: surface but below 18,000 feet MSL, fly: MSL to FL 290, fly:
0 to 179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Odd thousands MSL, plus 500 feet Odd Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(3,500; 5,500; 7,500, etc.) (FL 195; FL 215; FL 235, etc.)
180 to 359 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Even thousands MSL, plus 500 feet Even Flight Levels plus 500 feet
(4,500; 6,500; 8,500, etc.) (FL 185; FL 205; FL 225, etc.)
312 General
12/10/15 AIM
FL 600 CLASS A
18,000 MSL
14,500 MSL CLASS E
CLASS B
CLASS C
CLASS
CL ASS D
Nontowered 700 AGL 1,200 AGL
Airport
CLASS G CLASS G CLASS G
g. Ultralight Vehicles. No person may operate an consists of a surface area and two or more layers
ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C, or (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down
Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all
the surface area of Class E airspace designated for an published instrument procedures once an aircraft
airport unless that person has prior authorization from enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for
the ATC facility having jurisdiction over that all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that
airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 103.) are so cleared receive separation services within the
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR
h. Unmanned Free Balloons. Unless otherwise operations is clear of clouds.
authorized by ATC, no person may operate an
unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
surface within the lateral boundaries of Class B, Requirements for VFR Operations. Regardless of
Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required
an airport. (See 14 CFR Part 101.) prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots
should not request a clearance to operate within
i. Parachute Jumps. No person may make a Class B airspace unless the requirements of 14 CFR
parachute jump, and no pilotincommand may Section 91.215 and 14 CFR Section 91.131 are met.
allow a parachute jump to be made from that aircraft, Included among these requirements are:
in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D
airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an 1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft
ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having must be equipped with an operable two-way radio
jurisdiction over the airspace. (See 14 CFR Part 105.) capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate
frequencies for that Class B airspace.
2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft
322. Class A Airspace
at the following primary airports within Class B
a. Definition. Generally, that airspace from airspace unless the pilotincommand holds at least
18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600, a private pilot certificate:
including the airspace overlying the waters within (a) Andrews Air Force Base, MD
12 nautical miles off the coast of the 48 contiguous
States and Alaska; and designated international (b) Atlanta Hartsfield Airport, GA
airspace beyond 12 nautical miles off the coast of the (c) Boston Logan Airport, MA
48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of
domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar (d) Chicago OHare Intl. Airport, IL
coverage, and within which domestic procedures are (e) Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport, TX
applied.
(f) Los Angeles Intl. Airport, CA
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized, all (g) Miami Intl. Airport, FL
persons must operate their aircraft under IFR. (See (h) Newark Intl. Airport, NJ
14 CFR Section 71.33 and 14 CFR Section 91.167
(i) New York Kennedy Airport, NY
through 14 CFR Section 91.193.)
(j) New York La Guardia Airport, NY
c. Charts. Class A airspace is not specifically
charted. (k) Ronald Reagan Washington National
Airport, DC
(b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot c. Charts. Class B airspace is charted on
or recreational pilot who seeks private pilot Sectional Charts, IFR En Route Low Altitude, and
certification and has met the requirements of 14 CFR Terminal Area Charts.
Section 61.95.
d. Flight Procedures.
4. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each
person operating a large turbine engine-powered 1. Flights. Aircraft within Class B airspace are
airplane to or from a primary airport must operate at required to operate in accordance with current IFR
or above the designated floors while within the lateral procedures. A clearance for a visual approach to a
limits of Class B airspace. primary airport is not authorization for turbine
powered airplanes to operate below the designated
5. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each floors of the Class B airspace.
aircraft must be equipped as follows:
2. VFR Flights.
(a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or
TACAN receiver or an operable and suitable RNAV (a) Arriving aircraft must obtain an ATC
system; and clearance prior to entering Class B airspace and must
contact ATC on the appropriate frequency, and in
(b) For all operations, a two-way radio relation to geographical fixes shown on local charts.
capable of communications with ATC on appropriate Although a pilot may be operating beneath the floor
frequencies for that area; and of the Class B airspace on initial contact,
communications with ATC should be established in
(c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an relation to the points indicated for spacing and
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic sequencing purposes.
altitude reporting equipment.
(b) Departing aircraft require a clearance to
NOTE depart Class B airspace and should advise the
ATC may, upon notification, immediately authorize a clearance delivery position of their intended altitude
deviation from the altitude reporting equipment require-
and route of flight. ATC will normally advise VFR
ment; however, a request for a deviation from the 4096
transponder equipment requirement must be submitted to
aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of the
the controlling ATC facility at least one hour before the Class B airspace. Radar service is not automatically
proposed operation. terminated with this advisory unless specifically
stated by the controller.
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 4120 , Transponder Operation
(c) Aircraft not landing or departing the
6. Mode C Veil. The airspace within 30 nauti- primary airport may obtain an ATC clearance to
cal miles of an airport listed in Appendix D, Section 1 transit the Class B airspace when traffic conditions
of 14 CFR Part 91 (generally primary airports within permit and provided the requirements of 14 CFR
Class B airspace areas), from the surface upward to Section 91.131 are met. Such VFR aircraft are
10,000 feet MSL. Unless otherwise authorized by encouraged, to the extent possible, to operate at
ATC, aircraft operating within this airspace must be altitudes above or below the Class B airspace or
equipped with automatic pressure altitude reporting transit through established VFR corridors. Pilots
equipment having Mode C capability. operating in VFR corridors are urged to use frequency
122.750 MHz for the exchange of aircraft position
However, an aircraft that was not originally information.
certificated with an enginedriven electrical system
or which has not subsequently been certified with a e. ATC Clearances and Separation. An ATC
system installed may conduct operations within a clearance is required to enter and operate within
Mode C veil provided the aircraft remains outside Class B airspace. VFR pilots are provided sequenc-
Class A, B or C airspace; and below the altitude of the ing and separation from other aircraft while operating
ceiling of a Class B or Class C airspace area within Class B airspace.
designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL, REFERENCE
whichever is lower. AIM, Paragraph 4118 , Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft
arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace 5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho-
ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an
their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destina- aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface
tion, and request Class C service. Radio contact within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a
should be initiated far enough from the Class C Class C airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more
airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C than 200 knots (230 mph).
airspace before two-way radio communications are d. Air Traffic Services. When two-way radio
established. communications and radar contact are established, all
NOTE VFR aircraft are:
1. If the controller responds to a radio call with, (aircraft
1. Sequenced to the primary airport.
callsign) standby, radio communications have been
established and the pilot can enter the Class C airspace. 2. Provided Class C services within the Class C
2. If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate airspace and the outer area.
provision of Class C services, the controller will inform the 3. Provided basic radar services beyond the
pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until outer area on a workload permitting basis. This can be
conditions permit the services to be provided. terminated by the controller if workload dictates.
3. It is important to understand that if the controller e. Aircraft Separation. Separation is provided
responds to the initial radio call without using the aircraft
within the Class C airspace and the outer area after
identification, radio communications have not been
two-way radio communications and radar contact are
established and the pilot may not enter the Class C
airspace.
established. VFR aircraft are separated from IFR
aircraft within the Class C airspace by any of the
4. Though not requiring regulatory action, Class C following:
airspace areas have a procedural Outer Area. Normally
this area is 20 NM from the primary Class C airspace 1. Visual separation.
airport. Its vertical limit extends from the lower limits of 2. 500 feet vertical separation.
radio/radar coverage up to the ceiling of the approach
controls delegated airspace, excluding the Class C 3. Target resolution.
airspace itself, and other airspace as appropriate. (This 4. Wake turbulence separation will be provided
outer area is not charted.) to all aircraft operating:
5. Pilots approaching an airport with Class C service (a) Behind and less than 1,000 feet below
should be aware that if they descend below the base altitude super or heavy aircraft,
of the 5 to 10 mile shelf during an instrument or visual
approach, they may encounter nontransponder, VFR (b) To small aircraft operating behind and less
aircraft. than 500 feet below B757 aircraft, and
EXAMPLE (c) To small aircraft following a large aircraft
1. [Aircraft callsign] remain outside the Class Charlie on final approach.
airspace and standby. NOTE
2. Aircraft calling Dulles approach control, standby. 1. Separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be
suspended in the event of a radar outage as this service is
4. Departures from: dependent on radar. The pilot will be advised that the
(a) A primary or satellite airport with an service is not available and issued wind, runway
information and the time or place to contact the tower.
operating control tower. Two-way radio communica-
tions must be established and maintained with the 2. Separation of VFR aircraft will be suspended during
control tower, and thereafter as instructed by ATC CENRAP operations. Traffic advisories and sequencing to
while operating in Class C airspace. the primary airport will be provided on a workload
permitting basis. The pilot will be advised when CENRAP
(b) A satellite airport without an operating is in use.
control tower. Two-way radio communications must 3. Pilot participation is voluntary within the outer area
be established as soon as practicable after departing and can be discontinued, within the outer area, at the pilots
with the ATC facility having jurisdiction over the request. Class C services will be provided in the outer area
Class C airspace. unless the pilot requests termination of the service.
4. Some facilities provide Class C services only during airspace underlies or is adjacent to Class B airspace.
published hours. At other times, terminal IFR radar service (See TBL 321.)
will be provided. It is important to note that the
TBL 321
communications and transponder requirements are
Class C Airspace Areas by State
dependent of the class of airspace established outside of the
published hours. State/City Airport
ALABAMA
f. Secondary Airports Birmingham . . . . . . . . . BirminghamShuttlesworth
International
1. In some locations Class C airspace may Huntsville . . . . . . . . . . . InternationalCarl T Jones Fld
overlie the Class D surface area of a secondary Mobile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
airport. In order to allow that control tower to provide ALASKA
service to aircraft, portions of the overlapping Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . Ted Stevens International
Class C airspace may be procedurally excluded when ARIZONA
the secondary airport tower is in operation. Aircraft DavisMonthan . . . . . . . AFB
operating in these procedurally excluded areas will Tucson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
only be provided airport traffic control services when ARKANSAS
Fayetteville (Springdale) Northwest Arkansas Regional
in communication with the secondary airport tower.
Little Rock . . . . . . . . . . Adams Field
2. Aircraft proceeding inbound to a satellite CALIFORNIA
airport will be terminated at a sufficient distance to Beale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AFB
Burbank . . . . . . . . . . . . Bob Hope
allow time to change to the appropriate tower or
Fresno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yosemite International
advisory frequency. Class C services to these aircraft Monterey . . . . . . . . . . . . Peninsula
will be discontinued when the aircraft is instructed to Oakland . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metropolitan Oakland
contact the tower or change to advisory frequency. International
Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . International
3. Aircraft departing secondary controlled Riverside . . . . . . . . . . . . March AFB
airports will not receive Class C services until they Sacramento . . . . . . . . . . International
have been radar identified and two-way communica- San Jose . . . . . . . . . . . . Norman Y. Mineta International
tions have been established with the Class C airspace Santa Ana . . . . . . . . . . . John Wayne/Orange County
facility. Santa Barbara . . . . . . . . Municipal
COLORADO
4. This program is not to be interpreted as Colorado Springs . . . . . Municipal
relieving pilots of their responsibilities to see and CONNECTICUT
avoid other traffic operating in basic VFR weather Windsor Locks . . . . . . . Bradley International
conditions, to adjust their operations and flight path FLORIDA
as necessary to preclude serious wake encounters, to Daytona Beach . . . . . . . International
maintain appropriate terrain and obstruction clear- Fort Lauderdale . . . . . . . Hollywood International
Fort Myers . . . . . . . . . . SW Florida Regional
ance or to remain in weather conditions equal to or
Jacksonville . . . . . . . . . . International
better than the minimums required by 14 CFR
Orlando . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanford International
Section 91.155. Approach control should be advised Palm Beach . . . . . . . . . . International
and a revised clearance or instruction obtained when Pensacola . . . . . . . . . . . NAS
compliance with an assigned route, heading and/or Pensacola . . . . . . . . . . . Regional
altitude is likely to compromise pilot responsibility Sarasota . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bradenton International
with respect to terrain and obstruction clearance, Tallahassee . . . . . . . . . . Regional
vortex exposure, and weather minimums. Whiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . NAS
GEORGIA
g. Class C Airspace Areas by State Savannah . . . . . . . . . . . . Hilton Head International
HAWAII
These states currently have designated Class C Kahului . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kahului
airspace areas that are depicted on sectional charts. IDAHO
Pilots should consult current sectional charts and Boise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Air Terminal
NOTAMs for the latest information on services ILLINOIS
available. Pilots should be aware that some Class C Champaign . . . . . . . . . . Urbana U of IllinoisWillard
5. Aircraft Speed. Unless otherwise autho- specifics), Class E airspace in the United States
rized or required by ATC, no person may operate an consists of:
aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface 1. The airspace extending upward from 14,500
within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a feet MSL to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL
Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more overlying the 48 contiguous states, the District of
than 200 knots (230 mph). Columbia and Alaska, including the waters within
c. Class D airspace areas are depicted on Sectional nautical 12 miles from the coast of the 48 contiguous
and Terminal charts with blue segmented lines, and states and Alaska; excluding:
on IFR En Route Lows with a boxed [D]. (a) The Alaska peninsula west of longit-
d. Surface area arrival extensions: ude 16000'00''W.; and
(b) The airspace below 1,500 feet above the
1. Class D surface area arrival extensions for
surface of the earth unless specifically designated
instrument approach procedures may be Class D or
lower (for example, in mountainous terrain higher
Class E airspace. As a general rule, if all extensions
than 13,000 feet MSL).
are 2 miles or less, they remain part of the Class D
surface area. However, if any one extension is greater 2. The airspace above FL 600 is Class E
than 2 miles, then all extensions will be Class E airspace.
airspace. e. Functions of Class E Airspace. Class E
2. Surface area arrival extensions are effective airspace may be designated for the following
during the published times of the surface area. For purposes:
parttime Class D surface areas that revert to Class E 1. Surface area designated for an airport
airspace, the arrival extensions will remain in effect where a control tower is not in operation. Class E
as Class E airspace. For parttime Class D surface surface areas extend upward from the surface to a
areas that change to Class G airspace, the arrival designated altitude, or to the adjacent or overlying
extensions will become Class G at the same time. controlled airspace. The airspace will be configured
to contain all instrument procedures.
e. Separation for VFR Aircraft. No separation
services are provided to VFR aircraft. (a) To qualify for a Class E surface area, the
airport must have weather observation and reporting
capability, and communications capability must exist
326. Class E Airspace
with aircraft down to the runway surface.
a. Definition. Class E airspace is controlled (b) A Class E surface area may also be
airspace that is designated to serve a variety of designated to accommodate part-time operations at a
terminal or en route purposes as described in this Class C or Class D airspace location (for example,
paragraph. those periods when the control tower is not in
b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment operation).
Requirements: (c) Pilots should refer to the airport page in
1. Pilot Certification. No specific certifica- the applicable Chart Supplement U.S. for surface area
tion required. status information.
2. Extension to a surface area. Class E
2. Equipment. No specific equipment
airspace may be designated as extensions to Class B,
required by the airspace.
Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas. Class E
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Require- airspace extensions begin at the surface and extend up
ments. No specific requirements. to the overlying controlled airspace. The extensions
provide controlled airspace to contain standard
c. Charts. Class E airspace below 14,500 feet
instrument approach procedures without imposing a
MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, and IFR
communications requirement on pilots operating
Enroute Low Altitude charts.
under VFR. Surface area arrival extensions become
d. Vertical limits. Except where designated at a part of the surface area and are in effect during the
lower altitude (see paragraph 326e, below, for same times as the surface area.
TBL 331
IFR Altitudes
Class G Airspace
a. There are two advisory type services available b. It is not mandatory that pilots participate in the
at selected airports. Airport Advisory programs. Participation enhances
safety for everyone operating around busy GA
1. Local Airport Advisory (LAA) service is
airports; therefore, everyone is encouraged to
available only in Alaska and is operated within 10
participate and provide feedback that will help
statute miles of an airport where a control tower is not
improve the program.
operating but where a FSS is located on the airport. At
such locations, the FSS provides a complete local
airport advisory service to arriving and departing 352. Military Training Routes
aircraft. During periods of fast changing weather the a. National security depends largely on the
FSS will automatically provide Final Guard as part of deterrent effect of our airborne military forces. To be
the service from the time the aircraft reports proficient, the military services must train in a wide
onfinal or takingtheactiverunway until the range of airborne tactics. One phase of this training
aircraft reports ontheground or airborne. involves low level combat tactics. The required
NOTE maneuvers and high speeds are such that they may
Current policy, when requesting remote ATC services, occasionally make the see-and-avoid aspect of VFR
requires that a pilot monitor the automated weather flight more difficult without increased vigilance in
broadcast at the landing airport prior to requesting ATC areas containing such operations. In an effort to
services. The FSS automatically provides Final Guard, ensure the greatest practical level of safety for all
when appropriate, during LAA/Remote Airport Advisory flight operations, the Military Training Route (MTR)
(RAA) operations. Final Guard is a value added
program was conceived.
wind/altimeter monitoring service, which provides an
automatic wind and altimeter check during active weather b. The MTR program is a joint venture by the FAA
situations when the pilot reports onfinal or taking the and the Department of Defense (DOD). MTRs are
active runway. During the landing or takeoff operation mutually developed for use by the military for the
when the winds or altimeter are actively changing the FSS purpose of conducting low-altitude, high-speed
will blind broadcast significant changes when the
training. The routes above 1,500 feet AGL are
specialist believes the change might affect the operation.
Pilots should acknowledge the first wind/altimeter check developed to be flown, to the maximum extent
but due to cockpit activity no acknowledgement is expected possible, under IFR. The routes at 1,500 feet AGL
for the blind broadcasts. It is prudent for a pilot to report and below are generally developed to be flown under
ontheground or airborne to end the service. VFR.
2. Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS) c. Generally, MTRs are established below
is provided in support of short term special events like 10,000 feet MSL for operations at speeds in excess of
small to medium flyins. The service is advertised by 250 knots. However, route segments may be defined
NOTAM D only. The FSS will not have access to a at higher altitudes for purposes of route continuity.
continuous readout of the current winds and For example, route segments may be defined for
altimeter; therefore, RAIS does not include weather descent, climbout, and mountainous terrain. There
and/or Final Guard service. However, known traffic, are IFR and VFR routes as follows:
special event instructions, and all other services are 1. IFR Military Training Routes(IR).
provided. Operations on these routes are conducted in
NOTE accordance with IFR regardless of weather
The airport authority and/or manager should request RAIS conditions.
support on official letterhead directly with the manager of
the FSS that will provide the service at least 60 days in 2. VFR Military Training Routes(VR).
advance. Approval authority rests with the FSS manager Operations on these routes are conducted in
and is based on workload and resource availability. accordance with VFR except flight visibility must be
5 miles or more; and flights must not be conducted vigilance should be exercised when conducting flight
below a ceiling of less than 3,000 feet AGL. through or near these routes. Pilots should contact
FSSs within 100 NM of a particular MTR to obtain
d. Military training routes will be identified and
current information or route usage in their vicinity.
charted as follows:
Information available includes times of scheduled
1. Route identification. activity, altitudes in use on each route segment, and
actual route width. Route width varies for each MTR
(a) MTRs with no segment above 1,500 feet
and can extend several miles on either side of the
AGL must be identified by four number characters;
charted MTR centerline. Route width information for
e.g., IR1206, VR1207.
IR and VR MTRs is also available in the FLIP AP/1B
(b) MTRs that include one or more segments along with additional MTR (slow routes/air refueling
above 1,500 feet AGL must be identified by three routes) information. When requesting MTR informa-
number characters; e.g., IR206, VR207. tion, pilots should give the FSS their position, route
of flight, and destination in order to reduce frequency
(c) Alternate IR/VR routes or route segments
congestion and permit the FSS specialist to identify
are identified by using the basic/principal route
the MTR which could be a factor.
designation followed by a letter suffix, e.g., IR008A,
VR1007B, etc.
353. Temporary Flight Restrictions
2. Route charting.
a. General. This paragraph describes the types of
(a) IFR Enroute Low Altitude Chart. This
conditions under which the FAA may impose
chart will depict all IR routes and all VR routes that
temporary flight restrictions. It also explains which
accommodate operations above 1,500 feet AGL.
FAA elements have been delegated authority to issue
(b) VFR Sectional Aeronautical a temporary flight restrictions NOTAM and lists the
Charts. These charts will depict military training types of responsible agencies/offices from which the
activities such as IR, VR, MOA, Restricted Area, FAA will accept requests to establish temporary
Warning Area, and Alert Area information. flight restrictions. The 14 CFR is explicit as to what
operations are prohibited, restricted, or allowed in a
(c) Area Planning (AP/1B) Chart (DOD
temporary flight restrictions area. Pilots are responsi-
Flight Information PublicationFLIP). This chart
ble to comply with 14 CFR Sections 91.137, 91.138,
is published by the National GeospatialIntelligence
91.141 and 91.143 when conducting flight in an area
Agency (NGA) primarily for military users and
where a temporary flight restrictions area is in effect,
contains detailed information on both IR and VR
and should check appropriate NOTAMs during flight
routes.
planning.
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 915 , Subparagraph a, National b. The purpose for establishing a temporary
GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA) Products flight restrictions area is to:
e. The FLIP contains charts and narrative
1. Protect persons and property in the air or on
descriptions of these routes. To obtain this
the surface from an existing or imminent hazard
publication contact:
associated with an incident on the surface when the
Defense Logistics Agency for Aviation presence of low flying aircraft would magnify, alter,
Mapping Customer Operations (DLA AVN/QAM) spread, or compound that hazard (14 CFR
8000 Jefferson Davis Highway Section 91.137(a)(1));
Richmond, VA 232975339
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation
Toll free phone: 18008260342
of disaster relief aircraft (14 CFR Sec-
Commercial: 8042796500
tion 91.137(a)(2)); or
This NGA FLIP is available for pilot briefings at FSS
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing
and many airports.
aircraft above an incident or event which may
f. Nonparticipating aircraft are not prohibited generate a high degree of public interest (14 CFR
from flying within an MTR; however, extreme Section 91.137(a)(3)).
4. Protect declared national disasters for spills, flammable agents, or fumes which if fanned by
humanitarian reasons in the State of Hawaii (14 CFR rotor or propeller wash could endanger persons or
Section 91.138). property on the surface, or if entered by an aircraft
could endanger persons or property in the air;
5. Protect the President, Vice President, or other imminent volcano eruptions which could endanger
public figures (14 CFR Section 91.141). airborne aircraft and occupants; nuclear accident or
6. Provide a safe environment for space agency incident; and hijackings. Situations which warrant
operations (14 CFR Section 91.143). the restrictions associated with 14 CFR Sec-
tion 91.137(a)(2) include: forest fires which are
c. Except for hijacking situations, when the being fought by releasing fire retardants from
provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) or (a)(2) aircraft; and aircraft relief activities following a
are necessary, a temporary flight restrictions area will disaster (earthquake, tidal wave, flood, etc.). 14 CFR
only be established by or through the area manager at Section 91.137(a)(3) restrictions are established for
the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) events and incidents that would attract an unsafe
having jurisdiction over the area concerned. A congestion of sightseeing aircraft.
temporary flight restrictions NOTAM involving the
f. The amount of airspace needed to protect
conditions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) will be
persons and property or provide a safe environment
issued at the direction of the service area office
for rescue/relief aircraft operations is normally
director having oversight of the airspace concerned.
limited to within 2,000 feet above the surface and
When hijacking situations are involved, a temporary
within a 3nauticalmile radius. Incidents occurring
flight restrictions area will be implemented through
within Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace will
the TSA Aviation Command Center. The appropriate
normally be handled through existing procedures and
FAA air traffic element, upon receipt of such a
should not require the issuance of a temporary flight
request, will establish a temporary flight restrictions
restrictions NOTAM. Temporary flight restrictions
area under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1).
affecting airspace outside of the U.S. and its
d. The FAA accepts recommendations for the territories and possessions are issued with verbiage
establishment of a temporary flight restrictions area excluding that airspace outside of the 12mile coastal
under 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) from military limits.
major command headquarters, regional directors of g. The FSS nearest the incident site is normally the
the Office of Emergency Planning, Civil Defense coordination facility. When FAA communications
State Directors, State Governors, or other similar assistance is required, the designated FSS will
authority. For the situations involving 14 CFR function as the primary communications facility for
Section 91.137(a)(2), the FAA accepts recommenda- coordination between emergency control authorities
tions from military commanders serving as regional, and affected aircraft. The ARTCC may act as liaison
subregional, or Search and Rescue (SAR) coordina- for the emergency control authorities if adequate
tors; by military commanders directing or communications cannot be established between the
coordinating air operations associated with disaster designated FSS and the relief organization. For
relief; or by civil authorities directing or coordinating example, the coordination facility may relay
organized relief air operations (includes representa- authorizations from the on-scene emergency re-
tives of the Office of Emergency Planning, U.S. sponse official in cases where news media aircraft
Forest Service, and State aeronautical agencies). operations are approved at the altitudes used by relief
Appropriate authorities for a temporary flight aircraft.
restrictions establishment under 14 CFR
Section 91.137(a)(3) are any of those listed above or h. ATC may authorize operations in a temporary
by State, county, or city government entities. flight restrictions area under its own authority only
when flight restrictions are established under 14 CFR
e. The type of restrictions issued will be kept to a Section 91.137(a)(2) and (a)(3). The appropriate
minimum by the FAA consistent with achievement of ARTCC/airport traffic control tower manager will,
the necessary objective. Situations which warrant the however, ensure that such authorized flights do not
extreme restrictions of 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1) hamper activities or interfere with the event for which
include, but are not limited to: toxic gas leaks or restrictions were implemented. However, ATC will
not authorize local IFR flights into the temporary UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3) temporary
flight restrictions area. flight restrictions are in effect within a 3nauticalmile
radius of N355783/W835242 and Volunteer VORTAC 019
i. To preclude misunderstanding, the implement- degree radial 3.7 DME fix at and below 2,500 feet MSL.
ing NOTAM will contain specific and formatted Norton FSS (423) 5556742 (126.6) is the FAA
information. The facility establishing a temporary coordination facility.
flight restrictions area will format a NOTAM
beginning with the phrase FLIGHT RESTRIC- 4. 14 CFR Section 91.138:
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft except those
TIONS followed by: the location of the temporary
operating under the authorization of the official in charge
flight restrictions area; the effective period; the area
of associated emergency or disaster relief response
defined in statute miles; the altitudes affected; the activities, aircraft carrying law enforcement officials,
FAA coordination facility and commercial telephone aircraft carrying personnel involved in an emergency or
number; the reason for the temporary flight legitimate scientific purposes, carrying properly accred-
restrictions; the agency directing any relief activities ited news media, and aircraft operating in accordance with
and its commercial telephone number; and other an ATC clearance or instruction.
information considered appropriate by the issuing Flight restrictions Kapalua, Hawaii, effective 9605101200
authority. UTC until 9605151500 UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR
EXAMPLE Section 91.138 temporary flight restrictions are in effect
1. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(1): within a 3nauticalmile radius of N205778/W1564038
The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft operations and Maui/OGG/VORTAC 275 degree radial at 14.1
except those specified in the NOTAM. nautical miles. John Doe 8087574469 or 122.4 is in
Flight restrictions Matthews, Virginia, effective immedi- charge of the operation. Honolulu/HNL 8087574470
ately until 9610211200. Pursuant to 14 CFR (123.6) FSS is the FAA coordination facility.
Section 91.137(a)(1) temporary flight restrictions are in 5. 14 CFR Section 91.141:
effect. Rescue operations in progress. Only relief aircraft The following NOTAM prohibits all aircraft.
operations under the direction of the Department of Flight restrictions Stillwater, Oklahoma, June 21, 1996.
Defense are authorized in the airspace at and below Pursuant to 14 CFR Section 91.141 aircraft flight
5,000 feet MSL within a 2nauticalmile radius of Laser operations are prohibited within a 3nauticalmile radius,
AFB, Matthews, Virginia. Commander, Laser AFB, in below 2000 feet AGL of N360962/W970515 and the
charge (897) 9465543 (122.4). Steenson FSS Stillwater/SWO/VOR/DME 176 degree radial 3.8nauti-
(792) 5556141 (123.1) is the FAA coordination facility. calmile fix from 1400 local time to 1700 local time
2. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2): June 21, 1996, unless otherwise authorized by ATC.
The following NOTAM permits flight operations in 6. 14 CFR Section 91.143:
accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2). The on-site The following NOTAM prohibits any aircraft of U.S.
emergency response official to authorize media aircraft registry, or pilot any aircraft under the authority of an
operations below the altitudes used by the relief aircraft. airman certificate issued by the FAA.
Flight restrictions 25 miles east of Bransome, Idaho, Kennedy space center space operations area effective
effective immediately until 9601202359 UTC. Pursuant to immediately until 9610152100 UTC. Pursuant to 14 CFR
14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(2) temporary flight restrictions Section 91.143, flight operations conducted by FAA
are in effect within a 4nauticalmile radius of the certificated pilots or conducted in aircraft of U.S. registry
intersection of county roads 564 and 315 at and below are prohibited at any altitude from surface to unlimited,
3,500 feet MSL to provide a safe environment for fire within the following area 30nauticalmile radius of the
fighting aircraft operations. Davis County sheriff s Melbourne/MLB/VORTAC 010 degree radial 21nauti-
department (792) 5558122 (122.9) is in charge of calmile fix. St. Petersburg, Florida/PIE/FSS
on-scene emergency response activities. Glivings FSS 8135451645 (122.2) is the FAA coordination facility and
(792) 5551618 (122.2) is the FAA coordination facility. should be contacted for the current status of any airspace
3. 14 CFR Section 91.137(a)(3): associated with the space shuttle operations. This airspace
The following NOTAM prohibits sightseeing aircraft encompasses R2933, R2932, R2931, R2934, R2935,
operations. W497A and W158A. Additional warning and restricted
Flight restrictions Brown, Tennessee, due to olympic areas will be active in conjunction with the operations.
activity. Effective 9606181100 UTC until 9607190200 Pilots must consult all NOTAMs regarding this operation.
354. Parachute Jump Aircraft Operations aircrafts altitude and position in relation to the
airport, the approximate relative time when the jump
a. Procedures relating to parachute jump areas are will commence and terminate, and listen to the
contained in 14 CFR Part 105. Tabulations of position reports of other aircraft in the area.
parachute jump areas in the U.S. are contained in the
Chart Supplement U.S.
355. Published VFR Routes
b. Pilots of aircraft engaged in parachute jump
operations are reminded that all reported altitudes Published VFR routes for transitioning around, under
must be with reference to mean sea level, or flight and through complex airspace such as Class B
level, as appropriate, to enable ATC to provide airspace were developed through a number of FAA
meaningful traffic information. and industry initiatives. All of the following terms,
i.e., VFR Flyway VFR Corridor and Class B
c. Parachute operations in the vicinity of an airport Airspace VFR Transition Route have been used
without an operating control tower there is no when referring to the same or different types of routes
substitute for alertness while in the vicinity of an or airspace. The following paragraphs identify and
airport. It is essential that pilots conducting parachute clarify the functionality of each type of route, and
operations be alert, look for other traffic, and specify where and when an ATC clearance is
exchange traffic information as recommended in required.
Paragraph 419, Traffic Advisory Practices at
a. VFR Flyways.
Airports Without Operating Control Towers. In
addition, pilots should avoid releasing parachutes 1. VFR Flyways and their associated Flyway
while in an airport traffic pattern when there are other Planning Charts were developed from the recommen-
aircraft in that pattern. Pilots should make dations of a National Airspace Review Task Group.
appropriate broadcasts on the designated Common A VFR Flyway is defined as a general flight path not
Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF), and monitor defined as a specific course, for use by pilots in
that CTAF until all parachute activity has terminated planning flights into, out of, through or near complex
or the aircraft has left the area. Prior to commencing terminal airspace to avoid Class B airspace. An ATC
a jump operation, the pilot should broadcast the clearance is NOT required to fly these routes.
FIG 351
VFR Flyway Planning Chart
2. VFR Flyways are depicted on the reverse side traffic using a corridor, extreme caution and vigilance
of some of the VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC), must be exercised.
commonly referred to as Class B airspace charts. (See
FIG 352
FIG 351.) Eventually all TACs will include a VFR
Class B Airspace
Flyway Planning Chart. These charts identify VFR
flyways designed to help VFR pilots avoid major
controlled traffic flows. They may further depict
multiple VFR routings throughout the area which
may be used as an alternative to flight within Class B
airspace. The ground references provide a guide for
improved visual navigation. These routes are not
intended to discourage requests for VFR operations
within Class B airspace but are designed solely to
assist pilots in planning for flights under and around
busy Class B airspace without actually entering
Class B airspace.
FIG 353
VFR Transition Route
411. Air Route Traffic Control Centers evaluation, and technical evaluation and repair of
control and communications systems.
Centers are established primarily to provide air traffic
service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans within b. Where the public access telephone is recorded,
controlled airspace, and principally during the a beeper tone is not required. In place of the beep
en route phase of flight. tone the FCC has substituted a mandatory require-
ment that persons to be recorded be given notice they
are to be recorded and give consent. Notice is given
412. Control Towers by this entry, consent to record is assumed by the
Towers have been established to provide for a safe, individual placing a call to the operational facility.
orderly and expeditious flow of traffic on and in the
vicinity of an airport. When the responsibility has 415. Communications Release of IFR
been so delegated, towers also provide for the Aircraft Landing at an Airport Without an
separation of IFR aircraft in the terminal areas. Operating Control Tower
REFERENCE Aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan, landing at an
AIM, Paragraph 543 , Approach Control
airport without an operating control tower will be
advised to change to the airport advisory frequency
413. Flight Service Stations when direct communications with ATC are no longer
Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are air traffic required. Towers and centers do not have nontower
facilities which provide pilot briefings, flight plan airport traffic and runway in use information. The
processing, en route flight advisories, search and instrument approach may not be aligned with the
rescue services, and assistance to lost aircraft and runway in use; therefore, if the information has not
aircraft in emergency situations. FSSs also relay ATC already been obtained, pilots should make an
clearances, process Notices to Airmen, broadcast expeditious change to the airport advisory frequency
aviation weather and aeronautical information, and when authorized.
advise Customs and Border Protection of transborder REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 544 , Advance Information on Instrument Approach
flights. In Alaska, designated FSSs also provide
TWEB recordings, take weather observations, and
provide Airport Advisory Services (AAS). 416. Pilot Visits to Air Traffic Facilities
Pilots are encouraged to participate in local pilot/air
414. Recording and Monitoring traffic control outreach activities. However, due to
security and workload concerns, requests for air
a. Calls to air traffic control (ATC) facilities traffic facility visits may not always be approved.
(ARTCCs, Towers, FSSs, Central Flow, and Therefore, visit requests should be submitted through
Operations Centers) over radio and ATC operational the air traffic facility as early as possible. Pilots
telephone lines (lines used for operational purposes should contact the facility and advise them of the
such as controller instructions, briefings, opening and number of persons in the group, the time and date of
closing flight plans, issuance of IFR clearances and the proposed visit, and the primary interest of the
amendments, counter hijacking activities, etc.) may group. The air traffic facility will provide further
be monitored and recorded for operational uses such instructions if a request can be approved.
as accident investigations, accident prevention, REFERENCE
search and rescue purposes, specialist training and FAA Order 1600.69, FAA Facility Security Management Program
TBL 411
Summary of Recommended Communication Procedures
Communication/Broadcast Procedures
Practice
Facility at Airport Frequency Use Outbound Inbound Instrument
Approach
1. UNICOM (No Tower or Communicate with UNICOM Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
FSS) station on published CTAF before taxiing on Entering
frequency (122.7; 122.8; 122.725; the runway for downwind, base,
122.975; or 123.0). If unable to departure. and final. Leaving
contact UNICOM station, use the runway.
self-announce procedures on
CTAF.
2. No Tower, FSS, or Self-announce on MULTICOM Before taxiing and 10 miles out. Departing final
UNICOM frequency 122.9. before taxiing on Entering approach fix
the runway for downwind, base, (name) or on final
departure. and final. Leaving approach segment
the runway. inbound.
3. No Tower in operation, Communicate with FSS on CTAF Before taxiing and 10 miles out. Approach com-
FSS open (Alaska only) frequency. before taxiing on Entering pleted/terminated.
the runway for downwind, base,
departure. and final. Leaving
the runway.
4. FSS Closed (No Tower) Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
before taxiing on Entering
the runway for downwind, base,
departure. and final. Leaving
the runway.
5. Tower or FSS not in Self-announce on CTAF. Before taxiing and 10 miles out.
operation before taxiing on Entering
the runway for downwind, base,
departure. and final. Leaving
the runway.
6. Designated CTAF Area Self-announce on CTAF Before taxiing and When entering
(Alaska Only) designated on chart or Chart before taxiing on designated CTAF
Supplement Alaska. the runway for area.
departure until
leaving designated
area.
FINAL (as appropriate) FOR RUNWAY ONE NINER (full 4111. Designated UNICOM/MULTICOM
stop/touchandgo) FREDERICK. Frequencies
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE
TANGO FOXTROT CLEAR OF RUNWAY ONE NINER Frequency use
FREDERICK. a. The following listing depicts UNICOM and
MULTICOM frequency uses as designated by the
(b) Outbound Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
(See TBL 412.)
PHRASEOLOGY
FREDERICK UNICOM CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE TBL 412
TANGO FOXTROT (location on airport) TAXIING TO Unicom/Multicom Frequency Usage
RUNWAY ONE NINER, REQUEST WIND AND TRAFFIC Use Frequency
INFORMATION FREDERICK.
FREDERICK TRAFFIC CESSNA EIGHT ZERO ONE Airports without an operating 122.700
control tower. 122.725
TANGO FOXTROT DEPARTING RUNWAY ONE NINER.
122.800
REMAINING IN THE PATTERN OR DEPARTING
122.975
THE PATTERN TO THE (direction) (as appropriate) 123.000
FREDERICK. 123.050
123.075
(MULTICOM FREQUENCY) 122.900
Activities of a temporary, seasonal,
4110. IFR Approaches/Ground Vehicle emergency nature or search and
rescue, as well as, airports with no
Operations
tower, FSS, or UNICOM.
(MULTICOM FREQUENCY) 122.925
a. IFR Approaches. When operating in accor- Forestry management and fire
dance with an IFR clearance and ATC approves a suppression, fish and game
change to the advisory frequency, make an management and protection, and
environmental monitoring and
expeditious change to the CTAF and employ the
protection.
recommended traffic advisory procedures.
Airports with a control tower or 122.950
FSS on airport.
b. Ground Vehicle Operation. Airport ground
vehicles equipped with radios should monitor the NOTE
CTAF frequency when operating on the airport 1. In some areas of the country, frequency interference
movement area and remain clear of runways/taxi- may be encountered from nearby airports using the same
ways being used by aircraft. Radio transmissions UNICOM frequency. Where there is a problem, UNICOM
from ground vehicles should be confined to operators are encouraged to develop a least interfer-
ence frequency assignment plan for airports concerned
safety-related matters.
using the frequencies designated for airports without
operating control towers. UNICOM licensees are
c. Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems. encouraged to apply for UNICOM 25 kHz spaced channel
Whenever possible, the CTAF will be used to control frequencies. Due to the extremely limited number of
airport lighting systems at airports without operating frequencies with 50 kHz channel spacing, 25 kHz channel
control towers. This eliminates the need for pilots to spacing should be implemented. UNICOM licensees may
then request FCC to assign frequencies in accordance with
change frequencies to turn the lights on and allows a
the plan, which FCC will review and consider for approval.
continuous listening watch on a single frequency. The
CTAF is published on the instrument approach chart 2. Wind direction and runway information may not be
and in other appropriate aeronautical information available on UNICOM frequency 122.950.
publications. For further details concerning radio b. The following listing depicts other frequency
controlled lights, see AC 150/534027, Airto uses as designated by the Federal Communications
Ground Radio Control of Airport Lighting Systems. Commission (FCC). (See TBL 413.)
4112. Use of UNICOM for ATC Purposes (d) Present weather consisting of: sky condi-
tion, temperature, dew point, altimeter, a density
UNICOM service may be used for ATC purposes, altitude advisory when appropriate, and other
only under the following circumstances: pertinent remarks included in the official weather
a. Revision to proposed departure time. observation
5. Instrument approach and runway in use.
b. Takeoff, arrival, or flight plan cancellation
time. The ceiling/sky condition, visibility, and obstructions
to vision may be omitted from the ATIS broadcast if
c. ATC clearance, provided arrangements are
the ceiling is above 5,000 feet and the visibility is
made between the ATC facility and the UNICOM
more than 5 miles. The departure runway will only be
licensee to handle such messages.
given if different from the landing runway except at
locations having a separate ATIS for departure. The
4113. Automatic Terminal Information broadcast may include the appropriate frequency and
Service (ATIS) instructions for VFR arrivals to make initial contact
with approach control. Pilots of aircraft arriving or
a. ATIS is the continuous broadcast of recorded departing the terminal area can receive the
noncontrol information in selected high activity continuous ATIS broadcast at times when cockpit
terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller duties are least pressing and listen to as many repeats
effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by as desired. ATIS broadcast must be updated upon the
automating the repetitive transmission of essential receipt of any official hourly and special weather. A
but routine information. The information is continu- new recording will also be made when there is a
ously broadcast over a discrete VHF radio frequency change in other pertinent data such as runway change,
or the voice portion of a local NAVAID. Arrival ATIS instrument approach in use, etc.
transmissions on a discrete VHF radio frequency are
engineered according to the individual facility EXAMPLE
Dulles International information Sierra. One four zero
requirements, which would normally be a protected
zero zulu. Wind three five zero at eight. Visibility one zero.
service volume of 20 NM to 60 NM from the ATIS Ceiling four thousand five hundred broken. Temperature
site and a maximum altitude of 25,000 feet AGL. In three four. Dew point two eight. Altimeter three zero one
the case of a departure ATIS, the protected service zero. ILS runway one right approach in use. Departing
volume cannot exceed 5 NM and 100 feet AGL. At runway three zero. Advise on initial contact you have
most locations, ATIS signals may be received on the information sierra.
surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit
c. Pilots should listen to ATIS broadcasts
the maximum ATIS reception distance and/or
whenever ATIS is in operation.
altitude. Pilots are urged to cooperate in the ATIS
program as it relieves frequency congestion on d. Pilots should notify controllers on initial
approach control, ground control, and local control contact that they have received the ATIS broadcast by
frequencies. The Chart Supplement U.S. indicates repeating the alphabetical code word appended to the
airports for which ATIS is provided. broadcast.
numbers in communications with the FSS. Use of tion may be provided to flights not operating on IFR
this phrase means that the pilot has received wind, flight plans when requested by pilots of such flights.
runway, and altimeter information ONLY and the NOTE
Alaska FSS does not have to repeat this information. Radar ATC facilities normally display and monitor both
It does not indicate receipt of the AFIS broadcast and primary and secondary radar when it is available, except
should never be used for this purpose. that secondary radar may be used as the sole display
source in Class A airspace, and under some circumstances
outside of Class A airspace (beyond primary coverage and
4115. Radar Traffic Information Service
in en route areas where only secondary is available).
This is a service provided by radar ATC facilities. Secondary radar may also be used outside Class A
Pilots receiving this service are advised of any radar airspace as the sole display source when the primary radar
target observed on the radar display which may be in is temporarily unusable or out of service. Pilots in contact
with the affected ATC facility are normally advised when
such proximity to the position of their aircraft or its
a temporary outage occurs; i.e., primary radar out of
intended route of flight that it warrants their attention. service; traffic advisories available on transponder
This service is not intended to relieve the pilot of the aircraft only. This means simply that only the aircraft
responsibility for continual vigilance to see and avoid which have transponders installed and in use will be
other aircraft. depicted on ATC radar indicators when the primary radar
is temporarily out of service.
a. Purpose of the Service
2. When receiving VFR radar advisory service,
1. The issuance of traffic information as pilots should monitor the assigned frequency at all
observed on a radar display is based on the principle times. This is to preclude controllers concern for
of assisting and advising a pilot that a particular radar radio failure or emergency assistance to aircraft under
targets position and track indicates it may intersect or the controllers jurisdiction. VFR radar advisory
pass in such proximity to that pilots intended flight service does not include vectors away from
path that it warrants attention. This is to alert the pilot conflicting traffic unless requested by the pilot. When
to the traffic, to be on the lookout for it, and thereby advisory service is no longer desired, advise the
be in a better position to take appropriate action controller before changing frequencies and then
should the need arise. change your transponder code to 1200, if applicable.
2. Pilots are reminded that the surveillance radar Pilots should also inform the controller when
used by ATC does not provide altitude information changing VFR cruising altitude. Except in programs
unless the aircraft is equipped with Mode C and the where radar service is automatically terminated, the
radar facility is capable of displaying altitude controller will advise the aircraft when radar is
information. terminated.
b. Provisions of the Service NOTE
Participation by VFR pilots in formal programs
1. Many factors, such as limitations of the radar, implemented at certain terminal locations constitutes pilot
volume of traffic, controller workload and commu- request. This also applies to participating pilots at those
nications frequency congestion, could prevent the locations where arriving VFR flights are encouraged to
controller from providing this service. Controllers make their first contact with the tower on the approach
possess complete discretion for determining whether control frequency.
they are able to provide or continue to provide this c. Issuance of Traffic Information. Traffic
service in a specific case. The controllers reason information will include the following concerning a
against providing or continuing to provide the service target which may constitute traffic for an aircraft that
in a particular case is not subject to question nor need is:
it be communicated to the pilot. In other words, the 1. Radar identified
provision of this service is entirely dependent upon
whether controllers believe they are in a position to (a) Azimuth from the aircraft in terms of the
provide it. Traffic information is routinely provided 12 hour clock, or
to all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except (b) When rapidly maneuvering civil test or
when the pilot declines the service, or the pilot is military aircraft prevent accurate issuance of traffic
operating within Class A airspace. Traffic informa- as in (a) above, specify the direction from an aircrafts
miles;
(A) (B)
reasonable, though intermittent basis. Once the alert equipped aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan is
is issued, it is solely the pilots prerogative to below a predetermined minimum safe altitude.
determine what course of action, if any, to take. This NOTE
procedure is intended for use in time critical Pilots operating VFR may request MSAW or LAAS
situations where aircraft safety is in question. monitoring if their aircraft are equipped with Mode C
Noncritical situations should be handled via the transponders.
normal traffic alert procedures. EXAMPLE
Apache Three Three Papa request MSAW/LAAS.
a. Terrain or Obstruction Alert
b. Aircraft Conflict Alert.
1. Controllers will immediately issue an alert to 1. Controllers will immediately issue an alert to
the pilot of an aircraft under their control when they the pilot of an aircraft under their control if they are
recognize that the aircraft is at an altitude which, in aware of another aircraft which is not under their
their judgment, may be in an unsafe proximity to control, at an altitude which, in the controllers
terrain/obstructions. The primary method of detect- judgment, places both aircraft in unsafe proximity to
ing unsafe proximity is through Mode C automatic each other. With the alert, when feasible, the
altitude reports. controller will offer the pilot the position of the traffic
EXAMPLE if time permits and an alternate course(s) of action.
Low altitude alert Cessna Three Four Juliet, check your Any alternate course(s) of action the controller may
altitude immediately. And if the aircraft is not yet on final recommend to the pilot will be predicated only on
approach, the MVA (MEA/MIA/MOCA) in your area is six other traffic being worked by the controller.
thousand. EXAMPLE
2. Terminal Automated Radar Terminal System American Three, traffic alert, (position of traffic, if time
permits), advise you turn right/left heading (degrees)
(ARTS) IIIA, Common ARTS (to include ARTS IIIE
and/or climb/descend to (altitude) immediately.
and ARTS IIE) (CARTS), Micro En Route
Automated Radar Tracking System (MEARTS), and
Standard Terminal Automation Replacement System 4117. Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft
(STARS) facilities have an automated function a. Radar equipped FAA ATC facilities provide
which, if operating, alerts controllers when a tracked radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to
Mode C equipped aircraft under their control is below VFR aircraft provided the aircraft can communicate
or is predicted to be below a predetermined minimum with the facility, are within radar coverage, and can be
safe altitude. This function, called Minimum Safe radar identified.
Altitude Warning (MSAW), is designed solely as a
controller aid in detecting potentially unsafe aircraft b. Pilots should clearly understand that authoriza-
proximity to terrain/obstructions. The ARTS IIIA, tion to proceed in accordance with such radar
CARTS, MEARTS, and STARS facility will, when navigational assistance does not constitute authoriza-
tion for the pilot to violate CFRs. In effect, assistance
MSAW is operating, provide MSAW monitoring for
all aircraft with an operating Mode C altitude provided is on the basis that navigational guidance
encoding transponder that are tracked by the system information issued is advisory in nature and the job of
and are: flying the aircraft safely, remains with the pilot.
c. In many cases, controllers will be unable to
(a) Operating on an IFR flight plan; or determine if flight into instrument conditions will
result from their instructions. To avoid possible
(b) Operating VFR and have requested hazards resulting from being vectored into IFR
MSAW monitoring. conditions, pilots should keep controllers advised of
the weather conditions in which they are operating
3. Terminal AN/TPX42A (number beacon
and along the course ahead.
decoder system) facilities have an automated
function called Low Altitude Alert System (LAAS). d. Radar navigation assistance (vectors) may be
Although not as sophisticated as MSAW, LAAS initiated by the controller when one of the following
alerts the controller when a Mode C transponder conditions exist:
1. The controller suggests the vector and the 2. Vectoring service may be provided when
pilot concurs. requested by the pilot or with pilot concurrence when
suggested by ATC.
2. A special program has been established and
vectoring service has been advertised. 3. Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact
approach control on the publicized frequency and
3. In the controllers judgment the vector is give their position, altitude, aircraft call sign, type
necessary for air safety. aircraft, radar beacon code (if transponder equipped),
destination, and request traffic information.
e. Radar navigation assistance (vectors) and other
radar derived information may be provided in 4. Approach control will issue wind and
response to pilot requests. Many factors, such as runway, except when the pilot states have numbers
limitations of radar, volume of traffic, communica- or this information is contained in the ATIS broadcast
tions frequency, congestion, and controller workload and the pilot states that the current ATIS information
could prevent the controller from providing it. has been received. Traffic information is provided on
Controllers have complete discretion for determining a workload permitting basis. Approach control will
if they are able to provide the service in a particular specify the time or place at which the pilot is to
case. Their decision not to provide the service in a contact the tower on local control frequency for
particular case is not subject to question. further landing information. Radar service is
automatically terminated and the aircraft need not be
advised of termination when an arriving VFR aircraft
4118. Terminal Radar Services for VFR receiving radar services to a towercontrolled airport
Aircraft where basic radar service is provided has landed, or
to all other airports, is instructed to change to tower
a. Basic Radar Service: or advisory frequency. (See FAA Order JO 7110.65,
Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 5113, Radar
1. In addition to the use of radar for the control Service Termination.)
of IFR aircraft, all commissioned radar facilities
provide the following basic radar services for VFR 5. Sequencing for VFR aircraft is available at
aircraft: certain terminal locations (see locations listed in the
Chart Supplement U.S.). The purpose of the service
(a) Safety alerts. is to adjust the flow of arriving VFR and IFR aircraft
into the traffic pattern in a safe and orderly manner
(b) Traffic advisories. and to provide radar traffic information to departing
(c) Limited radar vectoring (on a workload VFR aircraft. Pilot participation is urged but is not
permitting basis). mandatory. Traffic information is provided on a
workload permitting basis. Standard radar separation
(d) Sequencing at locations where proce- between VFR or between VFR and IFR aircraft is not
dures have been established for this purpose and/or provided.
when covered by a Letter of Agreement. (a) Pilots of arriving VFR aircraft should
NOTE initiate radio contact on the publicized frequency
When the stage services were developed, two basic radar with approach control when approximately 25 miles
services (traffic advisories and limited vectoring) were from the airport at which sequencing services are
identified as Stage I. This definition became unneces- being provided. On initial contact by VFR aircraft,
sary and the term Stage I was eliminated from use. The approach control will assume that sequencing service
term Stage II has been eliminated in conjunction with is requested. After radar contact is established, the
the airspace reclassification, and sequencing services to pilot may use pilot navigation to enter the traffic
locations with local procedures and/or letters of agreement
pattern or, depending on traffic conditions, approach
to provide this service have been included in basic services
to VFR aircraft. These basic services will still be provided control may provide the pilot with routings or vectors
by all terminal radar facilities whether they include necessary for proper sequencing with other partici-
Class B, Class C, Class D or Class E airspace. Stage III pating VFR and IFR traffic en route to the airport.
services have been replaced with Class B and TRSA When a flight is positioned behind a preceding
service where applicable. aircraft and the pilot reports having that aircraft in
sight, the pilot will be instructed to follow the 4. While operating within a TRSA, pilots are
preceding aircraft. THE ATC INSTRUCTION TO provided TRSA service and separation as prescribed
FOLLOW THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT DOES in this paragraph. In the event of a radar outage,
NOT AUTHORIZE THE PILOT TO COMPLY separation and sequencing of VFR aircraft will be
WITH ANY ATC CLEARANCE OR INSTRUC- suspended as this service is dependent on radar. The
TION ISSUED TO THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT. pilot will be advised that the service is not available
If other nonparticipating or local aircraft are in and issued wind, runway information, and the time or
the traffic pattern, the tower will issue a landing place to contact the tower. Traffic information will be
sequence. If an arriving aircraft does not want radar provided on a workload permitting basis.
service, the pilot should state NEGATIVE RADAR 5. Visual separation is used when prevailing
SERVICE or make a similar comment, on initial conditions permit and it will be applied as follows:
contact with approach control.
(a) When a VFR flight is positioned behind a
(b) Pilots of departing VFR aircraft are preceding aircraft and the pilot reports having that
encouraged to request radar traffic information by aircraft in sight, the pilot will be instructed by ATC to
notifying ground control on initial contact with their follow the preceding aircraft. Radar service will be
request and proposed direction of flight. continued to the runway. THE ATC INSTRUCTION
TO FOLLOW THE PRECEDING AIRCRAFT
EXAMPLE
DOES NOT AUTHORIZE THE PILOT TO
Xray ground control, November One Eight Six, Cessna One
Seventy Two, ready to taxi, VFR southbound at 2,500, have COMPLY WITH ANY ATC CLEARANCE OR
information bravo and request radar traffic information. INSTRUCTION ISSUED TO THE PRECEDING
AIRCRAFT.
NOTE
Following takeoff, the tower will advise when to contact (b) If other nonparticipating or local
departure control. aircraft are in the traffic pattern, the tower will issue
a landing sequence.
(c) Pilots of aircraft transiting the area and in
radar contact/communication with approach control (c) Departing VFR aircraft may be asked if
will receive traffic information on a controller they can visually follow a preceding departure out of
workload permitting basis. Pilots of such aircraft the TRSA. The pilot will be instructed to follow the
should give their position, altitude, aircraft call sign, other aircraft provided that the pilot can maintain
aircraft type, radar beacon code (if transponder visual contact with that aircraft.
equipped), destination, and/or route of flight. 6. VFR aircraft will be separated from VFR/IFR
aircraft by one of the following:
b. TRSA Service (Radar Sequencing and
Separation Service for VFR Aircraft in a TRSA). (a) 500 feet vertical separation.
(b) Visual separation.
1. This service has been implemented at certain
terminal locations. The service is advertised in the (c) Target resolution (a process to ensure that
Chart Supplement U.S. The purpose of this service is correlated radar targets do not touch).
to provide separation between all participating VFR 7. Participating pilots operating VFR in a
aircraft and all IFR aircraft operating within the TRSA:
airspace defined as the Terminal Radar Service Area
(a) Must maintain an altitude when assigned
(TRSA). Pilot participation is urged but is not
by ATC unless the altitude assignment is to maintain
mandatory.
at or below a specified altitude. ATC may assign
2. If any aircraft does not want the service, the altitudes for separation that do not conform to
pilot should state NEGATIVE TRSA SERVICE or 14 CFR Section 91.159. When the altitude assign-
make a similar comment, on initial contact with ment is no longer needed for separation or when
approach control or ground control, as appropriate. leaving the TRSA, the instruction will be broadcast,
RESUME APPROPRIATE VFR ALTITUDES.
3. TRSAs are depicted on sectional aeronautical Pilots must then return to an altitude that conforms to
charts and listed in the Chart Supplement U.S. 14 CFR Section 91.159 as soon as practicable.
(b) When not assigned an altitude, the pilot f. ATC services for VFR aircraft participating in
should coordinate with ATC prior to any altitude terminal radar services are dependent on ATC radar.
change. Services for VFR aircraft are not available during
periods of a radar outage and are limited during
8. Within the TRSA, traffic information on CENRAP operations. The pilot will be advised when
observed but unidentified targets will, to the extent VFR services are limited or not available.
possible, be provided to all IFR and participating
VFR aircraft. The pilot will be vectored upon request NOTE
to avoid the observed traffic, provided the aircraft to Class B and Class C airspace are areas of regulated
airspace. The absence of ATC radar does not negate the
be vectored is within the airspace under the
requirement of an ATC clearance to enter Class B airspace
jurisdiction of the controller. or two way radio contact with ATC to enter Class C
airspace.
9. Departing aircraft should inform ATC of their
intended destination and/or route of flight and
proposed cruising altitude. 4119. Tower En Route Control (TEC)
10. ATC will normally advise participating a. TEC is an ATC program to provide a service to
VFR aircraft when leaving the geographical limits of aircraft proceeding to and from metropolitan areas. It
the TRSA. Radar service is not automatically links designated Approach Control Areas by a
terminated with this advisory unless specifically network of identified routes made up of the existing
stated by the controller. airway structure of the National Airspace System.
The FAA initiated an expanded TEC program to
c. Class C Service. This service provides, in include as many facilities as possible. The programs
addition to basic radar service, approved separation intent is to provide an overflow resource in the low
between IFR and VFR aircraft, and sequencing of altitude system which would enhance ATC services.
VFR arrivals to the primary airport. A few facilities have historically allowed turbojets to
d. Class B Service. This service provides, in proceed between certain city pairs, such as
addition to basic radar service, approved separation Milwaukee and Chicago, via tower en route and these
of aircraft based on IFR, VFR, and/or weight, and locations may continue this service. However, the
sequencing of VFR arrivals to the primary airport(s). expanded TEC program will be applied, generally,
for nonturbojet aircraft operating at and below
e. PILOT RESPONSIBILITY. THESE SER- 10,000 feet. The program is entirely within the
VICES ARE NOT TO BE INTERPRETED AS approach control airspace of multiple terminal
RELIEVING PILOTS OF THEIR RESPONSIBILI- facilities. Essentially, it is for relatively short flights.
TIES TO SEE AND AVOID OTHER TRAFFIC Participating pilots are encouraged to use TEC for
OPERATING IN BASIC VFR WEATHER CONDI- flights of two hours duration or less. If longer flights
TIONS, TO ADJUST THEIR OPERATIONS AND are planned, extensive coordination may be required
FLIGHT PATH AS NECESSARY TO PRECLUDE within the multiple complex which could result in
SERIOUS WAKE ENCOUNTERS, TO MAINTAIN unanticipated delays.
APPROPRIATE TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION
b. Pilots requesting TEC are subject to the same
CLEARANCE, OR TO REMAIN IN WEATHER
delay factor at the destination airport as other aircraft
CONDITIONS EQUAL TO OR BETTER THAN
in the ATC system. In addition, departure and en route
THE MINIMUMS REQUIRED BY 14 CFR
delays may occur depending upon individual facility
SECTION 91.155. WHENEVER COMPLIANCE
workload. When a major metropolitan airport is
WITH AN ASSIGNED ROUTE, HEADING
incurring significant delays, pilots in the TEC
AND/OR ALTITUDE IS LIKELY TO COMPRO-
program may want to consider an alternative airport
MISE PILOT RESPONSIBILITY RESPECTING
experiencing no delay.
TERRAIN AND OBSTRUCTION CLEARANCE,
VORTEX EXPOSURE, AND WEATHER MINI- c. There are no unique requirements upon pilots to
MUMS, APPROACH CONTROL SHOULD BE SO use the TEC program. Normal flight plan filing
ADVISED AND A REVISED CLEARANCE OR procedures will ensure proper flight plan processing.
INSTRUCTION OBTAINED. Pilots should include the acronym TEC in the
remarks section of the flight plan when requesting (b) Arrivals. Maintain transponder to the
tower en route control. altitude reporting mode or if TCAS-equipped (TA or
TA/RA), select the transponder to altitude reporting
d. All approach controls in the system may not
mode. Maintain ADS-B Out transmissions (if
operate up to the maximum TEC altitude of
equipped) after clearing the active runway. Select
10,000 feet. IFR flight may be planned to any
STBY or OFF for transponder and ADS-B (if
satellite airport in proximity to the major primary
equipped) upon arriving at the aircrafts parking spot
airport via the same routing.
or gate.
4120. Transponder Operation 4. Transponder and ADS-B Operations in
the Air. EACH PILOT OPERATING AN AIR-
a. General CRAFT EQUIPPED WITH AN OPERABLE ATC
1. Pilots should be aware that proper application TRANSPONDER, MAINTAINED IN ACCORD-
of transponder operating procedures will provide ANCE WITH 14 CFR SECTION 91.413 OR ADS-B
both VFR and IFR aircraft with a higher degree of TRANSMITTER, MUST OPERATE THE
safety while operating on the ground and airborne. TRANSPONDER/TRANSMITTER, INCLUDING
Transponders with altitude reporting mode turned MODE C/S IF INSTALLED, ON THE APPROPRI-
ON (Mode C or S) substantially increase the ATE MODE 3/A CODE OR AS ASSIGNED BY
capability of surveillance systems to see an aircraft, ATC. EACH PERSON OPERATING AN AIR-
thus providing the Air Traffic Controller increased CRAFT EQUIPPED WITH ADS-B OUT MUST
situational awareness and the ability to identify OPERATE THIS EQUIPMENT IN THE TRANS-
potential traffic conflicts. Even VFR pilots who are MIT MODE AT ALL TIMES WHILE AIRBORNE
not in contact with ATC will be afforded greater UNLESS OTHERWISE REQUESTED BY ATC.
protection from IFR aircraft and VFR aircraft which 5. A pilot on an IFR flight who elects to cancel
are receiving traffic advisories. Nevertheless, pilots the IFR flight plan prior to reaching destination,
should never relax their visual scanning for other should adjust the transponder according to VFR
aircraft. operations.
2. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System 6. If entering a U.S. OFFSHORE AIRSPACE
(ATCRBS) is similar to and compatible with military AREA from outside the U.S., the pilot should advise
coded radar beacon equipment. Civil Mode A is on first radio contact with a U.S. radar ATC facility
identical to military Mode 3. that such equipment is available by adding
transponder to the aircraft identification.
3. Transponder and ADS-B operations on the
ground. Civil and military aircraft should operate 7. It should be noted by all users of ATC
with the transponder in the altitude reporting mode transponders and ADSB Out systems that the
(consult the aircrafts flight manual to determine the surveillance coverage they can expect is limited to
specific transponder position to enable altitude line of sight with ground radar and ADSB radio
reporting) and ADS-B Out transmissions enabled (if sites. Low altitude or aircraft antenna shielding by the
equipped) at all airports, any time the aircraft is aircraft itself may result in reduced range or loss of
positioned on any portion of an airport movement aircraft contact. Surveillance coverage can be
area. This includes all defined taxiways and runways. improved by climbing to a higher altitude.
Pilots must pay particular attention to ATIS and NOTE
airport diagram notations, General Notes (included Pilots of aircraft equipped with ADSB should refer to
on airport charts), and comply with directions AIM, Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast
pertaining to transponder and ADS-B usage. Services, Paragraph 457 , for a complete description of
Generally, these directions are: operating limitations and procedures.
operational characteristics of the rapidly expanding 1. The transponder must be operated only as
automated ATC system, THE LAST TWO DIGITS specified by ATC. Activate the IDENT feature only
OF THE SELECTED TRANSPONDER CODE upon request of the ATC controller.
SHOULD ALWAYS READ 00 UNLESS SPECIF- e. Code Changes
ICALLY REQUESTED BY ATC TO BE
OTHERWISE. 1. When making routine code changes, pilots
should avoid inadvertent selection of Codes 7500,
c. Automatic Altitude Reporting (Mode C) 7600 or 7700 thereby causing momentary false
alarms at automated ground facilities. For example,
1. Some transponders are equipped with a when switching from Code 2700 to Code 7200,
Mode C automatic altitude reporting capability. This switch first to 2200 then to 7200, NOT to 7700 and
system converts aircraft altitude in 100 foot then 7200. This procedure applies to nondiscrete
increments to coded digital information which is Code 7500 and all discrete codes in the 7600 and 7700
transmitted together with Mode C framing pulses to series (i.e., 76007677, 77007777) which will
the interrogating radar facility. The manner in which trigger special indicators in automated facilities.
transponder panels are designed differs, therefore, a Only nondiscrete Code 7500 will be decoded as the
pilot should be thoroughly familiar with the operation hijack code.
of the transponder so that ATC may realize its full
2. Under no circumstances should a pilot of a
capabilities.
civil aircraft operate the transponder on Code 7777.
2. Adjust transponder to reply on the Mode A/3 This code is reserved for military interceptor
code specified by ATC and, if equipped, to reply on operations.
Mode C with altitude reporting capability activated 3. Military pilots operating VFR or IFR within
unless deactivation is directed by ATC or unless the restricted/warning areas should adjust their trans-
installed aircraft equipment has not been tested and ponders to Code 4000 unless another code has been
calibrated as required by 14 CFR Section 91.217. If assigned by ATC.
deactivation is required by ATC, turn off the altitude f. Mode C Transponder Requirements
reporting feature of your transponder. An instruction
by ATC to STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK, ALTI- 1. Specific details concerning requirements to
TUDE DIFFERS (number of feet) FEET, may be an carry and operate Mode C transponders, as well as
indication that your transponder is transmitting exceptions and ATC authorized deviations from the
incorrect altitude information or that you have an requirements are found in 14 CFR Section 91.215 and
incorrect altimeter setting. While an incorrect 14 CFR Section 99.12.
altimeter setting has no effect on the Mode C altitude 2. In general, the CFRs require aircraft to be
information transmitted by your transponder (trans- equipped with Mode C transponders when operating:
ponders are preset at 29.92), it would cause you to fly
(a) At or above 10,000 feet MSL over the
at an actual altitude different from your assigned
48 contiguous states or the District of Columbia,
altitude. When a controller indicates that an altitude
excluding that airspace below 2,500 feet AGL;
readout is invalid, the pilot should initiate a check to
verify that the aircraft altimeter is set correctly. (b) Within 30 miles of a Class B airspace
primary airport, below 10,000 feet MSL. Balloons,
3. Pilots of aircraft with operating Mode C gliders, and aircraft not equipped with an engine
altitude reporting transponders should report exact driven electrical system are excepted from the above
altitude or flight level to the nearest hundred foot requirements when operating below the floor of
increment when establishing initial contact with an Class A airspace and/or; outside of a Class B airspace
ATC facility. Exact altitude or flight level reports on and below the ceiling of the Class B airspace (or
initial contact provide ATC with information that is 10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower);
required prior to using Mode C altitude information
(c) Within and above all Class C airspace, up
for separation purposes. This will significantly
to 10,000 feet MSL;
reduce altitude verification requests.
(d) Within 10 miles of certain designated
d. Transponder IDENT Feature airports, excluding that airspace which is both outside
the Class D surface area and below 1,200 feet AGL. so equipped, unless deactivation is directed by ATC
Balloons, gliders and aircraft not equipped with an or unless the installed equipment has not been tested
engine driven electrical system are excepted from this and calibrated as required by 14 CFR Section 91.217.
requirement. If deactivation is required and your transponder is so
designed, turn off the altitude reporting switch and
3. 14 CFR Section 99.13 requires all aircraft
continue to transmit Mode C framing pulses. If this
flying into, within, or across the contiguous U.S.
capability does not exist, turn off Mode C.
ADIZ be equipped with a Mode C or Mode S
transponder. Balloons, gliders and aircraft not h. Radar Beacon Phraseology
equipped with an engine driven electrical system are
Air traffic controllers, both civil and military, will use
excepted from this requirement.
the following phraseology when referring to
4. Pilots must ensure that their aircraft trans- operation of the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon
ponder is operating on an appropriate ATC assigned System (ATCRBS). Instructions by ATC refer only to
VFR/IFR code and Mode C when operating in such Mode A/3 or Mode C operation and do not affect the
airspace. If in doubt about the operational status of operation of the transponder on other Modes.
either feature of your transponder while airborne,
1. SQUAWK (number). Operate radar beacon
contact the nearest ATC facility or FSS and they will
transponder on designated code in Mode A/3.
advise you what facility you should contact for
determining the status of your equipment. 2. IDENT. Engage the IDENT feature (mili-
tary I/P) of the transponder.
5. In-flight requests for immediate deviation
from the transponder requirement may be approved 3. SQUAWK (number) and IDENT. Operate
by controllers only when the flight will continue IFR transponder on specified code in Mode A/3 and
or when weather conditions prevent VFR descent and engage the IDENT (military I/P) feature.
continued VFR flight in airspace not affected by the
4. SQUAWK STANDBY. Switch transponder
CFRs. All other requests for deviation should be
to standby position.
made by contacting the nearest Flight Service or
Air Traffic facility in person or by telephone. The 5. SQUAWK LOW/NORMAL. Operate
nearest ARTCC will normally be the controlling transponder on low or normal sensitivity as specified.
agency and is responsible for coordinating requests Transponder is operated in NORMAL position
involving deviations in other ARTCC areas. unless ATC specifies LOW (ON is used instead
of NORMAL as a master control label on some
g. Transponder Operation Under Visual Flight
types of transponders.)
Rules (VFR)
6. SQUAWK ALTITUDE. Activate Mode C
1. Unless otherwise instructed by an ATC
with automatic altitude reporting.
facility, adjust transponder to reply on Mode 3/A
Code 1200 regardless of altitude. 7. STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK. Turn off
NOTE altitude reporting switch and continue transmitting
1. Aircraft not in contact with an ATC facility may squawk Mode C framing pulses. If your equipment does not
1255 in lieu of 1200 while en route to, from, or within the have this capability, turn off Mode C.
designated fire fighting area(s).
8. STOP SQUAWK (mode in use). Switch off
2. VFR aircraft which fly authorized SAR missions for the specified mode. (Used for military aircraft when the
USAF or USCG may be advised to squawk 1277 in lieu of controller is unaware of military service require-
1200 while en route to, from, or within the designated ments for the aircraft to continue operation on another
search area.
Mode.)
3. Gliders not in contact with an ATC facility should
squawk 1202 in lieu of 1200. 9. STOP SQUAWK. Switch off transponder.
REFERENCE 10. SQUAWK MAYDAY. Operate transpond-
FAA Order 7110.66, National Beacon Code Allocation Plan.
er in the emergency position (Mode A Code 7700 for
2. Adjust transponder to reply on Mode C, with civil transponder. Mode 3 Code 7700 and emergency
altitude reporting capability activated if the aircraft is feature for military transponder.)
11. SQUAWK VFR. Operate radar beacon Reservations for Unscheduled Operations at slot
transponder on Code 1200 in the Mode A/3, or other controlled airports. A copy of the Advisory
appropriate VFR code. Circular may be obtained via the Internet at:
http://www.faa.gov.
4121. Airport Reservation Operations b. Special Traffic Management Programs
and Special Traffic Management Programs (STMP).
This section describes procedures for obtaining 1. Special procedures may be established when
required airport reservations at airports designated by a location requires special traffic handling to
the FAA and for airports operating under Special accommodate above normal traffic demand (e.g., the
Traffic Management Programs. Indianapolis 500, Super Bowl) or reduced airport
a. Slot Controlled Airports. capacity (e.g., airport runway/taxiway closures for
airport construction). The special procedures may
1. The FAA may adopt rules to require advance remain in effect until the problem has been resolved
operations for unscheduled operations at certain or until local traffic management procedures can
airports. In addition to the information in the rules handle the situation and a need for special handling no
adopted by the FAA, a listing of the airports and longer exists.
relevant information will be maintained on the FAA
Web site listed below. 2. There will be two methods available for
obtaining slot reservations through the
2. The FAA has established an Airport
ATCSCC: the web interface and the touchtone
Reservation Office (ARO) to receive and process
interface. If these methods are used, a NOTAM will
reservations for unscheduled flights at the slot
be issued relaying the web site address and toll free
controlled airports. The ARO uses the Enhanced
telephone number. Be sure to check current
Computer Voice Reservation System (eCVRS) to
NOTAMs to determine: what airports are included
allocate reservations. Reservations will be available
in the STMP; the dates and times reservations are
beginning 72 hours in advance of the operation at the
required; the time limits for reservation requests; the
slot controlled airport. Refer to the Web site or
point of contact for reservations; and any other
touchtone phone interface for the current listing of
instructions.
slot controlled airports, limitations, and reservation
procedures. c. Users may contact the ARO at 7039044452
NOTE if they have a problem making a reservation or have
The web interface/telephone numbers to obtain a a question concerning the slot controlled airport/
reservation for unscheduled operations at a slot controlled STMP regulations or procedures.
airport are:
d. Making Reservations.
1. http://www.fly.faa.gov/ecvrs.
2. Touchtone: 18008759694 or 7037070568. 1. Internet Users. Detailed information and
(eCVRS interface). User Instruction Guides for using the Web interface
3. Trouble number: 5404224246. to the reservation systems are available on the web
3. For more detailed information on operations sites for the slot controlled airports (eCVRS),
and reservation procedures at a Slot Controlled http://www.fly.faa.gov/ecvrs; and STMPs
Airport, please see Advisory Circular 931A, (eSTMP), http://www.fly.faa.gov/estmp.
2. Telephone users. When using the telephone press 1, 2, or 3, depending upon whether the letter you
to make a reservation, you are prompted for input of desire is the first, second, or third letter on that key.
information about what you wish to do. All input is For example to enter the letter N first press the
accomplished using the keypad on the telephone. The 6 key because N is on that key, then press the
only problem with a telephone is that most keys have 2 key because the letter N is the second letter on
a letter and number associated with them. When the the 6 key. Since there are no keys for the letters Q
system asks for a date or time, it is expecting an input and Z eCVRS pretends they are on the number
of numbers. A problem arises when entering an 1 key. Therefore, to enter the letter Q, press 11,
aircraft call sign or tail number. The system does not and to enter the letter Z press 12.
detect if you are entering a letter (alpha character) or NOTE
a number. Therefore, when entering an aircraft call Users are reminded to enter the N character with their
sign or tail number two keys are used to represent tail numbers. (See TBL 414.)
each letter or number. When entering a number,
3. For additional helpful key entries, see
precede the number you wish by the number 0 (zero)
TBL 415.
i.e., 01, 02, 03, 04, . . .. If you wish to enter a letter, first
press the key on which the letter appears and then
TBL 414
Codes for Call Sign/Tail Number Input
TBL 415
Helpful Key Entries
# After entering a call sign/tail number, depressing the pound key (#) twice will indicate the end of the
entry.
*2 Will take the user back to the start of the process.
*3 Will repeat the call sign/tail number used in a previous reservation.
*5 Will repeat the previous question.
*8 Tutorial Mode: In the tutorial mode each prompt for input includes a more detailed description of what
is expected as input. *8 is a toggle on/off switch. If you are in tutorial mode and enter *8, you will return
to the normal mode.
*0 Expert Mode: In the expert mode each prompt for input is brief with little or no explanation. Expert
mode is also on/off toggle.
4122. Requests for Waivers and c. A waiver may be canceled at any time by the
Authorizations from Title 14, Code of Administrator, the person authorized to grant the
Federal Regulations (14 CFR) waiver, or the representative designated to monitor a
specific operation. In such case either written notice
a. Requests for a Certificate of Waiver or
of cancellation, or written confirmation of a verbal
Authorization (FAA Form 77112), or requests for
cancellation will be provided to the holder.
renewal of a waiver or authorization, may be accepted
by any FAA facility and will be forwarded, if
necessary, to the appropriate office having waiver
authority. 4123. Weather System Processor
b. The grant of a Certificate of Waiver or
Authorization from 14 CFR constitutes relief from The Weather System Processor (WSP) was devel-
specific regulations, to the degree and for the period oped for use in the National Airspace System to
of time specified in the certificate, and does not waive provide weather processor enhancements to selected
any state law or local ordinance. Should the proposed Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)9 facilities. The
operations conflict with any state law or local WSP provides Air Traffic with warnings of
ordinance, or require permission of local authorities hazardous wind shear and microbursts. The WSP also
or property owners, it is the applicants responsibility provides users with terminal area 6level weather,
to resolve the matter. The holder of a waiver is storm cell locations and movement, as well as the
responsible for compliance with the terms of the location and predicted future position and intensity of
waiver and its provisions. wind shifts that may affect airport operations.
421. General just changed frequencies, pause, listen, and make sure
the frequency is clear.
a. Radio communications are a critical link in the
ATC system. The link can be a strong bond between b. Think before keying your transmitter. Know
pilot and controller or it can be broken with surprising what you want to say and if it is lengthy; e.g., a flight
speed and disastrous results. Discussion herein plan or IFR position report, jot it down.
provides basic procedures for new pilots and also c. The microphone should be very close to your
highlights safe operating concepts for all pilots. lips and after pressing the mike button, a slight pause
may be necessary to be sure the first word is
b. The single, most important thought in pilot- transmitted. Speak in a normal, conversational tone.
controller communications is understanding. It is
essential, therefore, that pilots acknowledge each d. When you release the button, wait a few
radio communication with ATC by using the seconds before calling again. The controller or FSS
appropriate aircraft call sign. Brevity is important, specialist may be jotting down your number, looking
and contacts should be kept as brief as possible, but for your flight plan, transmitting on a different
controllers must know what you want to do before frequency, or selecting the transmitter for your
they can properly carry out their control duties. And frequency.
you, the pilot, must know exactly what the controller e. Be alert to the sounds or the lack of sounds in
wants you to do. Since concise phraseology may not your receiver. Check your volume, recheck your
always be adequate, use whatever words are frequency, and make sure that your microphone is not
necessary to get your message across. Pilots are to stuck in the transmit position. Frequency blockage
maintain vigilance in monitoring air traffic control can, and has, occurred for extended periods of time
radio communications frequencies for potential due to unintentional transmitter operation. This type
traffic conflicts with their aircraft especially when of interference is commonly referred to as a stuck
operating on an active runway and/or when mike, and controllers may refer to it in this manner
conducting a final approach to landing. when attempting to assign an alternate frequency. If
the assigned frequency is completely blocked by this
c. All pilots will find the Pilot/Controller Glossary type of interference, use the procedures described for
very helpful in learning what certain words or phrases en route IFR radio frequency outage to establish or
mean. Good phraseology enhances safety and is the reestablish communications with ATC.
mark of a professional pilot. Jargon, chatter, and
CB slang have no place in ATC communications. f. Be sure that you are within the performance
The Pilot/Controller Glossary is the same glossary range of your radio equipment and the ground station
used in FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control. equipment. Remote radio sites do not always transmit
We recommend that it be studied and reviewed from and receive on all of a facilitys available frequencies,
time to time to sharpen your communication skills. particularly with regard to VOR sites where you can
hear but not reach a ground stations receiver.
Remember that higher altitudes increase the range of
422. Radio Technique VHF line of sight communications.
a. Listen before you transmit. Many times you can 423. Contact Procedures
get the information you want through ATIS or by
a. Initial Contact.
monitoring the frequency. Except for a few situations
where some frequency overlap occurs, if you hear 1. The terms initial contact or initial callup
someone else talking, the keying of your transmitter means the first radio call you make to a given facility
will be futile and you will probably jam their or the first call to a different controller or FSS
receivers causing them to repeat their call. If you have specialist within a facility. Use the following format:
(a) Name of the facility being called; Most FSSs and control facilities can transmit on
several VOR stations in the area. Use the appropriate
(b) Your full aircraft identification as filed in
FSS call sign as indicated on charts.
the flight plan or as discussed in paragraph 424,
Aircraft Call Signs; EXAMPLE
New York FSS transmits on the Kennedy, the Hampton, and
(c) When operating on an airport surface, the Calverton VORTACs. If you are in the Calverton area,
state your position. your callup should be New York radio, Cessna Three One
Six Zero Foxtrot, receiving Calverton VOR, over.
(d) The type of message to follow or your
request if it is short; and 2. If the chart indicates FSS frequencies above
the VORTAC or in the FSS communications boxes,
(e) The word Over if required. transmit or receive on those frequencies nearest your
EXAMPLE location.
1. New York Radio, Mooney Three One One Echo.
2. Columbia Ground, Cessna Three One Six Zero 3. When unable to establish contact and you
Foxtrot, south ramp, IFR Memphis. wish to call any ground station, use the phrase ANY
3. Miami Center, Baron Five Six Three Hotel, request RADIO (tower) (station), GIVE CESSNA THREE
VFR traffic advisories. ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT A CALL ON
(frequency) OR (VOR). If an emergency exists or
2. Many FSSs are equipped with Remote
you need assistance, so state.
Communications Outlets (RCOs) and can transmit on
the same frequency at more than one location. The c. Subsequent Contacts and Responses to
frequencies available at specific locations are Callup from a Ground Facility.
indicated on charts above FSS communications Use the same format as used for the initial contact
boxes. To enable the specialist to utilize the correct except you should state your message or request with
transmitter, advise the location and the frequency on the callup in one transmission. The ground station
which you expect a reply. name and the word Over may be omitted if the
EXAMPLE message requires an obvious reply and there is no
St. Louis FSS can transmit on frequency 122.3 at either possibility for misunderstandings. You should
Farmington, Missouri, or Decatur, Illinois, if you are in the acknowledge all callups or clearances unless the
vicinity of Decatur, your callup should be Saint Louis controller or FSS specialist advises otherwise. There
radio, Piper Six Niner Six Yankee, receiving Decatur One are some occasions when controllers must issue
Two Two Point Three.
time-critical instructions to other aircraft, and they
3. If radio reception is reasonably assured, may be in a position to observe your response, either
inclusion of your request, your position or altitude, visually or on radar. If the situation demands your
and the phrase (ATIS) Information Charlie response, take appropriate action or immediately
received in the initial contact helps decrease radio advise the facility of any problem. Acknowledge with
frequency congestion. Use discretion; do not your aircraft identification, either at the beginning or
overload the controller with information unneeded or at the end of your transmission, and one of the words
superfluous. If you do not get a response from the Wilco, Roger, Affirmative, Negative, or
ground station, recheck your radios or use another other appropriate remarks; e.g., PIPER TWO ONE
transmitter, but keep the next contact short. FOUR LIMA, ROGER. If you have been receiving
EXAMPLE services; e.g., VFR traffic advisories and you are
Atlanta Center, Duke Four One Romeo, request VFR leaving the area or changing frequencies, advise the
traffic advisories, Twenty Northwest Rome, seven thousand ATC facility and terminate contact.
five hundred, over.
d. Acknowledgement of Frequency Changes.
b. Initial Contact When Your Transmitting and
1. When advised by ATC to change frequencies,
Receiving Frequencies are Different.
acknowledge the instruction. If you select the new
1. If you are attempting to establish contact with frequency without an acknowledgement, the control-
a ground station and you are receiving on a different lers workload is increased because there is no way of
frequency than that transmitted, indicate the VOR knowing whether you received the instruction or have
name or the frequency on which you expect a reply. had radio communications failure.
Because of the priority afforded air ambulance flights 1. The FAA desires to help student pilots in
in the ATC system, extreme discretion is necessary acquiring sufficient practical experience in the
when using the term MEDEVAC. It is only environment in which they will be required to
intended for those missions of an urgent medical operate. To receive additional assistance while
nature and to be utilized only for that portion of the operating in areas of concentrated air traffic, student
flight requiring expeditious handling. When re- pilots need only identify themselves as a student pilot
quested by the pilot, necessary notification to during their initial call to an FAA radio facility.
expedite ground handling of patients, etc., is provided
EXAMPLE
by ATC; however, when possible, this information Dayton tower, Fleetwing One Two Three Four, student
should be passed in advance through nonATC pilot.
communications systems.
2. This special identification will alert FAA
1. Civilian air ambulance flights responding to ATC personnel and enable them to provide student
medical emergencies (first call to an accident scene, pilots with such extra assistance and consideration as
carrying patients, organ donors, organs, or other they may need. It is recommended that student pilots
urgently needed lifesaving medical material) will be identify themselves as such, on initial contact with
expedited by ATC when necessary. When expedi- each clearance delivery prior to taxiing, ground
tious handling is necessary, include the word control, tower, approach and departure control
MEDEVAC in the flight plan per paragraphs 518 frequency, or FSS contact.
and 519. In radio communications, use the call
signMEDEVAC, followed by the aircraft registra-
tion letters/numbers. 425. Description of Interchange or
Leased Aircraft
EXAMPLE
MEDEVAC Two Six Four Six. a. Controllers issue traffic information based on
2. Similar provisions have been made for the use familiarity with airline equipment and color/
of AIR EVAC and HOSP by air ambulance markings. When an air carrier dispatches a flight
flights, except that these flights will receive priority using another companys equipment and the pilot
handling only when specifically requested. does not advise the terminal ATC facility, the possible
confusion in aircraft identification can compromise
3. Air carrier and air taxi flights responding to safety.
medical emergencies will also be expedited by ATC
b. Pilots flying an interchange or leased
when necessary. The nature of these medical
aircraft not bearing the colors/markings of the
emergency flights usually concerns the transporta-
company operating the aircraft should inform the
tion of urgently needed lifesaving medical materials
terminal ATC facility on first contact the name of the
or vital organs. IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT THE
operating company and trip number, followed by the
COMPANY/PILOT DETERMINE, BY THE
company name as displayed on the aircraft, and
NATURE/URGENCY OF THE SPECIFIC
aircraft type.
MEDICAL CARGO, IF PRIORITY ATC ASSIST-
ANCE IS REQUIRED. Pilots must include the word EXAMPLE
MEDEVAC in the flight plan per paragraphs 518 Air Cal Three Eleven, United (interchange/lease),
and 519, and use the call sign MEDEVAC, Boeing Seven Two Seven.
followed by the company name and flight number for
all transmissions when expeditious handling is
required. It is important for ATC to be aware of 426. Ground Station Call Signs
MEDEVAC status, and it is the pilots responsibil-
Pilots, when calling a ground station, should begin
ity to ensure that this information is provided to ATC.
with the name of the facility being called followed by
EXAMPLE the type of the facility being called as indicated in
MEDEVAC Delta ThirtySeven. TBL 421.
beyond the departure end of the runway and within Class D surface areas. In an example of this
300 feet of the traffic pattern altitude. situation, the local controller would use the radar to
advise a pilot on an extended downwind when to turn
d. Many towers are equipped with a tower radar base leg.
display. The radar uses are intended to enhance the
effectiveness and efficiency of the local control, or NOTE
tower, position. They are not intended to provide The above tower radar applications are intended to
radar services or benefits to pilots except as they may augment the standard functions of the local control
position. There is no controller requirement to maintain
accrue through a more efficient tower operation. The
constant radar identification. In fact, such a requirement
four basic uses are: could compromise the local controllers ability to visually
1. To determine an aircrafts exact location. scan the airport and local area to meet FAA responsibilities
to the aircraft operating on the runways and within the
This is accomplished by radar identifying the VFR
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas. Normally,
aircraft through any of the techniques available to a pilots will not be advised of being in radar contact since
radar position, such as having the aircraft squawk that continued status cannot be guaranteed and since the
ident. Once identified, the aircrafts position and purpose of the radar identification is not to establish a link
spatial relationship to other aircraft can be quickly for the provision of radar services.
determined, and standard instructions regarding VFR
operation in Class B, Class C, and Class D surface e. A few of the radar equipped towers are
areas will be issued. Once initial radar identification authorized to use the radar to ensure separation
of a VFR aircraft has been established and the between aircraft in specific situations, while still
appropriate instructions have been issued, radar others may function as limited radar approach
monitoring may be discontinued; the reason being controls. The various radar uses are strictly a function
that the local controllers primary means of of FAA operational need. The facilities may be
surveillance in VFR conditions is visually scanning indistinguishable to pilots since they are all referred
the airport and local area. to as tower and no publication lists the degree of radar
use. Therefore, when in communication with a
2. To provide radar traffic advisories. Radar tower controller who may have radar available, do
traffic advisories may be provided to the extent that not assume that constant radar monitoring and
the local controller is able to monitor the radar complete ATC radar services are being provided.
display. Local control has primary control responsibi-
lities to the aircraft operating on the runways, which
will normally supersede radar monitoring duties. 433. Traffic Patterns
3. To provide a direction or suggested a. At most airports and military air bases, traffic
heading. The local controller may provide pilots pattern altitudes for propellerdriven aircraft gener-
flying VFR with generalized instructions which will ally extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet
facilitate operations; e.g., PROCEED SOUTH- above the ground. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for
WESTBOUND, ENTER A RIGHT DOWNWIND military turbojet aircraft sometimes extend up to
RUNWAY THREE ZERO, or provide a suggested 2,500 feet above the ground. Therefore, pilots of en
heading to establish radar identification or as an route aircraft should be constantly on the alert for
advisory aid to navigation; e.g., SUGGESTED other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas
HEADING TWO TWO ZERO, FOR RADAR whenever possible. Traffic pattern altitudes should be
IDENTIFICATION. In both cases, the instructions maintained unless otherwise required by the
are advisory aids to the pilot flying VFR and are not applicable distance from cloud criteria (14 CFR
radar vectors. Section 91.155). (See FIG 432 and FIG 433.)
Unless otherwise indicated, all turns in the traffic
NOTE pattern should be made to the left. On Sectional
Pilots have complete discretion regarding acceptance of Aeronautical and VFR Terminal Area Charts, right
the suggested headings or directions and have sole traffic patterns are indicated at public-use and
responsibility for seeing and avoiding other aircraft.
joint-use airports by the abbreviation RP (for Right
4. To provide information and instructions to Pattern), followed by the appropriate runway
aircraft operating within Class B, Class C, and number(s), at the bottom of the airport data block.
FIG 432
Traffic Pattern Operations
Single Runway
1. Enter pattern in level flight, abeam the midpoint of the 5. If remaining in the traffic pattern, commence turn to
runway, at pattern altitude. (1,000 AGL is recommended crosswind leg beyond the departure end of the runway
pattern altitude unless established otherwise. . .) within 300 feet of pattern altitude.
2. Maintain pattern altitude until abeam approach end of 6. If departing the traffic pattern, continue straight out, or
the landing runway on downwind leg. exit with a 45 degree turn (to the left when in a lefthand
traffic pattern; to the right when in a righthand traffic
3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway. pattern) beyond the departure end of the runway, after
reaching pattern altitude.
FIG 433
Traffic Pattern Operations
Parallel Runways
3. Complete turn to final at least 1/4 mile from the runway. 7. Do not overshoot final or continue on a track which will
penetrate the final approach of the parallel runway.
4. Continue straight ahead until beyond departure end of
runway. 8. Do not continue on a track which will penetrate the
departure path of the parallel runway.
FIG 434
Headwind/Tailwind/Crosswind Component Calculator
major maneuver such as a 360 degree turn. If a pilot 2. At airports where a runway use program is
makes a 360 degree turn after obtaining a landing established, ATC will assign runways deemed to have
sequence, the result is usually a gap in the landing the least noise impact. If in the interest of safety a
interval and, more importantly, it causes a chain runway different from that specified is preferred, the
reaction which may result in a conflict with following pilot is expected to advise ATC accordingly. ATC will
traffic and an interruption of the sequence established honor such requests and advise pilots when the
by the tower or approach controller. Should a pilot requested runway is noise sensitive. When use of a
decide to make maneuvering turns to maintain runway other than the one assigned is requested, pilot
spacing behind a preceding aircraft, the pilot should cooperation is encouraged to preclude disruption of
always advise the controller if at all possible. Except traffic flows or the creation of conflicting patterns.
when requested by the controller or in emergency c. Declared Distances.
situations, a 360 degree turn should never be executed
1. Declared distances for a runway represent
in the traffic pattern or when receiving radar service
the maximum distances available and suitable for
without first advising the controller.
meeting takeoff and landing distance performance
requirements. These distances are determined in
436. Use of Runways/Declared Distances accordance with FAA runway design standards by
a. Runways are identified by numbers which adding to the physical length of paved runway any
indicate the nearest 10-degree increment of the clearway or stopway and subtracting from that sum
azimuth of the runway centerline. For example, any lengths necessary to obtain the standard runway
where the magnetic azimuth is 183 degrees, the safety areas, runway object free areas, or runway
runway designation would be 18; for a magnetic protection zones. As a result of these additions and
azimuth of 87 degrees, the runway designation would subtractions, the declared distances for a runway may
be 9. For a magnetic azimuth ending in the number 5, be more or less than the physical length of the runway
such as 185, the runway designation could be either as depicted on aeronautical charts and related
18 or 19. Wind direction issued by the tower is also publications, or available in electronic navigation
magnetic and wind velocity is in knots. databases provided by either the U.S. Government or
commercial companies.
b. Airport proprietors are responsible for taking 2. All 14 CFR Part 139 airports report declared
the lead in local aviation noise control. Accordingly, distances for each runway. Other airports may also
they may propose specific noise abatement plans to report declared distances for a runway if necessary
the FAA. If approved, these plans are applied in the to meet runway design standards or to indicate the
form of Formal or Informal Runway Use Programs presence of a clearway or stopway. Where reported,
for noise abatement purposes. declared distances for each runway end are
REFERENCE published in the Chart Supplement U.S. For runways
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Runway Use Program
without published declared distances, the declared
1. At airports where no runway use program is distances may be assumed to be equal to the physical
established, ATC clearances may specify: length of the runway unless there is a displaced
(a) The runway most nearly aligned with the landing threshold, in which case the Landing
wind when it is 5 knots or more; Distance Available (LDA) is shortened by the amount
of the threshold displacement.
(b) The calm wind runway when wind is NOTE
less than 5 knots; or A symbol is shown on U.S. Government charts to
(c) Another runway if operationally advanta- indicate that runway declared distance information is
geous. available (See appropriate Chart Supplement U.S., Chart
Supplement Alaska or Pacific).
NOTE (a) The FAA uses the following definitions
It is not necessary for a controller to specifically inquire if
for runway declared distances (See FIG 435):
the pilot will use a specific runway or to offer a choice of
REFERENCE
runways. If a pilot prefers to use a different runway from
Pilot/Controller Glossary Terms: AccelerateStop Distance
that specified, or the one most nearly aligned with the wind, Available, Landing Distance Available, Takeoff Distance
the pilot is expected to inform ATC accordingly. Available, Takeoff Run Available, Stopway, and Clearway.
(1) Takeoff Run Available (TORA) The a displaced threshold if necessary to satisfy runway
runway length declared available and suitable for design standards;for example, where the airport
the ground run of an airplane taking off. operator uses a portion of the runway to achieve the
runway safety area requirement.
The TORA is typically the physical length of the
runway, but it may be shorter than the runway length Although some runway elements (such as stopway
if necessary to satisfy runway design standards. For length and clearway length) may be available
example, the TORA may be shorter than the runway information, pilots must use the declared distances
length if a portion of the runway must be used to determined by the airport operator and not attempt to
satisfy runway protection zone requirements. independently calculate declared distances by
(2) Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) adding those elements to the reported physical
The takeoff run available plus the length of any length of the runway.
remaining runway or clearway beyond the far end of (b) The airplane operating rules and/or the
the takeoff run available. airplane operating limitations establish minimum
The TODA is the distance declared available for distance requirements for takeoff and landing and
satisfying takeoff distance requirements for airplanes are based on performance data supplied in the
where the certification and operating rules and Airplane Flight Manual or Pilots Operating
available performance data allow for the considera- Handbook. The minimum distances required for
tion of a clearway in takeoff performance takeoff and landing obtained either in planning
computations. prior to takeoff or in performance assessments
conducted at the time of landing must fall within the
NOTE
applicable declared distances before the pilot can
The length of any available clearway will be included in the
TODA published in the entry for that runway end within the accept that runway for takeoff or landing.
Chart Supplement U.S. (c) Runway design standards may impose
(3) AccelerateStop Distance Available restrictions on the amount of runway available for
(ASDA) The runway plus stopway length declared use in takeoff and landing that are not apparent
available and suitable for the acceleration and from the reported physical length of the runway or
deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff. from runway markings and lighting. The runway
elements of Runway Safety Area (RSA), Runway
The ASDA may be longer than the physical length of
Object Free Area (ROFA), and Runway Protection
the runway when a stopway has been designated
Zone (RPZ) may reduce a runways declared
available by the airport operator, or it may be shorter
distances to less than the physical length of the
than the physical length of the runway if necessary to
runway at geographically constrained airports (See
use a portion of the runway to satisfy runway design
FIG 436). When considering the amount of
standards; for example, where the airport operator
runway available for use in takeoff or landing
uses a portion of the runway to achieve the runway
performance calculations, the declared distances
safety area requirement. ASDA is the distance used
published for a runway must always be used in lieu
to satisfy the airplane acceleratestop distance
of the runways physical length.
performance requirements where the certification
and operating rules require acceleratestop distance REFERENCE
AC 150/530013, Airport Design
computations.
(d) While some runway elements associated
NOTE
The length of any available stopway will be included in the with declared distances may be identifiable through
ASDA published in the entry for that runway end within the runway markings or lighting (for example, a
Chart Supplement U.S. displaced threshold or a stopway), the individual
declared distance limits are not marked or otherwise
(4) Landing Distance Available (LDA)
identified on the runway. An aircraft is not
The runway length declared available and suitable
prohibited from operating beyond a declared
for a landing airplane.
distance limit during the takeoff, landing, or taxi
The LDA may be less than the physical length of the operation provided the runway surface is appropri-
runway or the length of the runway remaining beyond ately marked as usable runway (See FIG 436). The
following examples clarify the intent of this to meet the RSA beyond the far end of the runway. However,
paragraph. during the actual landing operation, it is permissible for
REFERENCE the airplane to roll beyond the unmarked end of the LDA.
AIM, Paragraph 233 , Runway Markings
AC 150/53401, Standards for Airport Markings 2. The declared ASDA for runway 9 must be used when
EXAMPLE showing compliance with the acceleratestop distance
1. The declared LDA for runway 9 must be used when requirements of the applicable airplane operating rules
showing compliance with the landing distance require- and/or airplane operating limitations. The ASDA is less
ments of the applicable airplane operating rules and/or than the physical length of the runway due to subtractions
airplane operating limitations or when making a before necessary to achieve the full RSA requirement. However, in
landing performance assessment. The LDA is less than the the event of an aborted takeoff, it is permissible for the
physical runway length, not only because of the displaced airplane to roll beyond the unmarked end of the ASDA as
threshold, but also because of the subtractions necessary it is brought to a fullstop on the remaining usable runway.
FIG 435
Declared Distances with FullStandard Runway Safety Areas, Runway Object Free Areas, and Runway
Protection Zones
FIG 436
Effects of a Geographical Constraint on a Runways Declared Distances
NOTE
A runways RSA begins a set distance prior to the threshold and will extend a set distance beyond the end of the runway
depending on the runways design criteria. If these required lengths cannot be achieved, the ASDA and/or LDA will be
reduced as necessary to obtain the required lengths to the extent practicable.
437. Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst and intensity of wind shifts that may affect airport
Detection Systems operations. Controllers will receive and issue alerts
based on Areas Noted for Attention (ARENA). An
Low Level Wind Shear Alert System (LLWAS), ARENA extends on the runway center line from a
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather 3 mile final to the runway to a 2 mile departure.
System Processor (WSP), and Integrated Terminal
Weather System (ITWS) display information on e. An airport equipped with the LLWAS, ITWS, or
hazardous wind shear and microburst activity in the WSP is so indicated in the Chart Supplement U.S.
vicinity of an airport to air traffic controllers who under Weather Data Sources for that particular
relay this information to pilots. airport.
a. LLWAS provides wind shear alert and gust front 438. Braking Action Reports and
information but does not provide microburst alerts. Advisories
The LLWAS is designed to detect low level wind
shear conditions around the periphery of an airport. It a. When available, ATC furnishes pilots the
does not detect wind shear beyond that limitation. quality of braking action received from pilots. The
Controllers will provide this information to pilots by quality of braking action is described by the terms
giving the pilot the airport wind followed by the good, good to medium, medium, medium to
boundary wind. poor, poor, and nil. When pilots report the
quality of braking action by using the terms noted
EXAMPLE above, they should use descriptive terms that are
Wind shear alert, airport wind 230 at 8, south boundary
easily understood, such as, braking action poor the
wind 170 at 20.
first/last half of the runway, together with the
b. LLWAS network expansion, (LLWAS NE) particular type of aircraft.
and LLWAS Relocation/Sustainment (LLWASRS)
b. FICON NOTAMs will provide contaminant
are systems integrated with TDWR. These systems
measurements for paved runways; however, a
provide the capability of detecting microburst alerts
FICON NOTAM for braking action will only be used
and wind shear alerts. Controllers will issue the
for nonpaved runway surfaces, taxiways, and
appropriate wind shear alerts or microburst alerts. In
aprons. These NOTAMs are classified according to
some of these systems controllers also have the ability
the most critical term (good to medium, medium,
to issue wind information oriented to the threshold or
medium to poor, and poor).
departure end of the runway.
1. FICON NOTAM reporting of a braking
EXAMPLE
condition for paved runway surfaces is not
Runway 17 arrival microburst alert, 40 knot loss 3 mile
final. permissible by Federally Obligated Airports or those
airports certificated under 14 CFR Part 139.
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 7125 , Microbursts 2. A NIL braking condition at these airports
c. More advanced systems are in the field or being must be mitigated by closure of the affected surface.
developed such as ITWS. ITWS provides alerts for Do not include the type of vehicle in the FICON
microbursts, wind shear, and significant thunder- NOTAM.
storm activity. ITWS displays wind information c. When tower controllers receive runway braking
oriented to the threshold or departure end of the action reports which include the terms medium, poor,
runway. or nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive
d. The WSP provides weather processor enhance- to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking
ments to selected Airport Surveillance Radar conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
(ASR)9 facilities. The WSP provides Air Traffic broadcast the statement, BRAKING ACTION
with detection and alerting of hazardous weather such ADVISORIES ARE IN EFFECT.
as wind shear, microbursts, and significant thunder- d. During the time that braking action advisories
storm activity. The WSP displays terminal area are in effect, ATC will issue the most recent braking
6 level weather, storm cell locations and movement, action report for the runway in use to each arriving
as well as the location and predicted future position and departing aircraft. Pilots should be prepared for
deteriorating braking conditions and should request (d) Pilotreported braking action report (if
current runway condition information if not issued by available)
controllers. Pilots should also be prepared to provide
(e) The contaminant (for example, wet snow,
a descriptive runway condition report to controllers
dry snow, slush, ice, etc.)
after landing.
2. Assessments for each zone (see 439c1(c))
will be issued in the direction of takeoff and landing
439. Runway Condition Reports on the runway, ranging from 1 to 6 to describe
contaminated surfaces.
a. Aircraft braking coefficient is dependent upon
the surface friction between the tires on the aircraft NOTE
A RwyCC of 0 is used to delineate a braking action
wheels and the pavement surface. Less friction means
report of NIL and is prohibited from being reported in a
less aircraft braking coefficient and less aircraft FICON NOTAM.
braking response.
3. When any 1 or more runway condition codes
b. Runway condition code (RwyCC) values range are reported as less than 6, airport management must
from 1 (poor) to 6 (dry). For frozen contaminants on notify ATC for dissemination to pilots.
runway surfaces, a runway condition code reading of
4. Controllers will not issue runway condition
4 indicates the level when braking deceleration or
codes when all 3 segments of a runway are reporting
directional control is between good and medium.
values of 6.
NOTE
d. When runway condition code reports are
A RwyCC of 0 is used to delineate a braking action
report of NIL and is prohibited from being reported in a provided by airport management, the ATC facility
FICON NOTAM. providing approach control or local airport advisory
must provide the report to all pilots.
c. Airport management should conduct runway
condition assessments on wet runways or runways e. Pilots should use runway condition code
covered with compacted snow and/or ice. information with other knowledge including aircraft
performance characteristics, type, and weight,
1. Numerical readings may be obtained by using previous experience, wind conditions, and aircraft
the Runway Condition Assessment Matrix (RCAM). tire type (such as bias ply vs. radial constructed) to
The RCAM provides the airport operator with data to determine runway suitability.
complete the report that includes the following: f. The Runway Condition Assessment Matrix
(a) Runway(s) in use identifies the descriptive terms good, good to
medium, medium, medium to poor, poor, and
(b) Time of the assessment nil used in braking action reports.
REFERENCE
(c) Runway condition codes for each zone Advisory Circular AC 9179A (Revision 1), Mitigating the Risks of a
(touchdown, midpoint, rollout) Runway Overrun Upon Landing, Appendix 1
FIG 437
Runway Condition Assessment Matrix (RCAM)
4310. Intersection Takeoffs time the preceding large aircraft has taken off and the
succeeding small aircraft begins takeoff roll. The
a. In order to enhance airport capacities, reduce 3minute separation requirement will also be applied
taxiing distances, minimize departure delays, and to small aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff
provide for more efficient movement of air traffic, weight of 12,500 pounds or less departing behind a
controllers may initiate intersection takeoffs as well small aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff
as approve them when the pilot requests. If for ANY weight of more than 12,500 pounds. To inform the
reason a pilot prefers to use a different intersection or pilot of the required 3minute hold, the controller will
the full length of the runway or desires to obtain the state, Hold for wake turbulence. If after consider-
distance between the intersection and the runway end, ing wake turbulence hazards, the pilot feels that a
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC lesser time interval is appropriate, the pilot may
ACCORDINGLY. request a waiver to the 3minute interval. To initiate
b. Pilots are expected to assess the suitability of an such a request, simply say Request waiver to
intersection for use at takeoff during their preflight 3minute interval or a similar statement. Controllers
planning. They must consider the resultant length may then issue a takeoff clearance if other traffic
reduction to the published runway length and to the permits, since the pilot has accepted the responsibility
published declared distances from the intersection for wake turbulence separation.
intended to be used for takeoff. The minimum runway g. The 3minute interval is not required when the
required for takeoff must fall within the reduced intersection is 500 feet or less from the departure
runway length and the reduced declared distances point of the preceding aircraft and both aircraft are
before the intersection can be accepted for takeoff. taking off in the same direction. Controllers may
REFERENCE permit the small aircraft to alter course after takeoff
AIM, Paragraph 436 , Use of Runways/Declared Distances to avoid the flight path of the preceding departure.
c. Controllers will issue the measured distance h. A 4minute interval is mandatory for small,
from the intersection to the runway end rounded large, and heavy aircraft behind a super aircraft. The
down to the nearest 50 feet to any pilot who 3minute interval is mandatory behind a heavy
requests and to all military aircraft, unless use of the aircraft in all cases, and for small aircraft behind a
intersection is covered in appropriate directives. B757.
Controllers, however, will not be able to inform pilots
4311. Pilot Responsibilities When
of the distance from the intersection to the end of any
Conducting Land and Hold Short
of the published declared distances.
Operations (LAHSO)
REFERENCE
FAA Order JO 7110.65, Paragraph 371, Ground Traffic Movement a. LAHSO is an acronym for Land and Hold
Short Operations. These operations include landing
d. An aircraft is expected to taxi to (but not onto) and holding short of an intersecting runway, an
the end of the assigned runway unless prior approval intersecting taxiway, or some other designated
for an intersection departure is received from ground point on a runway other than an intersecting runway
control. or taxiway. (See FIG 438, FIG 439,
e. Pilots should state their position on the airport FIG 4310.)
when calling the tower for takeoff from a runway b. Pilot Responsibilities and Basic Procedures.
intersection. 1. LAHSO is an air traffic control procedure that
EXAMPLE requires pilot participation to balance the needs for
Cleveland Tower, Apache Three Seven Two Two Papa, at increased airport capacity and system efficiency,
the intersection of taxiway Oscar and runway two three consistent with safety. This procedure can be done
right, ready for departure. safely provided pilots and controllers are knowl-
f. Controllers are required to separate small edgeable and understand their responsibilities. The
aircraft that are departing from an intersection on the following paragraphs outline specific pilot/operator
same runway (same or opposite direction) behind a responsibilities when conducting LAHSO.
large nonheavy aircraft (except B757), by ensuring 2. At controlled airports, air traffic may clear a
that at least a 3minute interval exists between the pilot to land and hold short. Pilots may accept such a
clearance provided that the pilotincommand decision making is knowing in advance whether one
determines that the aircraft can safely land and stop can accept a LAHSO clearance if offered.
within the Available Landing Distance (ALD). ALD FIG 438
data are published in the special notices section of the Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Runway
Chart Supplement U.S. and in the U.S. Terminal
Procedures Publications. Controllers will also
provide ALD data upon request. Student pilots or
pilots not familiar with LAHSO should not
participate in the program.
3. The pilotincommand has the final
authority to accept or decline any land and hold
short clearance. The safety and operation of the
aircraft remain the responsibility of the pilot.
Pilots are expected to decline a LAHSO clearance
if they determine it will compromise safety.
4. To conduct LAHSO, pilots should become
familiar with all available information concerning
LAHSO at their destination airport. Pilots should
have, readily available, the published ALD and
runway slope information for all LAHSO runway EXAMPLE
combinations at each airport of intended landing. FIG 4310 holding short at a designated point may be
Additionally, knowledge about landing performance required to avoid conflicts with the runway safety
data permits the pilot to readily determine that the area/flight path of a nearby runway.
ALD for the assigned runway is sufficient for safe NOTE
LAHSO. As part of a pilots preflight planning Each figure shows the approximate location of LAHSO
process, pilots should determine if their destination markings, signage, and inpavement lighting when
airport has LAHSO. If so, their preflight planning installed.
process should include an assessment of which REFERENCE
AIM, Chapter 2, Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids.
LAHSO combinations would work for them given
FIG 439
their aircrafts required landing distance. Good pilot
Land and Hold Short of an Intersecting Taxiway
situational awareness. Additionally, surface vehicles and personnel not equipped with radio. These same
and aircraft being taxied by maintenance personnel procedures will be used to control aircraft, ground
may also be participating in LAHSO, especially in vehicles, equipment, and personnel equipped with
those operations that involve crossing an active radio if radio contact cannot be established. ATC
runway. personnel use a directive traffic control signal which
emits an intense narrow light beam of a selected color
4312. Low Approach (either red, white, or green) when controlling traffic
by light signals.
a. A low approach (sometimes referred to as a low
pass) is the goaround maneuver following an b. Although the traffic signal light offers the
approach. Instead of landing or making a touchand advantage that some control may be exercised over
go, a pilot may wish to go around (low approach) in nonradio equipped aircraft, pilots should be cog-
order to expedite a particular operation (a series of nizant of the disadvantages which are:
practice instrument approaches is an example of such
1. Pilots may not be looking at the control tower
an operation). Unless otherwise authorized by ATC,
at the time a signal is directed toward their aircraft.
the low approach should be made straight ahead, with
no turns or climb made until the pilot has made a 2. The directions transmitted by a light signal
thorough visual check for other aircraft in the area. are very limited since only approval or disapproval of
b. When operating within a Class B, Class C, and a pilots anticipated actions may be transmitted. No
Class D surface area, a pilot intending to make a low supplement or explanatory information may be
approach should contact the tower for approval. This transmitted except by the use of the General
request should be made prior to starting the final Warning Signal which advises the pilot to be on the
approach. alert.
c. When operating to an airport, not within a c. Between sunset and sunrise, a pilot wishing to
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface area, a pilot attract the attention of the control tower should turn
intending to make a low approach should, prior to on a landing light and taxi the aircraft into a position,
leaving the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision clear of the active runway, so that light is visible to the
approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the tower. The landing light should remain on until
outer marker inbound (precision approach), so advise appropriate signals are received from the tower.
the FSS, UNICOM, or make a broadcast as
d. Airport Traffic Control Tower Light Gun
appropriate.
Signals. (See TBL 431.)
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 419 , Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports Without e. During daylight hours, acknowledge tower
Operating Control Towers
transmissions or light signals by moving the ailerons
or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking the
4313. Traffic Control Light Signals
landing or navigation lights. If radio malfunction
a. The following procedures are used by ATCTs in occurs after departing the parking area, watch the
the control of aircraft, ground vehicles, equipment, tower for light signals or monitor tower frequency.
TBL 431
Airport Traffic Control Tower Light Gun Signals
Meaning
Movement of Vehicles,
Color and Type of Signal Equipment and Personnel Aircraft on the Ground Aircraft in Flight
Steady green Cleared to cross, proceed or go Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land
Flashing green Not applicable Cleared for taxi Return for landing (to be
followed by steady green at the
proper time)
Steady red STOP STOP Give way to other aircraft and
continue circling
Flashing red Clear the taxiway/runway Taxi clear of the runway in use Airport unsafe, do not land
Flashing white Return to starting point on airport Return to starting point on airport Not applicable
Alternating red and green Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution
4315. Gate Holding Due to Departure 1. The following ATC procedures and phrase-
Delays ologies recognize the unique capabilities of
helicopters and were developed to improve service to
a. Pilots should contact ground control or
all users. Helicopter design characteristics and user
clearance delivery prior to starting engines as gate
needs often require operations from movement areas
hold procedures will be in effect whenever departure
and nonmovement areas within the airport boundary.
delays exceed or are anticipated to exceed
In order for ATC to properly apply these procedures,
15 minutes. The sequence for departure will be
it is essential that pilots familiarize themselves with
maintained in accordance with initial call up unless
the local operations and make it known to controllers
modified by flow control restrictions. Pilots should
when additional instructions are necessary.
monitor the ground control or clearance delivery
frequency for engine startup advisories or new 2. Insofar as possible, helicopter operations will
proposed start time if the delay changes. be instructed to avoid the flow of fixedwing aircraft
to minimize overall delays; however, there will be
b. The tower controller will consider that pilots of many situations where faster/larger helicopters may
turbinepowered aircraft are ready for takeoff when be integrated with fixedwing aircraft for the benefit
they reach the runway or warmup block unless of all concerned. Examples would include IFR
advised otherwise. flights, avoidance of noise sensitive areas, or use of
runways/taxiways to minimize the hazardous effects
4316. VFR Flights in Terminal Areas of rotor downwash in congested areas.
Use reasonable restraint in exercising the prerogative 3. Because helicopter pilots are intimately
of VFR flight, especially in terminal areas. The familiar with the effects of rotor downwash, they are
weather minimums and distances from clouds are best qualified to determine if a given operation can be
minimums. Giving yourself a greater margin in conducted safely. Accordingly, the pilot has the final
specific instances is just good judgment. authority with respect to the specific airspeed/altitude
combinations. ATC clearances are in no way intended
a. Approach Area. Conducting a VFR operation to place the helicopter in a hazardous position. It is
in a Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface expected that pilots will advise ATC if a specific
area when the official visibility is 3 or 4 miles is not clearance will cause undue hazards to persons or
prohibited, but good judgment would dictate that you property.
keep out of the approach area.
b. Controllers normally limit ATC ground service
b. Reduced Visibility. It has always been recog- and instruction to movement areas; therefore,
nized that precipitation reduces forward visibility. operations from nonmovement areas are conducted at
Consequently, although again it may be perfectly pilot discretion and should be based on local policies,
legal to cancel your IFR flight plan at any time you procedures, or letters of agreement. In order to
can proceed VFR, it is good practice, when maximize the flexibility of helicopter operations, it is
precipitation is occurring, to continue IFR operation necessary to rely heavily on sound pilot judgment.
into a terminal area until you are reasonably close to For example, hazards such as debris, obstructions,
your destination. vehicles, or personnel must be recognized by the
pilot, and action should be taken as necessary to avoid
c. Simulated Instrument Flights. In conducting
such hazards. Taxi, hover taxi, and air taxi operations
simulated instrument flights, be sure that the weather
are considered to be ground movements. Helicopters
is good enough to compensate for the restricted
conducting such operations are expected to adhere to
visibility of the safety pilot and your greater
the same conditions, requirements, and practices as
concentration on your flight instruments. Give
apply to other ground taxiing and ATC procedures in
yourself a little greater margin when your flight plan
the AIM.
lies in or near a busy airway or close to an airport.
1. The phraseology taxi is used when it is
intended or expected that the helicopter will taxi on
4317. VFR Helicopter Operations at
the airport surface, either via taxiways or other
Controlled Airports
prescribed routes. Taxi is used primarily for
a. General. helicopters equipped with wheels or in response to a
pilot request. Preference should be given to this These areas may be improved or unimproved and
procedure whenever it is necessary to minimize may be separate from or located on an airport/heli-
effects of rotor downwash. port. ATC will issue takeoff clearances from
movement areas other than active runways, or in
2. Pilots may request a hover taxi when slow
diverse directions from active runways, with
forward movement is desired or when it may be
additional instructions as necessary. Whenever
appropriate to move very short distances. Pilots
possible, takeoff clearance will be issued in lieu of
should avoid this procedure if rotor downwash is
extended hover/air taxi operations. Phraseology will
likely to cause damage to parked aircraft or if blowing
be CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF FROM (taxiway,
dust/snow could obscure visibility. If it is necessary
helipad, runway number, etc.), MAKE RIGHT/
to operate above 25 feet AGL when hover taxiing, the
LEFT TURN FOR (direction, heading, NAVAID
pilot should initiate a request to ATC.
radial) DEPARTURE/DEPARTURE ROUTE (num-
3. Air taxi is the preferred method for helicopter ber, name, etc.). Unless requested by the pilot,
ground movements on airports provided ground downwind takeoffs will not be issued if the tailwind
operations and conditions permit. Unless otherwise exceeds 5 knots.
requested or instructed, pilots are expected to remain
below 100 feet AGL. However, if a higher than 2. Pilots should be alert to wind information as
normal airspeed or altitude is desired, the request well as to wind indications in the vicinity of the
should be made prior to liftoff. The pilot is solely helicopter. ATC should be advised of the intended
responsible for selecting a safe airspeed for the method of departing. A pilot request to takeoff in a
altitude/operation being conducted. Use of air taxi given direction indicates that the pilot is willing to
enables the pilot to proceed at an optimum accept the wind condition and controllers will honor
airspeed/altitude, minimize downwash effect, con- the request if traffic permits. Departure points could
serve fuel, and expedite movement from one point to be a significant distance from the control tower and
another. Helicopters should avoid overflight of other it may be difficult or impossible for the controller to
aircraft, vehicles, and personnel during airtaxi determine the helicopters relative position to the
operations. Caution must be exercised concerning wind.
active runways and pilots must be certain that air taxi 3. If takeoff is requested from nonmovement
instructions are understood. Special precautions may areas, an area not authorized for helicopter use, an
be necessary at unfamiliar airports or airports with area not visible from the tower, an unlighted area at
multiple/intersecting active runways. The taxi night, or an area off the airport, the phraseology
procedures given in Paragraph 4318, Taxiing, DEPARTURE FROM (requested location) WILL
Paragraph 4319, Taxi During Low Visibility, and BE AT YOUR OWN RISK (additional instructions,
Paragraph 4320, Exiting the Runway After as necessary). USE CAUTION (if applicable). The
Landing, also apply. pilot is responsible for operating in a safe manner and
REFERENCE should exercise due caution.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Taxi.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Hover Taxi.
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Air Taxi. 4. Similar phraseology is used for helicopter
landing operations. Every effort will be made to
c. Takeoff and Landing Procedures.
permit helicopters to proceed direct and land as near
1. Helicopter operations may be conducted as possible to their final destination on the airport.
from a runway, taxiway, portion of a landing strip, or Traffic density, the need for detailed taxiing
any clear area which could be used as a landing site instructions, frequency congestion, or other factors
such as the scene of an accident, a construction site, may affect the extent to which service can be
or the roof of a building. The terms used to describe expedited. As with ground movement operations, a
designated areas from which helicopters operate are: high degree of pilot/controller cooperation and
movement area, landing/takeoff area, apron/ramp, communication is necessary to achieve safe and
heliport and helipad (See Pilot/Controller Glossary). efficient operations.
5. A clearance must be obtained prior to 1. Good operating practice dictates that pilots
crossing any runway. ATC will issue an explicit acknowledge all runway crossing, hold short, or
clearance for all runway crossings. takeoff clearances unless there is some misunder-
standing, at which time the pilot should query the
6. When assigned a takeoff runway, ATC will controller until the clearance is understood.
first specify the runway, issue taxi instructions, and
NOTE
state any hold short instructions or runway crossing Air traffic controllers are required to obtain from the pilot
clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway. This a readback of all runway hold short instructions.
does not authorize the aircraft to enter or cross
2. Pilots operating a single pilot aircraft should
the assigned departure runway at any point. In order
monitor only assigned ATC communications after
to preclude misunderstandings in radio communica-
being cleared onto the active runway for departure.
tions, ATC will not use the word cleared in
Single pilot aircraft should not monitor other than
conjunction with authorization for aircraft to taxi.
ATC communications until flight from Class B,
7. When issuing taxi instructions to any point Class C, or Class D surface area is completed. This
other than an assigned takeoff runway, ATC will same procedure should be practiced from after receipt
specify the point to taxi to, issue taxi instructions, and of the clearance for landing until the landing and taxi
state any hold short instructions or runway crossing activities are complete. Proper effective scanning for
clearances if the taxi route will cross a runway. other aircraft, surface vehicles, or other objects
NOTE should be continuously exercised in all cases.
ATC is required to obtain a readback from the pilot of all 3. If the pilot is unfamiliar with the airport or for
runway hold short instructions. any reason confusion exists as to the correct taxi
8. If a pilot is expected to hold short of a runway routing, a request may be made for progressive taxi
approach (APPCH) area or ILS holding position instructions which include stepbystep routing
(see FIG 2315, Taxiways Located in Runway directions. Progressive instructions may also be
Approach Area), ATC will issue instructions. issued if the controller deems it necessary due to
traffic or field conditions (for example, construction
9. When taxi instructions are received from the or closed taxiways).
controller, pilots should always read back:
c. At those airports where the U.S. Government
(a) The runway assignment. operates the control tower and ATC has authorized
noncompliance with the requirement for twoway One clearing runway one right on taxiway echo three,
radio communications while operating within the request clearance to Page.
Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, or at those
airports where the U.S. Government does not operate Tower: Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Dulles
ground, taxi to Page via taxiways echo three, echo one, and
the control tower and radio communications cannot
echo niner.
be established, pilots must obtain a clearance by
visual light signal prior to taxiing on a runway and or
prior to takeoff and landing.
Aircraft: Orlando ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six
d. The following phraseologies and procedures
One clearing runway one eight left at taxiway bravo three,
are used in radiotelephone communications with request clearance to Page.
aeronautical ground stations.
1. Request for taxi instructions prior to Tower: Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, Orlando
departure. State your aircraft identification, loca- ground, hold short of runway one eight right.
tion, type of operation planned (VFR or IFR), and the Aircraft: Beechcraft One Four Two Six One, hold short
point of first intended landing. of runway one eight right.
EXAMPLE
Aircraft: Washington ground, Beechcraft One Three One 4319. Taxi During Low Visibility
Five Niner at hangar eight, ready to taxi, IFR to a. Pilots and aircraft operators should be constant-
Chicago. ly aware that during certain low visibility conditions
the movement of aircraft and vehicles on airports may
Tower: Beechcraft one three one five niner, Washington
not be visible to the tower controller. This may
ground, runway two seven, taxi via taxiways Charlie and
Delta, hold short of runway three three left.
prevent visual confirmation of an aircrafts adherence
to taxi instructions.
Aircraft: Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, hold b. Of vital importance is the need for pilots to
short of runway three three left. notify the controller when difficulties are encoun-
2. Receipt of ATC clearance. ARTCC clear- tered or at the first indication of becoming
ances are relayed to pilots by airport traffic disoriented. Pilots should proceed with extreme
controllers in the following manner. caution when taxiing toward the sun. When vision
difficulties are encountered pilots should immediate-
EXAMPLE ly inform the controller.
Tower: Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared to
the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain c. Advisory Circular 12057, Low Visibility
eight thousand. Operations Surface Movement Guidance and Control
System, commonly known as LVOSMGCS (pro-
nounced LVO SMIGS) describes an adequate
Aircraft: Beechcraft One Three One Five Niner, cleared example of a low visibility taxi plan for any airport
to the Chicago Midway Airport via Victor Eight, maintain which has takeoff or landing operations in less than
eight thousand. 1,200 feet runway visual range (RVR) visibility
NOTE conditions. These plans, which affect aircrew and
Normally, an ATC IFR clearance is relayed to a pilot by the vehicle operators, may incorporate additional
ground controller. At busy locations, however, pilots may lighting, markings, and procedures to control airport
be instructed by the ground controller to contact surface traffic. They will be addressed at two levels;
clearance delivery on a frequency designated for this
operations less than 1,200 feet RVR to 500 feet RVR
purpose. No surveillance or control over the movement of
traffic is exercised by this position of operation.
and operations less than 500 feet RVR.
NOTE
3. Request for taxi instructions after landing. Specific lighting systems and surface markings may be
State your aircraft identification, location, and that found in Paragraph 2111, Taxiway Lights, and
you request taxi instructions. Paragraph 234 , Taxiway Markings.
EXAMPLE d. When low visibility conditions exist, pilots
Aircraft: Dulles ground, Beechcraft One Four Two Six should focus their entire attention on the safe
operation of the aircraft while it is moving. Checklists 4321. Practice Instrument Approaches
and nonessential communication should be withheld
until the aircraft is stopped and the brakes set. a. Various air traffic incidents have indicated the
necessity for adoption of measures to achieve more
organized and controlled operations where practice
instrument approaches are conducted. Practice
4320. Exiting the Runway After Landing
instrument approaches are considered to be instru-
The following procedures must be followed after ment approaches made by either a VFR aircraft not on
landing and reaching taxi speed. an IFR flight plan or an aircraft on an IFR flight plan.
To achieve this and thereby enhance air safety, it is
a. Exit the runway without delay at the first Air Traffics policy to provide for separation of such
available taxiway or on a taxiway as instructed by operations at locations where approach control
ATC. Pilots must not exit the landing runway onto facilities are located and, as resources permit, at
another runway unless authorized by ATC. At certain other locations served by ARTCCs or parent
airports with an operating control tower, pilots should approach control facilities. Pilot requests to practice
not stop or reverse course on the runway without first instrument approaches may be approved by ATC
obtaining ATC approval. subject to traffic and workload conditions. Pilots
should anticipate that in some instances the controller
b. Taxi clear of the runway unless otherwise may find it necessary to deny approval or withdraw
directed by ATC. An aircraft is considered clear of the previous approval when traffic conditions warrant. It
runway when all parts of the aircraft are past the must be clearly understood, however, that even
runway edge and there are no restrictions to its though the controller may be providing separation,
continued movement beyond the runway holding pilots on VFR flight plans are required to comply with
position markings. In the absence of ATC instruc- basic VFR weather minimums (14 CFR Sec-
tions, the pilot is expected to taxi clear of the landing tion 91.155). Application of ATC procedures or any
runway by taxiing beyond the runway holding action taken by the controller to avoid traffic
position markings associated with the landing conflictions does not relieve IFR and VFR pilots of
runway, even if that requires the aircraft to protrude their responsibility to seeandavoid other traffic
into or cross another taxiway or ramp area. Once all while operating in VFR conditions (14 CFR
parts of the aircraft have crossed the runway holding Section 91.113). In addition to the normal IFR
position markings, the pilot must hold unless further separation minimums (which includes visual separa-
instructions have been issued by ATC. tion) during VFR conditions, 500 feet vertical
NOTE separation may be applied between VFR aircraft and
1. The tower will issue the pilot instructions which will between a VFR aircraft and the IFR aircraft. Pilots not
permit the aircraft to enter another taxiway, runway, or on IFR flight plans desiring practice instrument
ramp area when required. approaches should always state practice when
making requests to ATC. Controllers will instruct
2. Guidance contained in subparagraphs a and b above is
considered an integral part of the landing clearance and
VFR aircraft requesting an instrument approach to
satisfies the requirement of 14 CFR Section 91.129. maintain VFR. This is to preclude misunderstandings
between the pilot and controller as to the status of the
c. Immediately change to ground control frequen- aircraft. If pilots wish to proceed in accordance with
cy when advised by the tower and obtain a taxi instrument flight rules, they must specifically request
clearance. and obtain, an IFR clearance.
NOTE b. Before practicing an instrument approach,
1. The tower will issue instructions required to resolve any pilots should inform the approach control facility or
potential conflictions with other ground traffic prior to the tower of the type of practice approach they desire
advising the pilot to contact ground control. to make and how they intend to terminate it,
2. Ground control will issue taxi clearance to parking. i.e., fullstop landing, touchandgo, or missed or
That clearance does not authorize the aircraft to enter low approach maneuver. This information may be
or cross any runways. Pilots not familiar with the taxi furnished progressively when conducting a series of
route should request specific taxi instructions from ATC. approaches. Pilots on an IFR flight plan, who have
made a series of instrument approaches to full stop approved, pilots should expect to be vectored to a
landings should inform ATC when they make their final approach course for a practice instrument
final landing. The controller will control flights approach which is compatible with the general
practicing instrument approaches so as to ensure that direction of traffic at that airport.
they do not disrupt the flow of arriving and departing h. When granting approval for a practice
itinerant IFR or VFR aircraft. The priority afforded instrument approach, the controller will usually ask
itinerant aircraft over practice instrument approaches the pilot to report to the tower prior to or over the final
is not intended to be so rigidly applied that it causes approach fix inbound (nonprecision approaches) or
grossly inefficient application of services. A over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer
minimum delay to itinerant traffic may be appropriate marker inbound (precision approaches).
to allow an aircraft practicing an approach to
complete that approach. i. When authorization is granted to conduct
practice instrument approaches to an airport with a
NOTE tower, but where approved standard separation is not
A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on
provided to aircraft conducting practice instrument
the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance
does not relieve the pilot from compliance with any
approaches, the tower will approve the practice
previously issued restriction. approach, instruct the aircraft to maintain VFR and
issue traffic information, as required.
c. At airports without a tower, pilots wishing to
make practice instrument approaches should notify j. When an aircraft notifies a FSS providing Local
the facility having control jurisdiction of the desired Airport Advisory to the airport concerned of the
approach as indicated on the approach chart. All intent to conduct a practice instrument approach and
approach control facilities and ARTCCs are required whether or not separation is to be provided, the pilot
to publish a Letter to Airmen depicting those airports will be instructed to contact the appropriate facility
where they provide standard separation to both VFR on a specified frequency prior to initiating the
and IFR aircraft conducting practice instrument approach. At airports where separation is not
approaches. provided, the FSS will acknowledge the message and
issue known traffic information but will neither
d. The controller will provide approved separation approve or disapprove the approach.
between both VFR and IFR aircraft when authoriza- k. Pilots conducting practice instrument ap-
tion is granted to make practice approaches to airports proaches should be particularly alert for other aircraft
where an approach control facility is located and to operating in the local traffic pattern or in proximity to
certain other airports served by approach control or the airport.
an ARTCC. Controller responsibility for separation
of VFR aircraft begins at the point where the
4322. Option Approach
approach clearance becomes effective, or when the
aircraft enters Class B or Class C airspace, or a TRSA, The Cleared for the Option procedure will permit
whichever comes first. an instructor, flight examiner or pilot the option to
make a touchandgo, low approach, missed
e. VFR aircraft practicing instrument approaches approach, stopandgo, or full stop landing. This
are not automatically authorized to execute the procedure can be very beneficial in a training
missed approach procedure. This authorization must situation in that neither the student pilot nor examinee
be specifically requested by the pilot and approved by would know what maneuver would be accomplished.
the controller. Separation will not be provided unless The pilot should make a request for this procedure
the missed approach has been approved by ATC. passing the final approach fix inbound on an
f. Except in an emergency, aircraft cleared to instrument approach or entering downwind for a VFR
practice instrument approaches must not deviate from traffic pattern. After ATC approval of the option, the
the approved procedure until cleared to do so by the pilot should inform ATC as soon as possible of any
controller. delay on the runway during their stop-and-go or full
stop landing. The advantages of this procedure as a
g. At radar approach control locations when a full training aid are that it enables an instructor or
approach procedure (procedure turn, etc.,) cannot be examiner to obtain the reaction of a trainee or
examinee under changing conditions, the pilot would ers recommendations for operation of landing lights
not have to discontinue an approach in the middle of and electrical systems should be observed.
the procedure due to student error or pilot proficiency
d. Prop and jet blast forces generated by large
requirements, and finally it allows more flexibility
aircraft have overturned or damaged several smaller
and economy in training programs. This procedure
aircraft taxiing behind them. To avoid similar results,
will only be used at those locations with an
and in the interest of preventing upsets and injuries to
operational control tower and will be subject to ATC
ground personnel from such forces, the FAA
approval.
recommends that air carriers and commercial
operators turn on their rotating beacons anytime their
aircraft engines are in operation. General aviation
4323. Use of Aircraft Lights pilots using rotating beacon equipped aircraft are also
encouraged to participate in this program which is
a. Aircraft position lights are required to be lighted designed to alert others to the potential hazard. Since
on aircraft operated on the surface and in flight from this is a voluntary program, exercise caution and do
sunset to sunrise. In addition, aircraft equipped with not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication
an anticollision light system are required to operate that aircraft engines are in operation.
that light system during all types of operations (day
and night). However, during any adverse meteorolog- e. Prior to commencing taxi, it is recommended to
ical conditions, the pilotincommand may turn on navigation, position, anti-collision, and logo
determine that the anticollision lights should be lights (if equipped). To signal intent to other pilots,
turned off when their light output would constitute a consider turning on the taxi light when the aircraft is
hazard to safety (14 CFR Section 91.209). moving or intending to move on the ground, and
Supplementary strobe lights should be turned off on turning it off when stopped or yielding to other
the ground when they adversely affect ground ground traffic. Strobe lights should not be illuminated
personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are during taxi if they will adversely affect the vision of
adverse reflection from clouds. other pilots or ground personnel.
f. At the discretion of the pilot-in-command, all
b. An aircraft anticollision light system can use exterior lights should be illuminated when taxiing on
one or more rotating beacons and/or strobe lights, be or across any runway. This increases the conspicu-
colored either red or white, and have different (higher ousness of the aircraft to controllers and other pilots
than minimum) intensities when compared to other approaching to land, taxiing, or crossing the runway.
aircraft. Many aircraft have both a rotating beacon Pilots should comply with any equipment operating
and a strobe light system. limitations and consider the effects of landing and
strobe lights on other aircraft in their vicinity.
c. The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program,
Operation Lights On, to enhance the seeandavoid g. When entering the departure runway for takeoff
concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing or to line up and wait, all lights, except for landing
lights during takeoff; i.e., either after takeoff lights, should be illuminated to make the aircraft
clearance has been received or when beginning conspicuous to ATC and other aircraft on approach.
takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on Landing lights should be turned on when takeoff
their landing lights when operating below clearance is received or when commencing takeoff
10,000 feet, day or night, especially when operating roll at an airport without an operating control tower.
within 10 miles of any airport, or in conditions of
reduced visibility and in areas where flocks of birds 4324. Flight Inspection/Flight Check
may be expected, i.e., coastal areas, lake areas, Aircraft in Terminal Areas
around refuse dumps, etc. Although turning on
aircraft lights does enhance the seeandavoid a. Flight check is a call sign used to alert pilots and
concept, pilots should not become complacent about air traffic controllers when a FAA aircraft is engaged
keeping a sharp lookout for other aircraft. Not all in flight inspection/certification of NAVAIDs and
aircraft are equipped with lights and some pilots may flight procedures. Flight check aircraft fly preplanned
not have their lights turned on. Aircraft manufactur- high/low altitude flight patterns such as grids, orbits,
DME arcs, and tracks, including low passes along the FIG 4312
full length of the runway to verify NAVAID Signalmans Position
performance.
FIG 4313
All Clear
(O.K.)
SIGNALMAN
POINT
TO
ENGINE
TO BE
STARTED
FIG 4323
Night Operation
b. 14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: The pilotin ATC clearances normally contain the following:
command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, a. Clearance Limit. The traffic clearance issued
and is the final authority as to, the operation of that prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the
aircraft. If ATC issues a clearance that would cause airport of intended landing. Many airports and
a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the associated NAVAIDs are collocated with the same
pilots opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, name and/or identifier, so care should be exercised to
IT IS THE PILOTS RESPONSIBILITY TO ensure a clear understanding of the clearance limit.
REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Simi- When the clearance limit is the airport of intended
larly, if a pilot prefers to follow a different course of landing, the clearance should contain the airport
action, such as make a 360 degree turn for spacing to name followed by the word airport. Under certain
follow traffic when established in a landing or conditions, a clearance limit may be a NAVAID or
approach sequence, land on a different runway, other fix. When the clearance limit is a NAVAID,
takeoff from a different intersection, takeoff from the intersection, or waypoint and the type is known, the
threshold instead of an intersection, or delay clearance should contain type. Under certain
operation, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO conditions, at some locations a shortrange clearance
INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to
requests a different course of action, however, the a fix within or just outside of the terminal area and
pilot is expected to cooperate so as to preclude pilots are advised of the frequency on which they will
disruption of traffic flow or creation of conflicting receive the longrange clearance direct from the
patterns. The pilot is also expected to use center controller.
the appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all
b. Departure Procedure. Headings to fly and
ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory
altitude restrictions may be issued to separate a
information.
departure from other air traffic in the terminal area.
c. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance Where the volume of traffic warrants, DPs have been
in response to a Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance developed.
System resolution advisory must notify ATC of that REFERENCE
deviation as soon as possible. AIM, Paragraph 525, Abbreviated IFR Departure Clearance
(Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures
REFERENCE AIM, Paragraph 528 , Instrument Departure Procedures (DP)
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument
System. Departures (SID)
or route different from that requested by the pilot. In pattern is charted), an EFC time, and a best estimate
addition, flow patterns have been established in of any additional en route/terminal delay.
certain congested areas or between congested areas
2. If the holding pattern is charted and the
whereby traffic capacity is increased by routing all
controller doesnt issue complete holding instruc-
traffic on preferred routes. Information on these flow
tions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the
patterns is available in offices where preflight
appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the
briefing is furnished or where flight plans are
controller may omit all holding instructions except
accepted.
the charted holding direction and the statement
2. When required, air traffic clearances include AS PUBLISHED, e.g., HOLD EAST AS
data to assist pilots in identifying radio reporting PUBLISHED. Controllers must always issue
points. It is the responsibility of pilots to notify ATC complete holding instructions when pilots request
immediately if their radio equipment cannot receive them.
the type of signals they must utilize to comply with NOTE
their clearance. Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government
d. Altitude Data. or commercially produced charts which meet FAA
requirements should be used.
1. The altitude or flight level instructions in an
3. If no holding pattern is charted and holding
ATC clearance normally require that a pilot
instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask
MAINTAIN the altitude or flight level at which the
ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix.
flight will operate when in controlled airspace.
This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an
Altitude or flight level changes while en route should
aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that
be requested prior to the time the change is desired.
desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding
2. When possible, if the altitude assigned is instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to
different from the altitude requested by the pilot, ATC frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), hold
will inform the pilot when to expect climb or descent in a standard pattern on the course on which you
clearance or to request altitude change from another approached the fix and request further clearance as
facility. If this has not been received prior to crossing soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level
the boundary of the ATC facilitys area and of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected
assignment at a different altitude is still desired, the so that separation will be provided as required.
pilot should reinitiate the request with the next 4. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a
facility. clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not
3. The term cruise may be used instead of been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed
MAINTAIN to assign a block of airspace to a pilot reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix,
from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot 5. When no delay is expected, the controller
may level off at any intermediate altitude within this should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes
to be made at the discretion of the pilot. However, before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.
once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports
leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not 6. Pilots should report to ATC the time and
return to that altitude without additional ATC altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the
clearance. clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit.
REFERENCE NOTE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Cruise. In the event of twoway communications failure, pilots are
e. Holding Instructions. required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185.
action necessary to avoid possible confliction the program may now enter CDR Capable in the
between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight remarks section of their flight plan.
hold or change altitude prior to reaching the point e. When CDR Capable is entered into the
where standard separation from other IFR traffic remarks section of the flight plan the general aviation
would no longer exist. customer communicates to ATC the ability to decode
NOTE the current CDR into a flight plan route and the
Some pilots have questioned this action and requested willingness to fly a different route than that which
traffic information and were at a loss when the reply was filed.
indicated no traffic report. In such cases the controller
has taken action to prevent a traffic confliction which
would have occurred at a distant point. 446. Special VFR Clearances
b. A pilot may wish an explanation of the handling a. An ATC clearance must be obtained prior to
of the flight at the time of occurrence; however, operating within a Class B, Class C, Class D, or
controllers are not able to take time from their Class E surface area when the weather is less than that
immediate control duties nor can they afford to required for VFR flight. A VFR pilot may request and
overload the ATC communications channels to be given a clearance to enter, leave, or operate within
furnish explanations. Pilots may obtain an explana- most Class D and Class E surface areas and some
tion by directing a letter or telephone call to the chief Class B and Class C surface areas in special VFR
controller of the facility involved. conditions, traffic permitting, and providing such
flight will not delay IFR operations. All special VFR
c. Pilots have the privilege of requesting a flights must remain clear of clouds. The visibility
different clearance from that which has been issued requirements for special VFR aircraft (other than
by ATC if they feel that they have information which helicopters) are:
would make another course of action more
practicable or if aircraft equipment limitations or 1. At least 1 statute mile flight visibility for
company procedures forbid compliance with the operations within Class B, Class C, Class D, and
clearance issued. Class E surface areas.
2. At least 1 statute mile ground visibility if
445. Coded Departure Route (CDR) taking off or landing. If ground visibility is not
reported at that airport, the flight visibility must be at
a. CDRs provide air traffic control a rapid means least 1 statute mile.
to reroute departing aircraft when the filed route is
constrained by either weather or congestion. 3. The restrictions in subparagraphs 1 and 2 do
not apply to helicopters. Helicopters must remain
b. CDRs consist of an eightcharacter designator clear of clouds and may operate in Class B, Class C,
that represents a route of flight. The first three Class D, and Class E surface areas with less than
alphanumeric characters represent the departure 1 statute mile visibility.
airport, characters four through six represent the
b. When a control tower is located within the
arrival airport, and the last two characters are chosen
Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, requests for
by the overlying ARTCC. For example, PITORDN1
clearances should be to the tower. In a Class E surface
is an alternate route from Pittsburgh to Chicago.
area, a clearance may be obtained from the nearest
Participating aircrews may then be recleared by air
tower, FSS, or center.
traffic control via the CDR abbreviated clearance,
PITORDN1. c. It is not necessary to file a complete flight plan
with the request for clearance, but pilots should state
c. CDRs are updated on the 56 day charting cycle.
their intentions in sufficient detail to permit ATC to
Participating aircrews must ensure that their CDR is
fit their flight into the traffic flow. The clearance will
current.
not contain a specific altitude as the pilot must remain
d. Traditionally, CDRs have been used by air clear of clouds. The controller may require the pilot
transport companies that have signed a Memorandum to fly at or below a certain altitude due to other traffic,
of Agreement with the local air traffic control facility. but the altitude specified will permit flight at or above
General aviation customers who wish to participate in the minimum safe altitude. In addition, at radar
routing and an alternative clearance if VFRontop h. ATC will not authorize VFR or VFRontop
is not reached by a specified altitude. operations in Class A airspace.
REFERENCE
c. A pilot on an IFR flight plan, operating in VFR AIM, Paragraph 322 , Class A Airspace
conditions, may request to climb/descend in VFR
conditions.
449. VFR/IFR Flights
d. ATC may not authorize VFRontop/VFR A pilot departing VFR, either intending to or needing
conditions operations unless the pilot requests the to obtain an IFR clearance en route, must be aware of
VFR operation or a clearance to operate in VFR the position of the aircraft and the relative
conditions will result in noise abatement benefits terrain/obstructions. When accepting a clearance
where part of the IFR departure route does not below the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA, pilots are
conform to an FAA approved noise abatement route responsible for their own terrain/obstruction clear-
or altitude. ance until reaching the MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA. If
e. When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC pilots are unable to maintain terrain/obstruction
authorization to maintain VFRontop/maintain clearance, the controller should be advised and pilots
VFR conditions pilots on IFR flight plans must: should state their intentions.
NOTE
1. Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as
OROCA is an offroute altitude which provides obstruc-
prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159. tion clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in nonmountainous
2. Comply with the VFR visibility and distance terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer in designated
from cloud criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not
provide signal coverage from groundbased navigational
VFR Weather Minimums). aids, air traffic control radar, or communications
3. Comply with instrument flight rules that are coverage.
applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitudes,
position reporting, radio communications, course to 4410. Adherence to Clearance
be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.
a. When air traffic clearance has been obtained
NOTE under either visual or instrument flight rules, the
Pilots should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to pilotincommand of the aircraft must not deviate
ensure the exchange of accurate traffic information. from the provisions thereof unless an amended
f. ATC authorization to maintain VFRontop clearance is obtained. When ATC issues a clearance
is not intended to restrict pilots so that they must or instruction, pilots are expected to execute its
operate only above an obscuring meteorological provisions upon receipt. ATC, in certain situations,
formation (layer). Instead, it permits operation above, will include the word IMMEDIATELY in a
below, between layers, or in areas where there is no clearance or instruction to impress urgency of an
meteorological obscuration. It is imperative, howev- imminent situation and expeditious compliance by
er, that pilots understand that clearance to operate the pilot is expected and necessary for safety. The
VFRontop/VFR conditions does not imply addition of a VFR or other restriction; i.e., climb or
cancellation of the IFR flight plan. descent point or time, crossing altitude, etc., does not
authorize a pilot to deviate from the route of flight or
g. Pilots operating VFRontop/VFR conditions any other provision of the ATC clearance.
may receive traffic information from ATC on other
pertinent IFR or VFR aircraft. However, aircraft b. When a heading is assigned or a turn is
operating in Class B airspace/TRSAs must be requested by ATC, pilots are expected to promptly
separated as required by FAA Order JO 7110.65, initiate the turn, to complete the turn, and maintain the
Air Traffic Control. new heading unless issued additional instructions.
command must notify ATC as soon as possible and may be able to plan traffic to accommodate a high
obtain an amended clearance. In an emergency performance climb and allow the aircraft to climb to
situation which does not result in a deviation from the the planned altitude without restriction.
rules prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91 but which requires
i. If an expedite climb or descent clearance is
ATC to give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of such
issued by ATC, and the altitude to maintain is
aircraft must, when requested by ATC, make a report
subsequently changed or restated without an expedite
within 48 hours of such emergency situation to the
instruction, the expedite instruction is canceled.
manager of that ATC facility.
Expedite climb/descent normally indicates to the
g. The guiding principle is that the last ATC pilot that the approximate best rate of climb/descent
clearance has precedence over the previous ATC should be used without requiring an exceptional
clearance. When the route or altitude in a previously change in aircraft handling characteristics. Normally
issued clearance is amended, the controller will controllers will inform pilots of the reason for an
restate applicable altitude restrictions. If altitude to instruction to expedite.
maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to
departure or while airborne, and previously issued 4411. IFR Separation Standards
altitude restrictions are omitted, those altitude
a. ATC effects separation of aircraft vertically by
restrictions are canceled, including departure proce-
assigning different altitudes; longitudinally by
dures and STAR altitude restrictions.
providing an interval expressed in time or distance
EXAMPLE between aircraft on the same, converging, or crossing
1. A departure flight receives a clearance to destination courses, and laterally by assigning different flight
airport to maintain FL 290. The clearance incorporates a paths.
DP which has certain altitude crossing restrictions. Shortly
after takeoff, the flight receives a new clearance changing b. Separation will be provided between all aircraft
the maintaining FL from 290 to 250. If the altitude operating on IFR flight plans except during that part
restrictions are still applicable, the controller restates of the flight (outside Class B airspace or a TRSA)
them. being conducted on a VFRontop/VFR conditions
clearance. Under these conditions, ATC may issue
2. A departing aircraft is cleared to cross Fluky
Intersection at or above 3,000 feet, Gordonville VOR at or
traffic advisories, but it is the sole responsibility of the
above 12,000 feet, maintain FL 200. Shortly after pilot to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft.
departure, the altitude to be maintained is changed to c. When radar is employed in the separation of
FL 240. If the altitude restrictions are still applicable, the aircraft at the same altitude, a minimum of 3 miles
controller issues an amended clearance as follows: cross separation is provided between aircraft operating
Fluky Intersection at or above three thousand, cross within 40 miles of the radar antenna site, and 5 miles
Gordonville VOR at or above one two thousand, between aircraft operating beyond 40 miles from the
maintain Flight Level two four zero.
antenna site. These minima may be increased or
3. An arriving aircraft is cleared to the destination airport decreased in certain specific situations.
via V45 Delta VOR direct; the aircraft is cleared to cross
NOTE
Delta VOR at 10,000 feet, and then to maintain 6,000 feet.
Certain separation standards are increased in the terminal
Prior to Delta VOR, the controller issues an amended environment when CENRAP is being utilized.
clearance as follows: turn right heading one eight zero
for vector to runway three six ILS approach, maintain
six thousand. 4412. Speed Adjustments
NOTE a. ATC will issue speed adjustments to pilots of
Because the altitude restriction cross Delta VOR at radarcontrolled aircraft to achieve or maintain
10,000 feet was omitted from the amended clearance, it is required or desire spacing.
no longer in effect.
b. ATC will express all speed adjustments in
h. Pilots of turbojet aircraft equipped with terms of knots based on indicated airspeed (IAS) in
afterburner engines should advise ATC prior to 5 or 10 knot increments except that at or above FL
takeoff if they intend to use afterburning during their 240 speeds may be expressed in terms of Mach
climb to the en route altitude. Often, the controller numbers in 0.01 increments. The use of Mach
e. When ATC combines a speed adjustment with 3. Instruct the pilot to resume published
a descent clearance, the sequence of delivery, with the speed. Resume published speed is issued to
word then between, indicates the expected order of terminate a speed adjustment where speed restric-
execution. tions are published on a charted procedure.
NOTE
EXAMPLE
When instructed to comply with speed restrictions or to
1. Descend and maintain (altitude); then, reduce speed to
resume published speed, ATC anticipates pilots will
(speed).
begin adjusting speed the minimum distance necessary
2. Reduce speed to (speed); then, descend and maintain prior to a published speed restriction so as to cross the
(altitude). waypoint/fix at the published speed. Once at the published
speed, ATC expects pilots will maintain the published altitude restrictions. The pilot should then vertically
speed until additional adjustment is required to comply navigate to comply with all speed and/or altitude
with further published or ATC assigned speed restrictions restrictions published on the SID.
or as required to ensure compliance with 14 CFR 2. In example 2, when ATC issues a Descend via <STAR
Section 91.117. name> arrival, ATC has canceled any previously issued
EXAMPLE speed and/or altitude restrictions. The pilot should
(An aircraft is flying a SID/STAR with published speed vertically navigate to comply with all speed and/or altitude
restrictions. ATC issues a speed adjustment and instructs restrictions published on the STAR.
the aircraft where the adjustment ends): Maintain two two
zero knots until BALTR then resume published speed. CAUTION
When descending on a STAR, pilots should not speed up
NOTE
excessively beyond the previously issued speed. Otherwise,
The ATC assigned speed assignment of two two zero knots
would apply until BALTR. The aircraft would then comply adequate spacing between aircraft descending on the STAR
with the published speed restrictions. that was established by ATC with the previous restriction
may be lost.
4. Advise the pilot to delete speed restrictions
when either ATC assigned or published speed g. Approach clearances supersede any prior speed
restrictions on a charted procedure are no longer adjustment assignments, and pilots are expected to
required. make their own speed adjustments as necessary to
complete the approach. However, under certain
EXAMPLE
circumstances, it may be necessary for ATC to issue
(An aircraft is flying a SID with published speed
restrictions designed to prevent aircraft overtake on further speed adjustments after approach clearance is
departure. ATC determines there is no conflicting traffic issued to maintain separation between successive
and deletes the speed restriction): Delete speed arrivals. Under such circumstances, previously
restrictions. issued speed adjustments will be restated if that speed
NOTE is to be maintained or additional speed adjustments
When deleting published restrictions, ATC must ensure are requested. Speed adjustments should not be
obstacle clearance until aircraft are established on a route assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a
where no published restrictions apply. This does not relieve point 5 miles from the runway, whichever is closer to
the pilot of those speed restrictions which are applicable to the runway.
14 CFR Section 91.117.
h. The pilots retain the prerogative of rejecting the
5. Instruct the pilot to climb via or descend application of speed adjustment by ATC if the
via. A climb via or descend via clearance cancels any minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is
previously issued speed restrictions and, once greater than the speed adjustment.
established on the depicted departure or arrival, to
NOTE
climb or descend, and to meet all published or
In such cases, pilots are expected to advise ATC of the
assigned altitude and/or speed restrictions. speed that will be used.
EXAMPLE i. Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for
1. (An aircraft is flying a SID with published speed
rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC
restrictions. ATC has issued a speed restriction of 250 knots
if, in their opinion, it will cause them to exceed the
for spacing. ATC determines that spacing between aircraft
is adequate and desires the aircraft to comply with
maximum indicated airspeed prescribed by 14 CFR
published restrictions): United 436, Climb via SID. Section 91.117(a), (c) and (d). IN SUCH CASES,
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO SO INFORM ATC.
2. (An aircraft is established on a STAR. ATC must slow an Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL who are
aircraft for the purposes of spacing and assigns it a speed
issued speed adjustments which exceed 250 knots
of 280 knots. When spacing is adequate, ATC deletes the
IAS and are subsequently cleared below 10,000 feet
speed restriction and desires that the aircraft comply with
all published restrictions on the STAR): Gulfstream two MSL are expected to comply with 14 CFR
three papa echo, descend via the TYLER One arrival. Section 91.117(a).
NOTE j. Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to
1. In example 1, when ATC issues a Climb via SID U.S. registered aircraft operating beyond 12 nautical
clearance, it deletes any previously issued speed and/or miles from the coastline within the U.S. Flight
Information Region, in Class E airspace below 1. The tower controller sees the aircraft
10,000 feet MSL. However, in airspace underlying a involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to
Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in ensure that the aircraft avoid each other.
a VFR corridor designated through such as a Class B 2. A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and
airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the upon instructions from the controller provides
200 knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR separation by maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it.
Section 91.117(c). When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual
k. For operations in a Class C and Class D surface separation, they must maintain constant visual
area, ATC is authorized to request or approve a speed surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is
greater than the maximum indicated airspeeds no longer a factor.
prescribed for operation within that airspace (14 CFR NOTE
Section 91.117(b)). Traffic is no longer a factor when during approach phase
the other aircraft is in the landing phase of flight or
NOTE executes a missed approach; and during departure or
Pilots are expected to comply with the maximum speed of en route, when the other aircraft turns away or is on a
200 knots when operating beneath Class B airspace or in diverging course.
a Class B VFR corridor (14 CFR Section 91.117(c)
and (d)). b. A pilots acceptance of instructions to follow
another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is
l. When in communications with the ARTCC or an acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the
approach control facility, pilots should, as a good aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to
operating practice, state any ATC assigned speed maintain intrail separation. In operations conducted
restriction on initial radio contact associated with an behind heavy aircraft, or a small aircraft behind a
ATC communications frequency change. B757 or other large aircraft, it is also an
acknowledgment that the pilot accepts the responsi-
bility for wake turbulence separation. Visual
4413. Runway Separation
separation is prohibited behind super aircraft.
Tower controllers establish the sequence of arriving NOTE
and departing aircraft by requiring them to adjust When a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to
flight or ground operation as necessary to achieve provide visual separation from it, the pilot should promptly
proper spacing. They may HOLD an aircraft short notify the controller if visual contact with the other aircraft
of the runway to achieve spacing between it and an is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot cannot accept
arriving aircraft; the controller may instruct a pilot to the responsibility for the separation for any reason.
EXTEND DOWNWIND in order to establish c. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor
spacing from an arriving or departing aircraft. At in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or the right
times a clearance may include the word IMMEDI- seat passenger) should continuously scan to cover all
ATE. For example: CLEARED FOR areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Pilots must
IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF. In such cases IMMEDI- develop an effective scanning technique which
ATE is used for purposes of air traffic separation. It maximizes ones visual capabilities. Spotting a
is up to the pilot to refuse the clearance if, in the pilots potential collision threat increases directly as more
opinion, compliance would adversely affect the time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must
operation. use timesharing techniques to effectively scan the
surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 4315 , Gate Holding due to Departure Delays as well.
d. Since the eye can focus only on a narrow
4414. Visual Separation viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished
with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
a. Visual separation is a means employed by ATC movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route the central visual field. Each movement should not
airspace in the NAS. There are two methods exceed ten degrees, and each area should be observed
employed to effect this separation: for at least one second to enable collision detection.
Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of 3. Lowwing airplane. Momentarily lower
horizontal backandforth scanning every pilot the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.
should develop a scanning pattern that is not only
4. Appropriate clearing procedures should
comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness.
precede the execution of all turns including
Pilots should remember, however, that they have a
chandelles, lazy eights, stalls, slow flight, climbs,
regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section 91.113(a))
straight and level, spins, and other combination
to see and avoid other aircraft when weather
maneuvers.
conditions permit.
a. Before Takeoff. Prior to taxiing onto a runway a. TCAS I provides proximity warning only, to
or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder
should scan the approach areas for possible landing aircraft. No recommended avoidance maneuvers are
traffic and execute the appropriate clearing maneu- provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TCAS I
vers to provide them a clear view of the approach warning. It is intended for use by smaller commuter
areas. aircraft holding 10 to 30 passenger seats, and general
aviation aircraft.
b. Climbs and Descents. During climbs and b. TCAS II provides traffic advisories (TAs) and
descents in flight conditions which permit visual resolution advisories (RAs). Resolution advisories
detection of other traffic, pilots should execute gentle provide recommended maneuvers in a vertical
banks, left and right at a frequency which permits direction (climb or descend only) to avoid conflicting
continuous visual scanning of the airspace about traffic. Airline aircraft, and larger commuter and
them. business aircraft holding 31 passenger seats or more,
c. Straight and Level. Sustained periods of use TCAS II equipment.
straight and level flight in conditions which permit 1. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC
visual detection of other traffic should be broken at clearance in response to a TCAS II RA must notify
intervals with appropriate clearing procedures to ATC of that deviation as soon as practicable and
provide effective visual scanning. expeditiously return to the current ATC clearance
when the traffic conflict is resolved.
d. Traffic Pattern. Entries into traffic patterns
while descending create specific collision hazards 2. Deviations from rules, policies, or clearances
and should be avoided. should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy a
TCAS II RA.
e. Traffic at VOR Sites. All operators should
emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the 3. The serving IFR air traffic facility is not
vicinity of VORs and airway intersections due to the responsible to provide approved standard IFR
convergence of traffic. separation to an aircraft after a TCAS II RA maneuver
until one of the following conditions exists:
f. Training Operations. Operators of pilot train-
(a) The aircraft has returned to its assigned
ing programs are urged to adopt the following
altitude and course.
practices:
(b) Alternate ATC instructions have been
1. Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all issued.
levels should be requested to verbalize clearing
procedures (call out clear left, right, above, or c. TCAS does not alter or diminish the pilots basic
below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight.
during maneuvering. Since TCAS does not respond to aircraft which are
not transponder equipped or aircraft with a
2. Highwing airplane. Momentarily raise the transponder failure, TCAS alone does not ensure safe
wing in the direction of the intended turn and look. separation in every case.
d. At this time, no air traffic service nor handling Since TIS does not respond to aircraft which are not
is predicated on the availability of TCAS equipment transponder equipped, aircraft with a transponder
in the aircraft. failure, or aircraft out of radar coverage, TIS alone
does not ensure safe separation in every case.
4417. Traffic Information Service (TIS)
c. At this time, no air traffic service nor handling
a. TIS provides proximity warning only, to assist is predicated on the availability of TIS equipment in
the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. the aircraft.
No recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided
nor authorized as a direct result of a TIS intruder
d. Presently, no air traffic services or handling is
display or TIS alert. It is intended for use by aircraft
predicated on the availability of an ADSB cockpit
in which TCAS is not required.
display. A trafficinsight reply to ATC must be
b. TIS does not alter or diminish the pilots basic based on seeing an aircraft outthewindow, NOT on
authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight. the cockpit display.
equipped with an airborne transponder. All ARTCCs from an object (such as an aircraft). This reflected
radars in the conterminous U.S. and many airport signal is then displayed as a target on the
surveillance radars have the capability to interrogate controllers radarscope. In the ATCRBS, the
Mode C and display altitude information to the Interrogator, a ground based radar beacon transmit-
controller from appropriately equipped aircraft. terreceiver, scans in synchronism with the primary
However, there are a number of airport surveillance radar and transmits discrete radio signals which
radars that dont have Mode C display capability and; repetitiously request all transponders, on the mode
therefore, altitude information must be obtained from being used, to reply. The replies received are then
the pilot. mixed with the primary returns and both are
displayed on the same radarscope.
(f) At some locations within the ATC en route
environment, secondaryradaronly (no primary 2. Transponder. This airborne radar beacon
radar) gap filler radar systems are used to give lower transmitterreceiver automatically receives the sig-
altitude radar coverage between two larger radar nals from the interrogator and selectively replies with
systems, each of which provides both primary and a specific pulse group (code) only to those
secondary radar coverage. In those geographical interrogations being received on the mode to which
areas served by secondaryradar only, aircraft it is set. These replies are independent of, and much
without transponders cannot be provided with radar stronger than a primary radar return.
service. Additionally, transponder equipped aircraft 3. Radarscope. The radarscope used by the
cannot be provided with radar advisories concerning controller displays returns from both the primary
primary targets and weather. radar system and the ATCRBS. These returns, called
REFERENCE targets, are what the controller refers to in the control
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Radar. and separation of traffic.
(g) The controllers ability to advise a pilot b. The job of identifying and maintaining
flying on instruments or in visual conditions of the identification of primary radar targets is a long and
aircrafts proximity to another aircraft will be limited tedious task for the controller. Some of the
if the unknown aircraft is not observed on radar, if no advantages of ATCRBS over primary radar are:
flight plan information is available, or if the volume 1. Reinforcement of radar targets.
of traffic and workload prevent issuing traffic
information. The controllers first priority is given to 2. Rapid target identification.
establishing vertical, lateral, or longitudinal separa- 3. Unique display of selected codes.
tion between aircraft flying IFR under the control of c. A part of the ATCRBS ground equipment is the
ATC. decoder. This equipment enables a controller to
c. FAA radar units operate continuously at the assign discrete transponder codes to each aircraft
locations shown in the Chart Supplement U.S., and under his/her control. Normally only one code will be
their services are available to all pilots, both civil and assigned for the entire flight. Assignments are made
military. Contact the associated FAA control tower or by the ARTCC computer on the basis of the National
ARTCC on any frequency guarded for initial Beacon Code Allocation Plan. The equipment is also
instructions, or in an emergency, any FAA facility for designed to receive Mode C altitude information
information on the nearest radar service. from the aircraft.
NOTE
Refer to figures with explanatory legends for an illustration
452. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon of the target symbology depicted on radar scopes in the
System (ATCRBS) NAS Stage A (en route), the ARTS III (terminal) Systems,
a. The ATCRBS, sometimes referred to as and other nonautomated (broadband) radar systems. (See
FIG 452 and FIG 453.)
secondary surveillance radar, consists of three main
components: d. It should be emphasized that aircraft transpond-
ers greatly improve the effectiveness of radar
1. Interrogator. Primary radar relies on a systems.
signal being transmitted from the radar antenna site REFERENCE
and for this signal to be reflected or bounced back AIM, Paragraph 4120 , Transponder Operation
FIG 452
ARTS III Radar Scope With Alphanumeric Data
NOTE
A number of radar terminals do not have ARTS equipment. Those facilities and certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S.
would have radar displays similar to the lower right hand subset. ARTS facilities and NAS Stage A ARTCCs, when operating
in the nonautomation mode, would also have similar displays and certain services based on automation may not be
available.
EXAMPLE
1. Areas of precipitation (can be reduced by CP) 25. Low ALT flashes to indicate when an aircrafts
predicted descent places the aircraft in an unsafe
2. Arrival/departure tabular list proximity to terrain.
(Note: this feature does not function if the aircraft is not
3. Trackball (control) position symbol (A) squawking Mode C. When a helicopter or aircraft is
known to be operating below the lower safe limit, the
4. Airway (lines are sometimes deleted in part)
low ALT can be changed to inhibit and flashing
5. Radar limit line for control ceases.)
11. Approach gates 31. Tracked target (primary and beacon target) control
position A
12. Tracked target (primary and beacon target)
32. Aircraft is squawking emergency Code 7700 and is
13. Control position symbol nonmonitored, untracked, Mode C
14. Untracked target select code (monitored) with 33. Controller assigned runway 36 right alternates with
Mode C readout of 5,000 Mode C readout
(Note: a three letter identifier could also indicate the
15. Untracked target without Mode C arrival is at specific airport)
16. Primary target 34. Ident flashes
17. Beacon target only (secondary radar) (transponder) 35. Identing target blossoms
18. Primary and beacon target 36. Untracked target identing on a selected code
19. Leader line 37. Range marks (10 and 15 miles) (can be
changed/offset)
20. Altitude Mode C readout is 6,000
(Note: readouts may not be displayed because of 38. Aircraft controlled by center
nonreceipt of beacon information, garbled beacon
signals, and flight plan data which is displayed 39. Targets in suspend status
alternately with the altitude readout)
40. Coast/suspend list (aircraft holding, temporary loss
21. Ground speed readout is 240 knots of beacon/target, etc.)
(Note: readouts may not be displayed because of a loss
of beacon signal, a controller alert that a pilot was 41. Radio failure (emergency information)
squawking emergency, radio failure, etc.)
42. Select beacon codes (being monitored)
22. Aircraft ID
43. General information (ATIS, runway, approach in
23. Asterisk indicates a controller entry in Mode C use)
block. In this case 5,000 is entered and 05 would
alternate with Mode C readout. 44. Altimeter setting
FIG 453
NAS Stage A Controllers View Plan Display
This figure illustrates the controllers radar scope (PVD) when operating in the full automation (RDP) mode, which is
normally 20 hours per day.
(When not in automation mode, the display is similar to the broadband mode shown in the ARTS III radar scope figure.
Certain ARTCCs outside the contiguous U.S. also operate in broadband mode.)
7700
EMRG
X H H
H NWA258
H X
X
H H X 170 143 13
H X
7 X H
14
2
X
X
H H
X
N1467F H H
140 + 143 H
1 460
15
#
+ UAL712
310N
+++ 228CST
AAL353
70 231
2734
X 16
4
R15909
18 170C 17
290
2103 8
29
X
27 24
26 9
25
EXAMPLE
Target symbols: 16. Assigned altitude 7,000, aircraft is descending, last
Mode C readout (or last reported altitude) was 100 above
1. Uncorrelated primary radar target [] [+] FL 230
2. Correlated primary radar target [] 17. Transponder code shows in full data block only when
See note below. different than assigned code
4. Correlated beacon target [ \ ] 19. Reported altitude (no Mode C readout) same as
assigned. (An n would indicate no reported altitude.)
5. Identing beacon target []
20. Transponder set on emergency Code 7700 (EMRG
Note: in Number 2 correlated means the association of flashes to attract attention)
radar data with the computer projected track of an
identified aircraft. 21. Transponder Code 1200 (VFR) with no Mode C
Position symbols: 22. Code 1200 (VFR) with Mode C and last altitude
readout
6. Free track (no flight plan tracking) []
23. Transponder set on radio failure Code 7600 (RDOF
7. Flat track (flight plan tracking) [] flashes)
8. Coast (beacon target lost) [#] 24. Computer ID #228, CST indicates target is in coast
status
9. Present position hold [ ]
25. Assigned altitude FL 290, transponder code (these two
Data block information: items constitute a limited data block)
10. Aircraft ident Note: numbers 10, 11, and 12 constitute a full data
See note below. block
a. PAR is designed for use as a landing aid rather 4. Air Traffic Control Tower Display. A high
than an aid for sequencing and spacing aircraft. PAR resolution, color monitor in the control tower cab
equipment may be used as a primary landing aid (See provides controllers with a seamless picture of airport
Chapter 5, Air Traffic Procedures, for additional operations on the airport surface.
information), or it may be used to monitor other types
b. The combination of data collected from the
of approaches. It is designed to display range,
multiple sensors ensures that the most accurate
azimuth, and elevation information.
information about aircraft location is received in the
b. Two antennas are used in the PAR array, one tower, thereby increasing surface safety and
scanning a vertical plane, and the other scanning efficiency.
c. The following facilities are operational with d. The following facilities have been projected to
ASDEX: receive ASSC:
TBL 452
TBL 451
SFO San Francisco International
CLE ClevelandHopkins International
BWI Baltimore Washington International MCI Kansas City International
BOS Boston Logan International CVG Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky Intl
BDL Bradley International PDX Portland International
MDW Chicago Midway MSY Louis Armstrong New Orleans Intl
ORD Chicago OHare International PIT Pittsburgh International
CLT Charlotte Douglas International
ANC Ted Stevens Anchorage International
DFW Dallas/Fort Worth International
ADW Joint Base Andrews AFB
DEN Denver International
DTW Detroit Metro Wayne County
456. Traffic Information Service (TIS)
FLL Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood Intl
MKE General Mitchell International a. Introduction.
IAH George Bush International The Traffic Information Service (TIS) provides
ATL HartsfieldJackson Atlanta Intl information to the cockpit via data link, that is similar
to VFR radar traffic advisories normally received
HNL Honolulu International
over voice radio. Among the first FAAprovided data
JFK John F. Kennedy International services, TIS is intended to improve the safety and
SNA John WayneOrange County efficiency of see and avoid flight through an
LGA LaGuardia automatic display that informs the pilot of nearby
STL Lambert St. Louis International traffic and potential conflict situations. This traffic
display is intended to assist the pilot in visual
LAS Las Vegas McCarran International
acquisition of these aircraft. TIS employs an
LAX Los Angeles International enhanced capability of the terminal Mode S radar
SDF Louisville International system, which contains the surveillance data, as well
MEM Memphis International as the data link required to uplink this information
MIA Miami International to suitablyequipped aircraft (known as a TIS
client). TIS provides estimated position, altitude,
MSP Minneapolis St. Paul International
altitude trend, and ground track information for up to
EWR Newark International 8 intruder aircraft within 7 NM horizontally,
MCO Orlando International +3,500 and 3,000 feet vertically of the client aircraft
PHL Philadelphia International (see FIG 454, TIS Proximity Coverage Volume).
PHX Phoenix Sky Harbor International The range of a target reported at a distance greater
than 7 NM only indicates that this target will be a
DCA Ronald Reagan Washington National
threat within 34 seconds and does not display an
SAN San Diego International precise distance. TIS will alert the pilot to aircraft
SLC Salt Lake City International (under surveillance of the Mode S radar) that are
SEA SeattleTacoma International estimated to be within 34 seconds of potential
PVD Theodore Francis Green State collision, regardless of distance of altitude. TIS
surveillance data is derived from the same radar used
IAD Washington Dulles International by ATC; this data is uplinked to the client aircraft on
HOU William P. Hobby International each radar scan (nominally every 5 seconds).
FIG 454
TIS Proximity Coverage Volume
FIG 455
Terminal Mode S Radar Sites
FIG 456
Traffic Information Service (TIS)
Avionics Block Diagram
2. The cockpit equipment functionality required TIS. A maximum of eight (8) intruder aircraft may be
by a TIS client aircraft to receive the service consists displayed; if more than eight aircraft match intruder
of the following (refer to FIG 456): parameters, the eight most significant intruders are
uplinked. These most significant intruders are
(a) Mode S data link transponder with
usually the ones in closest proximity and/or the
altitude encoder.
greatest threat to the TIS client.
(b) Data link applications processor with TIS 2. TIS, through the Mode S ground sensor,
software installed. provides the following data on each intruder aircraft:
(c) Controldisplay unit. (a) Relative bearing information in 6degree
(d) Optional equipment includes a digital increments.
heading source to correct display errors caused by (b) Relative range information in 1/8 NM to
crab angle and turning maneuvers. 1 NM increments (depending on range).
NOTE (c) Relative altitude in 100foot increments
Some of the above functions will likely be combined into (within 1,000 feet) or 500foot increments (from
single pieces of avionics, such as (a) and (b). 1,0003,500 feet) if the intruder aircraft has operating
3. To be visible to the TIS client, the intruder altitude reporting capability.
aircraft must, at a minimum, have an operating (d) Estimated intruder ground track in
transponder (Mode A, C or S). All altitude 45degree increments.
information provided by TIS from intruder aircraft is
derived from Mode C reports, if appropriately (e) Altitude trend data (level within 500 fpm
equipped. or climbing/descending >500 fpm) if the intruder
aircraft has operating altitude reporting capability.
4. TIS will initially be provided by the terminal
(f) Intruder priority as either an traffic
Mode S systems that are paired with ASR9 digital
advisory or proximate intruder.
primary radars. These systems are in locations with
the greatest traffic densities, thus will provide the 3. When flying from surveillance coverage of
greatest initial benefit. The remaining terminal one Mode S sensor to another, the transfer of TIS is
Mode S sensors, which are paired with ASR7 or an automatic function of the avionics system and
ASR8 analog primary radars, will provide TIS requires no action from the pilot.
pending modification or relocation of these sites. See 4. There are a variety of status messages that are
FIG 455, Terminal Mode S Radar Sites, for site provided by either the airborne system or ground
locations. There is no mechanism in place, such as equipment to alert the pilot of high priority intruders
NOTAMs, to provide status update on individual and data link system status. These messages include
radar sites since TIS is a nonessential, supplemental the following:
information service.
(a) Alert. Identifies a potential collision
The FAA also operates en route Mode S radars (not hazard within 34 seconds. This alert may be visual
illustrated) that rotate once every 12 seconds. These and/or audible, such as a flashing display symbol or
sites will require additional development of TIS a headset tone. A target is a threat if the time to the
before any possible implementation. There are no closest approach in vertical and horizontal coordi-
plans to implement TIS in the en route Mode S radars nates is less than 30 seconds and the closest approach
at the present time. is expected to be within 500 feet vertically and
c. Capabilities. 0.5 nautical miles laterally.
1. TIS provides groundbased surveillance (b) TIS Traffic. TIS traffic data is displayed.
information over the Mode S data link to properly (c) Coasting. The TIS display is more than
equipped client aircraft to aid in visual acquisition of 6 seconds old. This indicates a missing uplink from
proximate air traffic. The actual avionics capability of the ground system. When the TIS display information
each installation will vary and the supplemental is more than 12 seconds old, the No Traffic status
handbook material must be consulted prior to using will be indicated.
(d) No Traffic. No intruders meet proximate (b) The intruder ground track diverges to the
or alert criteria. This condition may exist when the right of the client aircraft, indicated by the small
TIS system is fully functional or may indicate arrow.
coasting between 12 and 59 seconds old (see (c)
(c) The intruder altitude is 700 feet less than
above).
or below the client aircraft, indicated by the 07
(e) TIS Unavailable. The pilot has re- located under the symbol.
quested TIS, but no ground system is available. This (d) The intruder is descending >500 fpm,
condition will also be displayed when TIS uplinks are indicated by the downward arrow next to the 07
missing for 60 seconds or more. relative altitude information. The absence of this
arrow when an altitude tag is present indicates level
(f) TIS Disabled. The pilot has not requested flight or a climb/descent rate less than 500 fpm.
TIS or has disconnected from TIS.
NOTE
(g) Goodbye. The client aircraft has flown If the intruder did not have an operating altitude encoder
(Mode C), the altitude and altitude trend tags would
outside of TIS coverage.
have been omitted.
NOTE d. Limitations.
Depending on the avionics manufacturer implementation,
it is possible that some of these messages will not be directly 1. TIS is NOT intended to be used as a collision
available to the pilot. avoidance system and does not relieve the pilot
responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft (see
5. Depending on avionics system design, TIS paragraph 558, See and Avoid). TIS must not be for
may be presented to the pilot in a variety of different avoidance maneuvers during IMC or other times
displays, including text and/or graphics. Voice when there is no visual contact with the intruder
annunciation may also be used, either alone or in aircraft. TIS is intended only to assist in visual
combination with a visual display. FIG 456, acquisition of other aircraft in VMC. No recom-
Traffic Information Service (TIS), Avionics Block mended avoidance maneuvers are provided for,
Diagram, shows an example of a TIS display using nor authorized, as a direct result of a TIS intruder
symbology similar to the Traffic Alert and Collision display or TIS alert.
Avoidance System (TCAS) installed on most
passenger air carrier/commuter aircraft in the U.S. 2. While TIS is a useful aid to visual traffic
The small symbol in the center represents the client avoidance, it has some system limitations that must
aircraft and the display is oriented track up, with the be fully understood to ensure proper use. Many of
12 oclock position at the top. The range rings these limitations are inherent in secondary radar
indicate 2 and 5 NM. Each intruder is depicted by a surveillance. In other words, the information
symbol positioned at the approximate relative provided by TIS will be no better than that provided
bearing and range from the client aircraft. The to ATC. Other limitations and anomalies are
circular symbol near the center indicates an alert associated with the TIS predictive algorithm.
intruder and the diamond symbols indicate proxi- (a) Intruder Display Limitations. TIS will
mate intruders. only display aircraft with operating transponders
installed. TIS relies on surveillance of the Mode S
6. The inset in the lower right corner of radar, which is a secondary surveillance radar
FIG 456, Traffic Information Service (TIS), similar to the ATCRBS described in para-
Avionics Block Diagram, shows a possible TIS data graph 452.
block display. The following information is con-
tained in this data block: (b) TIS Client Altitude Reporting Require-
ment. Altitude reporting is required by the TIS client
(a) The intruder, located approximately aircraft in order to receive TIS. If the altitude encoder
four oclock, three miles, is a proximate aircraft is inoperative or disabled, TIS will be unavailable, as
and currently not a collision threat to the client TIS requests will not be honored by the ground
aircraft. This is indicated by the diamond symbol system. As such, TIS requires altitude reporting to
used in this example. determine the Proximity Coverage Volume as
indicated in FIG 454. TIS users must be alert to multiple radar coverage since an adjacent radar will
altitude encoder malfunctions, as TIS has no provide TIS. If no other TIScapable radar is
mechanism to determine if client altitude reporting is available, the Goodbye message will be received
correct. A failure of this nature will cause erroneous and TIS terminated until coverage is resumed.
and possibly unpredictable TIS operation. If this (e) Intermittent Operations. TIS operation
malfunction is suspected, confirmation of altitude may be intermittent during turns or other maneuver-
reporting with ATC is suggested. ing, particularly if the transponder system does not
(c) Intruder Altitude Reporting. Intruders include antenna diversity (antenna mounted on the
without altitude reporting capability will be dis- top and bottom of the aircraft). As in (d) above, TIS
played without the accompanying altitude tag. is dependent on twoway, line of sight communica-
Additionally, nonaltitude reporting intruders are tions between the aircraft and the Mode S radar.
assumed to be at the same altitude as the TIS client for Whenever the structure of the client aircraft comes
alert computations. This helps to ensure that the pilot between the transponder antenna (usually located on
will be alerted to all traffic under radar coverage, but the underside of the aircraft) and the groundbased
the actual altitude difference may be substantial. radar antenna, the signal may be temporarily
Therefore, visual acquisition may be difficult in this interrupted.
instance. (f) TIS Predictive Algorithm. TIS informa-
tion is collected one radar scan prior to the scan
(d) Coverage Limitations. Since TIS is
during which the uplink occurs. Therefore, the
provided by groundbased, secondary surveillance
surveillance information is approximately 5 seconds
radar, it is subject to all limitations of that radar. If an
old. In order to present the intruders in a real time
aircraft is not detected by the radar, it cannot be
position, TIS uses a predictive algorithm in its
displayed on TIS. Examples of these limitations are
tracking software. This algorithm uses track history
as follows:
data to extrapolate intruders to their expected
(1) TIS will typically be provided within positions consistent with the time of display in the
55 NM of the radars depicted in FIG 455, Terminal cockpit. Occasionally, aircraft maneuvering will
Mode S Radar Sites. This maximum range can vary cause this algorithm to induce errors in the TIS
by radar site and is always subject to line of sight display. These errors primarily affect relative bearing
limitations; the radar and data link signals will be information; intruder distance and altitude will
blocked by obstructions, terrain, and curvature of the remain relatively accurate and may be used to assist
earth. in see and avoid. Some of the more common
examples of these errors are as follows:
(2) TIS will be unavailable at low altitudes
in many areas of the country, particularly in (1) When client or intruder aircraft maneu-
mountainous regions. Also, when flying near the ver excessively or abruptly, the tracking algorithm
floor of radar coverage in a particular area, will report incorrect horizontal position until the
intruders below the client aircraft may not be detected maneuvering aircraft stabilizes.
by TIS. (2) When a rapidly closing intruder is on a
course that crosses the client at a shallow angle (either
(3) TIS will be temporarily disrupted when overtaking or head on) and either aircraft abruptly
flying directly over the radar site providing coverage changes course within NM, TIS will display the
if no adjacent site assumes the service. A intruder on the opposite side of the client than it
groundbased radar, like a VOR or NDB, has a zenith actually is.
cone, sometimes referred to as the cone of confusion
or cone of silence. This is the area of ambiguity These are relatively rare occurrences and will be
directly above the station where bearing information corrected in a few radar scans once the course has
is unreliable. The zenith cone setting for TIS is stabilized.
34 degrees: Any aircraft above that angle with (g) Heading/Course Reference. Not all TIS
respect to the radar horizon will lose TIS coverage aircraft installations will have onboard heading
from that radar until it is below this 34 degree angle. reference information. In these installations, aircraft
The aircraft may not actually lose service in areas of course reference to the TIS display is provided by the
Mode S radar. The radar only determines ground malfunctions be reported by radio or telephone to the
track information and has no indication of the client nearest Flight Service Station (FSS) facility.
aircraft heading. In these installations, all intruder
bearing information is referenced to ground track and
does not account for wind correction. Additionally, 457. Automatic Dependent
since groundbased radar will require several scans SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) Services
to determine aircraft course following a course
a. Introduction.
change, a lag in TIS display orientation (intruder
aircraft bearing) will occur. As in (f) above, intruder 1. Automatic Dependent SurveillanceBroad-
distance and altitude are still usable. cast (ADSB) is a surveillance technology deployed
throughout the NAS (see FIG 457). The ADSB
(h) CloselySpaced Intruder Errors. system is composed of aircraft avionics and a ground
When operating more than 30 NM from the Mode S infrastructure. Onboard avionics determine the
sensor, TIS forces any intruder within 3/8 NM of the position of the aircraft by using the GNSS and
TIS client to appear at the same horizontal position as transmit its position along with additional informa-
the client aircraft. Without this feature, TIS could tion about the aircraft to ground stations for use by
display intruders in a manner confusing to the pilot in ATC and other ADSB services. This information is
critical situations (e.g., a closelyspaced intruder that transmitted at a rate of approximately once per
is actually to the right of the client may appear on the second. (See FIG 458 and FIG 459.)
TIS display to the left). At longer distances from the
radar, TIS cannot accurately determine relative 2. In the United States, ADSB equipped
bearing/distance information on intruder aircraft that aircraft exchange information is on one of two
are in close proximity to the client. frequencies: 978 or 1090 MHz. The 1090 MHz
frequency is associated with Mode A, C, and S
Because TIS uses a groundbased, rotating radar for transponder operations. 1090 MHz transponders
surveillance information, the accuracy of TIS data is with integrated ADSB functionality extend the
dependent on the distance from the sensor (radar) transponder message sets with additional ADSB
providing the service. This is much the same information. This additional information is known
phenomenon as experienced with groundbased as an extended squitter message and referred to as
navigational aids, such as VOR or NDB. As distance 1090ES. ADSB equipment operating on 978 MHz
from the radar increases, the accuracy of surveillance is known as the Universal Access Transceiver (UAT).
decreases. Since TIS does not inform the pilot of
distance from the Mode S radar, the pilot must assume 3. ADS B avionics can have the ability to both
that any intruder appearing at the same position as the transmit and receive information. The transmission
client aircraft may actually be up to 3/8 NM away in of ADSB information from an aircraft is known as
any direction. Consistent with the operation of TIS, ADSB Out. The receipt of ADSB information by
an alert on the display (regardless of distance from the an aircraft is known as ADSB In. On January 1,
radar) should stimulate an outside visual scan, 2020, all aircraft operating within the airspace
intruder acquisition, and traffic avoidance based on defined in 14 CFR Part 91 91.225 will be required
outside reference. to transmit the information defined in 91.227
using ADSB Out avionics.
e. Reports of TIS Malfunctions.
4. In general, operators flying at 18,000 feet and
1. Users of TIS can render valuable assistance in above will require equipment which uses 1090 ES.
the early correction of malfunctions by reporting their Those that do not fly above 18,000 may use either
observations of undesirable performance. Reporters UAT or 1090ES equipment. (Refer to 14 CFR 91.225
should identify the time of observation, location, type and 91.227.) While the regulation will not require it,
and identity of aircraft, and describe the condition operators equipped with ADSB In will realize
observed; the type of transponder processor, and additional benefits from ADSB broadcast services:
software in use can also be useful information. Since Traffic Information Service Broadcast (TISB)
TIS performance is monitored by maintenance (Paragraph 458) and Flight Information Service
personnel rather than ATC, it is suggested that Broadcast (FISB) (Paragraph 459).
FIG 457
ADSB, TISB, and FISB:
Broadcast Services Architecture
FIG 458
En Route ADSB/ADSR/TISB/FISB Service Ceilings/Floors
FIG 459
Terminal ADSB/ADSR/TISB/FISB Service Ceilings/Floors
2. An aircrafts Flight Identification (FLT ID), address feature may only be used when the operator
also known as registration number or airline flight has not filed a flight plan and is not requesting ATC
number, is transmitted by the ADS-B Out avionics. services. In the anonymity mode, the aircrafts
The FLT ID is comprised of a maximum of seven beacon code must set to 1200, and depending on the
alphanumeric characters and also corresponds to the manufacturers implementation, the aircrafts call
aircraft identification annotated on the ATC flight sign might not be transmitted. Operators should be
plan. The FLT ID for airline and commuter aircraft is aware that in UAT anonymous mode they will not be
associated with the company name and flight number eligible to receive ATC separation and flight
(for example, AAL3342). The FLT ID is typically following services, and will likely not benefit from
entered by the flightcrew during preflight through enhanced ADSB search and rescue capabilities.
either a Flight Management System (FMS) interface
4. ADSB systems integrated with the
(Control Display Unit/CDU) or transponder control
transponder will automatically set the applicable
panel. The FLT ID for General Aviation (GA) aircraft
emergency status when 7500, 7600, or 7700 are
is associated with the aircrafts registration number.
entered into the transponder. ADS B systems not
The aircraft owner can preset the FLT ID to the
integrated with the transponder, or systems with
aircrafts registration number (for example,
optional emergency codes, will require that the
N235RA), since it is a fixed value, or the pilot can
appropriate emergency code is entered through a pilot
enter it into the ADS-B Out system prior to flight.
interface. ADSB is intended for inflight and
ATC systems use transmitted FLT IDs to uniquely airport surface use. ADSB systems should be
identify each aircraft within a given airspace and turned on and remain on whenever
correlate them to a filed flight plan for the provision operating in the air and moving on the airport
of surveillance and separation services. If the FLT ID surface. Civil and military Mode A/C transpon-
is not entered correctly, ATC automation systems ders and ADSB systems should be adjusted to the
may not associate surveillance tracks for the aircraft on or normal operating position as soon as
to its filed flight plan. Therefore, Air Traffic services practical, unless the change to standby has been
may be delayed or unavailable until this is corrected. accomplished previously at the request of ATC.
Consequently, it is imperative that flightcrews and d. ATC Surveillance Services using ADSB
GA pilots ensure the FLT ID entry correctly matches Procedures and Recommended Phraseology
the aircraft identification annotated in the filed ATC
flight plan. Radar procedures, with the exceptions found in this
paragraph, are identical to those procedures pre-
3. Each ADSB aircraft is assigned a unique scribed for radar in AIM Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.
ICAO address (also known as a 24bit address) that 1. Preflight:
is broadcast by the ADSB transmitter. The ICAO
address is programmable at installation. Should If a request for ATC services is predicated on ADSB
multiple aircraft broadcast the same ICAO address and such services are anticipated when either a VFR
while transiting the same ADSB Only Service or IFR flight plan is filed, the aircrafts FLT ID as
Volume, the ADSB network may be unable to track entered in Item 7 of the ICAO flight plan (Block 2 of
the targets correctly. If radar reinforcement is FAA domestic flight plan) must be entered in the
available, tracking will continue. If radar is ADSB avionics.
unavailable, the controller may lose target tracking 2. Inflight:
entirely on one or both targets. Consequently, it is
imperative that the ICAO address entry is correct. When requesting ADSB services while airborne,
pilots should ensure that their ADSB equipment is
Aircraft that is equipped with ADSB avionics on the transmitting their aircrafts registration number or
UAT datalink have a feature that allows it to broadcast the approved FAA/ICAO company or organizational
an anonymous 24bit ICAO address. In this mode, designator, prior to contacting ATC. Aircraft
the UAT system creates a randomized address that equipped with a VFR or anonymous feature, will
does not match the actual ICAO address assigned to not broadcast the appropriate aircraft identification
the aircraft. After January 1, 2020, and in the airspace information and should disable the anonymous
identified in 91.225, the UAT anonymous 24bit feature before contacting ATC.
altitudes near some airports, with subsequently service volume, therefore it is difficult to know if one
limited TISB service volume coverage. If there is is receiving uplinked TISB traffic information.
no radar coverage in a given area, then there will be
no TISB coverage in that area. 3. Pilots and operators are reminded that the
airborne equipment that displays TISB targets is for
d. TISB Limitations. pilot situational awareness only and is not approved
as a collision avoidance tool. Unless there is an
1. TISB is NOT intended to be used as a imminent emergency requiring immediate action,
collision avoidance system and does not relieve the any deviation from an air traffic control clearance in
pilots responsibility to see and avoid other aircraft, response to perceived converging traffic appearing
in accordance with 14CFR 91.113b. TISB must on a TISB display must be approved by the
not be used for avoidance maneuvers during times controlling ATC facility before commencing the
when there is no visual contact with the intruder maneuver, except as permitted under certain
aircraft. TISB is intended only to assist in the visual conditions in 14CFR 91.123. Uncoordinated
acquisition of other aircraft. deviations may place an aircraft in close proximity to
other aircraft under ATC control not seen on the
NOTE airborne equipment and may result in a pilot
No aircraft avoidance maneuvers are authorized as a deviation or other incident.
direct result of a TISB target being displayed in the
cockpit. e. Reports of TISB Malfunctions.
2. While TISB is a useful aid to visual traffic Users of TISB can provide valuable assistance in the
avoidance, its inherent system limitations must be correction of malfunctions by reporting instances of
understood to ensure proper use. undesirable system performance. Since TISB
performance is monitored by maintenance personnel
(a) A pilot may receive an intermittent TISB rather than ATC, report malfunctions to the nearest
target of themselves, typically when maneuvering Flight Service Station (FSS) facility by radio or
(e.g., climbing turns) due to the radar not tracking telephone. Reporters should identify:
the aircraft as quickly as ADSB.
1. Condition observed.
(b) The ADSBtoradar association pro-
cess within the ground system may at times have 2. Date and time of observation.
difficulty correlating an ADSB report with 3. Altitude and location of observation.
corresponding radar returns from the same aircraft.
When this happens the pilot may see duplicate traffic 4. Type and call sign of the aircraft.
symbols (i.e., TISB shadows) on the cockpit
5. Type and software version of avionics
display.
system.
(c) Updates of TISB traffic reports will
occur less often than ADSB traffic updates. TISB 459. Flight Information Service
position updates will occur approximately once Broadcast (FISB)
every 313 seconds depending on the type of radar
system in use within the coverage area. In a. Introduction.
comparison, the update rate for ADSB is nominally
once per second. FISB is a ground broadcast service provided
through the ADSB Services network over the
(d) The TISB system only uplinks data 978 MHz UAT data link. The FAA FISB system
pertaining to transponderequipped aircraft. Aircraft provides pilots and flight crews of properly equipped
without a transponder will not be displayed as TISB aircraft with a cockpit display of certain aviation
traffic. weather and aeronautical information. FISB recep-
tion is lineofsight within the service volume of the
(e) There is no indication provided when any ground infrastructure. (See FIG 458 and
aircraft is operating inside or outside the TISB FIG 459.)
TBL 453
FISB Basic Product Update and Transmission Intervals
1The Update Interval is the rate at which the product data is available from the source.
2The Transmission Interval is the amount of time within which a new or updated product transmission must be
completed and the rate or repetition interval at which the product is rebroadcast.
NOTE
Details concerning the content, format, and symbols of the various data link products provided should be obtained from
the specific avionics manufacturer.
461. Applicability and RVSM Mandate Paragraph 4611, NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting
(Date/Time and Area) Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels Above
RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off,
a. Applicability. The policies, guidance and contains policies for nonRVSM aircraft climbing
direction in this section apply to RVSM operations in and descending through RVSM airspace to/from
the airspace over the lower 48 states, Alaska, Atlantic flight levels above RVSM airspace.
and Gulf of Mexico High Offshore Airspace and
airspace in the San Juan FIR where VHF or UHF d. Benefits. RVSM enhances ATC flexibility,
voice direct controllerpilot communication (DCPC) mitigates conflict points, enhances sector throughput,
is normally available. Policies, guidance and reduces controller workload and enables crossing
direction for RVSM operations in oceanic airspace traffic. Operators gain fuel savings and operating
where VHF or UHF voice DCPC is not available and efficiency benefits by flying at more fuel efficient
the airspace of other countries are posted on the FAA flight levels and on more user preferred routings.
RVSM Documentation web page described in
Paragraph 463, Aircraft and Operator Approval 462. Flight Level Orientation Scheme
Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and Data-
bases for Aircraft and Operator Approval. Altitude assignments for direction of flight follow a
scheme of odd altitude assignment for magnetic
b. Mandate. At 0901 UTC on January 20, 2005, courses 000179 degrees and even altitudes for
the FAA implemented RVSM between flight magnetic courses 180359 degrees for flights up to
level (FL) 290410 (inclusive) in the following and including FL 410, as indicated in FIG 461.
airspace: the airspace of the lower 48 states of the
United States, Alaska, Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico FIG 461
High Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR. On the Flight Level Orientation Scheme
same time and date, RVSM was also introduced into
the adjoining airspace of Canada and Mexico to
provide a seamless environment for aircraft travers-
ing those borders. In addition, RVSM was
implemented on the same date in the Caribbean and
South American regions.
c. RVSM Authorization. In accordance with
14 CFR Section 91.180, with only limited excep-
tions, prior to operating in RVSM airspace, operators
and aircraft must have received RVSM authorization
from the responsible civil aviation authority. (See
Paragraph 4610, Procedures for Accommodation
of NonRVSM Aircraft.) If the operator or aircraft or
both have not been authorized for RVSM operations,
the aircraft will be referred to as a nonRVSM
aircraft. Paragraph 4610 discusses ATC policies
for accommodation of nonRVSM aircraft flown by
the Department of Defense, Air Ambulance NOTE
(MEDEVAC) operators, foreign State governments Odd Flight Levels: Magnetic Course 000179 Degrees
and aircraft flown for certification and development. Even Flight Levels: Magnetic Course 180359 Degrees.
Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the 461
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
11/10/16
12/10/15
463. Aircraft and Operator Approval f. Registration of U.S. Operators. When U.S.
Policy/Procedures, RVSM Monitoring and operators and aircraft are granted RVSM authority,
Databases for Aircraft and Operator the Separation Standards Group at the FAA Technical
Approval Center obtains PTRS operator and aircraft informa-
tion to update the FAA maintained U.S.
a. RVSM Authority. 14 CFR Section 91.180 Operator/Aircraft RVSM Approvals database. Basic
applies to RVSM operations within the U.S. 14 CFR database operator and aircraft information can be
Section 91.706 applies to RVSM operations outside viewed on the RVSM Documentation web page in the
the U.S. Both sections require that the operator obtain RVSM Approvals section.
authorization prior to operating in RVSM airspace.
14 CFR Section 91.180 requires that, prior to
conducting RVSM operations within the U.S., the 464. Flight Planning into RVSM Airspace
operator obtain authorization from the FAA or from a. Operators that do not file the correct aircraft
the responsible authority, as appropriate. In addition, equipment suffix on the FAA or ICAO Flight Plan
it requires that the operator and the operators aircraft may be denied clearance into RVSM airspace.
comply with the standards of 14 CFR Part 91 Policies for the FAA Flight Plan are detailed in
Appendix G (Operations in RVSM Airspace). subparagraph c below. Policies for the ICAO Flight
Plan are detailed in subparagraph d.
b. Sources of Information. Advisory Circular
(AC) 9185, Authorization of Aircraft and Operators b. The operator will annotate the equipment block
for Flight in Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum of the FAA or ICAO Flight Plan with an aircraft
(RVSM) Airspace, and the FAA RVSM web site. equipment suffix indicating RVSM capability only
after the responsible civil aviation authority has
c. TCAS Equipage. TCAS equipage require- determined that both the operator and its aircraft are
ments are contained in 14 CFR Sections 121.356, RVSMcompliant and has issued RVSM authoriza-
125.224, 129.18 and 135.189. Part 91 Appendix G tion to the operator.
does not contain TCAS equipage requirements
specific to RVSM, however, Appendix G does c. General Policies for FAA Flight Plan Equip-
require that aircraft equipped with TCAS II and flown ment Suffix. TBL 513, Aircraft Suffixes, allows
in RVSM airspace be modified to incorporate operators to indicate that the aircraft has both RVSM
TCAS II Version 7.0 or a later version. and Advanced Area Navigation (RNAV) capabilities
or has only RVSM capability.
d. Aircraft Monitoring. Operators are required
to participate in the RVSM aircraft monitoring 1. The operator will annotate the equipment
program. The Monitoring Requirements and block of the FAA Flight Plan with the appropriate
Procedures section of the RVSM Documentation aircraft equipment suffix from TBL 513.
web page contains policies and procedures for 2. Operators can only file one equipment suffix
participation in the monitoring program. Ground in block 3 of the FAA Flight Plan. Only this
based and GPSbased monitoring systems are equipment suffix is displayed directly to the
available for the Domestic RVSM program. controller.
Monitoring is a quality control program that enables
the FAA and other civil aviation authorities to assess 3. Aircraft with RNAV Capability. For flight in
the inservice altitudekeeping performance of RVSM airspace, aircraft with RNAV capability, but
aircraft and operators. not Advanced RNAV capability, will file /W. Filing
/W will not preclude such aircraft from filing and
e. Purpose of RVSM Approvals Databases. flying direct routes in en route airspace.
ATC does not use RVSM approvals databases to
d. Policy for ICAO Flight Plan Equipment
determine whether or not a clearance can be issued
Suffixes.
into RVSM airspace. RVSM program managers do
regularly review the operators and aircraft that 1. Operators/aircraft that are RVSMcompliant
operate in RVSM airspace to identify and investigate and that file ICAO flight plans will file /W in
those aircraft and operators flying in RVSM airspace, block 10 (Equipment) to indicate RVSM authoriza-
but not listed on the RVSM approvals databases. tion and will also file the appropriate ICAO Flight
462 Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
11/10/16
12/10/15 AIM
Plan suffixes to indicate navigation and communica- 465. Pilot RVSM Operating Practices and
tion capabilities. The equipment suffixes in Procedures
TBL 513 are for use only in an FAA Flight Plan
a. RVSM Mandate. If either the operator or the
(FAA Form 72331).
aircraft or both have not received RVSM authoriza-
2. Operators/aircraft that file ICAO flight plans tion (nonRVSM aircraft), the pilot will neither
that include flight in Domestic U.S. RVSM airspace request nor accept a clearance into RVSM airspace
must file /W in block 10 to indicate RVSM unless:
authorization. 1. The flight is conducted by a nonRVSM
e. Importance of Flight Plan Equipment Suffixes. DOD, MEDEVAC, certification/development or
The operator must file the appropriate equipment foreign State (government) aircraft in accordance
suffix in the equipment block of the FAA Flight Plan with Paragraph 4610, Procedures for Accommo-
(FAA Form 72331) or the ICAO Flight Plan. The dation of NonRVSM Aircraft.
equipment suffix informs ATC: 2. The pilot intends to climb to or descend from
FL 430 or above in accordance with Para-
1. Whether or not the operator and aircraft are
graph 4611, NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting
authorized to fly in RVSM airspace.
Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels Above
2. The navigation and/or transponder capability RVSM Airspace Without Intermediate Level Off.
of the aircraft (e.g., advanced RNAV, transponder 3. An emergency situation exists.
with Mode C).
b. Basic RVSM Operating Practices and
f. Significant ATC uses of the flight plan Procedures. Appendix B of AC 9185, Authoriza-
equipment suffix information are: tion of Aircraft and Operators for Flight in Reduced
1. To issue or deny clearance into RVSM Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace, contains
airspace. pilot practices and procedures for RVSM. Operators
must incorporate Appendix B practices and proce-
2. To apply a 2,000 foot vertical separation dures, as supplemented by the applicable paragraphs
minimum in RVSM airspace to aircraft that are not of this section, into operator training or pilot
authorized for RVSM, but are in one of the limited knowledge programs and operator documents
categories that the FAA has agreed to accommodate. containing RVSM operational policies.
(See Paragraphs 4610, Procedures for Accommo-
c. Appendix B contains practices and procedures
dation of NonRVSM Aircraft, and 4611,
for flight planning, preflight procedures at the
NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting Climb to and
aircraft, procedures prior to RVSM airspace entry,
Descent from Flight Levels Above RVSM Airspace
inflight (en route) procedures, contingency proce-
Without Intermediate Level Off, for policy on limited
dures and post flight.
operation of unapproved aircraft in RVSM airspace).
d. The following paragraphs either clarify or
3. To determine if the aircraft has Advanced supplement Appendix B practices and procedures.
RNAV capabilities and can be cleared to fly
procedures for which that capability is required. 466. Guidance on Severe Turbulence
g. Improperly changing an aircraft equipment and Mountain Wave Activity (MWA)
suffix and/or adding NON-RVSM in the NOTES or a. Introduction/Explanation
REMARKS section (Field 18) while not removing
the W from Field 10, will not provide air traffic 1. The information and practices in this
control with the proper visual indicator necessary to paragraph are provided to emphasize to pilots and
detect Non-RVSM aircraft. To ensure information controllers the importance of taking appropriate
processes correctly for Non-RVSM aircraft, the W action in RVSM airspace when aircraft experience
in Field 10 must be removed. Entry of information in severe turbulence and/or MWA that is of sufficient
the NOTES or REMARKS section (Field 18) will not magnitude to significantly affect altitudekeeping.
affect the determination of RVSM capability and 2. Severe Turbulence. Severe turbulence
must not be used to indicate a flight is Non-RVSM. causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or
Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the 463
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
11/10/16
12/10/15
attitude usually accompanied by large variations in tion. In response, pilots are given the option of
indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be momentarily out requesting a radar vector to ensure their radar target
of control. Encounters with severe turbulence must will not merge or overlap with the traffics radar
be remedied immediately in any phase of flight. target.
Severe turbulence may be associated with MWA.
(b) The provision of merging target proce-
3. Mountain Wave Activity (MWA) dures to mitigate the effects of severe turbulence
(a) Significant MWA occurs both below and and/or MWA is not optional for the controller, but
above the floor of RVSM airspace, FL 290. MWA rather is a priority responsibility. Pilot requests for
often occurs in western states in the vicinity of vectors for traffic avoidance when encountering
mountain ranges. It may occur when strong winds MWA or pilot reports of Unable RVSM due
blow perpendicular to mountain ranges resulting in turbulence or MWA are considered first priority
up and down or wave motions in the atmosphere. aircraft separation and sequencing responsibilities.
Wave action can produce altitude excursions and (FAA Order JO 7110.65, Paragraph 212, Duty
airspeed fluctuations accompanied by only light Priority, states that the controllers first priority is to
turbulence. With sufficient amplitude, however, separate aircraft and issue safety alerts).
wave action can induce altitude and airspeed (c) Explanation of the term traffic permit-
fluctuations accompanied by severe turbulence. ting. The contingency actions for MWA and severe
MWA is difficult to forecast and can be highly turbulence detailed in Paragraph 469, Contingency
localized and short lived. Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System
(b) Wave activity is not necessarily limited to Failures that Occur After Entry into RVSM Airspace,
the vicinity of mountain ranges. Pilots experiencing state that the controller will vector aircraft to avoid
wave activity anywhere that significantly affects merging targets with traffic at adjacent flight levels,
altitudekeeping can follow the guidance provided traffic permitting. The term traffic permitting is
below. not intended to imply that merging target procedures
are not a priority duty. The term is intended to
(c) Inflight MWA Indicators (Including Tur- recognize that, as stated in FAA Order JO 7110.65,
bulence). Indicators that the aircraft is being Paragraph 212, Duty Priority, there are circum-
subjected to MWA are: stances when the controller is required to perform
(1) Altitude excursions and/or airspeed more than one action and must exercise their best
fluctuations with or without associated turbulence. judgment based on the facts and circumstances
known to them to prioritize their actions. Further
(2) Pitch and trim changes required to
direction given is: That action which is most critical
maintain altitude with accompanying airspeed
from a safety standpoint is performed first.
fluctuations.
(3) Light to severe turbulence depending 5. TCAS Sensitivity. For both MWA and
on the magnitude of the MWA. severe turbulence encounters in RVSM airspace, an
additional concern is the sensitivity of collision
4. Priority for Controller Application of avoidance systems when one or both aircraft
Merging Target Procedures operating in close proximity receive TCAS advi-
(a) Explanation of Merging Target Proce- sories in response to disruptions in altitude hold
dures. As described in subparagraph c3 below, ATC capability.
will use merging target procedures to mitigate the b. Preflight tools. Sources of observed and
effects of both severe turbulence and MWA. The forecast information that can help the pilot ascertain
procedures in subparagraph c3 have been adapted the possibility of MWA or severe turbulence are:
from existing procedures published in FAA Order JO Forecast Winds and Temperatures Aloft (FD), Area
7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Paragraph 518, Forecast (FA), Graphical Turbulence Guidance
Merging Target Procedures. Paragraph 518 calls (GTG), SIGMETs and PIREPs.
for en route controllers to advise pilots of potential
traffic that they perceive may fly directly above or c. Pilot Actions When Encountering Weather
below his/her aircraft at minimum vertical separa- (e.g., Severe Turbulence or MWA)
464 Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
11/10/16
12/10/15 AIM
1. Weather Encounters Inducing Altitude gained since 1997 has shown that such encounters in
Deviations of Approximately 200 feet. When the RVSM airspace are generally moderate or less in
pilot experiences weather induced altitude deviations magnitude.
of approximately 200 feet, the pilot will contact ATC
and state Unable RVSM Due (state reason) b. Prior to DRVSM implementation, the FAA
(e.g., turbulence, mountain wave). See contingency established provisions for pilots to report wake
actions in paragraph 469. turbulence events in RVSM airspace using the NASA
Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). A
2. Severe Turbulence (including that associ- Safety Reporting section established on the FAA
ated with MWA). When pilots encounter severe RVSM Documentation web page provides contacts,
turbulence, they should contact ATC and report the forms, and reporting procedures.
situation. Until the pilot reports clear of severe
turbulence, the controller will apply merging target c. To date, wake turbulence has not been reported
vectors to one or both passing aircraft to prevent their as a significant factor in DRVSM operations.
targets from merging: European authorities also found that reports of wake
turbulence encounters did not increase significantly
EXAMPLE after RVSM implementation (eight versus seven
Yankee 123, FL 310, unable RVSM due severe reports in a tenmonth period). In addition, they
turbulence. found that reported wake turbulence was generally
similar to moderate clear air turbulence.
Yankee 123, fly heading 290; traffic twelve oclock,
10 miles, opposite direction; eastbound MD80 at d. Pilot Action to Mitigate Wake Turbulence
FL 320 (or the controller may issue a vector to the Encounters
MD80 traffic to avoid Yankee 123).
1. Pilots should be alert for wake turbulence
3. MWA. When pilots encounter MWA, they
when operating:
should contact ATC and report the magnitude and
location of the wave activity. When a controller (a) In the vicinity of aircraft climbing or
makes a merging targets traffic call, the pilot may descending through their altitude.
request a vector to avoid flying directly over or under
the traffic. In situations where the pilot is (b) Approximately 1030 miles after passing
experiencing altitude deviations of 200 feet or 1,000 feet below oppositedirection traffic.
greater, the pilot will request a vector to avoid traffic.
(c) Approximately 1030 miles behind and
Until the pilot reports clear of MWA, the controller
1,000 feet below samedirection traffic.
will apply merging target vectors to one or both
passing aircraft to prevent their targets from merging: 2. Pilots encountering or anticipating wake
EXAMPLE turbulence in DRVSM airspace have the option of
Yankee 123, FL 310, unable RVSM due mountain wave. requesting a vector, FL change, or if capable, a lateral
offset.
Yankee 123, fly heading 290; traffic twelve oclock,
NOTE
10 miles, opposite direction; eastbound MD80 at
1. Offsets of approximately a wing span upwind generally
FL 320 (or the controller may issue a vector to the
can move the aircraft out of the immediate vicinity of
MD80 traffic to avoid Yankee 123).
another aircrafts wake vortex.
4. FL Change or Reroute. To leave airspace 2. In domestic U.S. airspace, pilots must request clearance
where MWA or severe turbulence is being to fly a lateral offset. Strategic lateral offsets flown in
encountered, the pilot may request a FL change oceanic airspace do not apply.
and/or reroute, if necessary.
Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the 465
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
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TBL 461
Pilot/Controller Phraseology
Message Phraseology
For a controller to ascertain the RVSM approval status of (call sign) confirm RVSM approved
an aircraft:
Pilot indication that flight is RVSM approved Affirm RVSM
Pilot report of lack of RVSM approval (nonRVSM status). Negative RVSM, (supplementary information,
Pilot will report nonRVSM status, as follows: e.g., Certification flight).
a. On the initial call on any frequency in the RVSM
airspace and . . ..
b. In all requests for flight level changes pertaining to
flight levels within the RVSM airspace and . . ..
c. In all read backs to flight level clearances pertaining
to flight levels within the RVSM airspace and . . ..
d. In read back of flight level clearances involving
climb and descent through RVSM airspace
(FL 290 410).
Pilot report of one of the following after entry into RVSM Unable RVSM Due Equipment
airspace: all primary altimeters, automatic altitude control
systems or altitude alerters have failed.
(See Paragraph 469, Contingency Actions: Weather
Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that Occur After
Entry into RVSM Airspace.)
NOTE
This phrase is to be used to convey both the initial indication of
RVSM aircraft system failure and on initial contact on all
frequencies in RVSM airspace until the problem ceases to exist
or the aircraft has exited RVSM airspace.
ATC denial of clearance into RVSM airspace Unable issue clearance into RVSM airspace, maintain FL
*Pilot reporting inability to maintain cleared flight level *Unable RVSM due (state reason) (e.g., turbulence,
due to weather encounter. mountain wave)
(See Paragraph 469, Contingency Actions: Weather
Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that Occur After
Entry into RVSM Airspace.).
ATC requesting pilot to confirm that an aircraft has Confirm able to resume RVSM
regained RVSMapproved status or a pilot is ready to
resume RVSM
Pilot ready to resume RVSM after aircraft system or Ready to resume RVSM
weather contingency
466 Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the
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469. Contingency Actions: Weather failure that occur after entry into RVSM airspace
Encounters and Aircraft System Failures and weather encounters. It also describes the
that Occur After Entry into RVSM Airspace expected ATC controller actions in these situations. It
is recognized that the pilot and controller will use
TBL 462 provides pilot guidance on actions to judgment to determine the action most appropriate to
take under certain conditions of aircraft system any given situation.
TBL 462
Contingency Actions: Weather Encounters and Aircraft System Failures that Occur After Entry into RVSM
Airspace
Maintain cleared flight level, to the extent possible, while evaluating the situation.
Watch for conflicting traffic both visually and by reference to TCAS, if equipped.
Alert nearby aircraft by illuminating exterior lights (commensurate with aircraft limitations).
Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the 467
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If so desired, pilot may request a FL change or If pilot requests, vector aircraft to avoid merging
reroute target with traffic at adjacent RVSM flight levels,
traffic permitting
Report location and magnitude of MWA to ATC
Issue FL change or reroute, traffic permitting
Request clearance out of RVSM airspace unless Clear aircraft out of RVSM airspace unless
operational situation dictates otherwise operational situation dictates otherwise
468 Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the
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Transponder Failure
Pilot will: Controller will:
Contact ATC and request authority to continue Consider request to continue to operate at
to operate at cleared flight level cleared flight level
Comply with revised ATC clearance, if issued Issue revised clearance, if necessary
NOTE
14 CFR Section 91.215 (ATC transponder and altitude
reporting equipment and use) regulates operation with the
transponder inoperative.
Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the 469
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2. FileandFly. File a flight plan to notify the separation standard applied in RVSM airspace
FAA of their intention to request access to RVSM between nonRVSM aircraft and all other aircraft
airspace. must be 2,000 feet.
NOTE c. NonRVSM aircraft climbing to/descending
Priority for access to RVSM airspace will be afforded to from RVSM airspace can only be considered for
RVSM compliant aircraft, then FileandFly flights.
accommodation provided:
4611. NonRVSM Aircraft Requesting 1. Aircraft is capable of a continuous climb/de-
Climb to and Descent from Flight Levels scent and does not need to level off at an intermediate
Above RVSM Airspace Without altitude for any operational considerations and
Intermediate Level Off 2. Aircraft is capable of climb/descent at the
a. FileandFly. Operators of NonRVSM air- normal rate for the aircraft.
craft climbing to and descending from RVSM flight
d. Required Pilot Calls. The pilot of nonRVSM
levels should just file a flight plan.
aircraft will inform the controller of the lack of
b. NonRVSM aircraft climbing to and descend- RVSM approval in accordance with the direction
ing from flight levels above RVSM airspace will be provided in Paragraph 468, Pilot/Controller
handled on a workload permitting basis. The vertical Phraseology.
4610 Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the
Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR
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Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative 471
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1. On initial call to ATC in a GoMex CTA: a. RNP NavSpecs Applicable To Oceanic Opera-
tions. In accordance with ICAO guidance, RNP 10
2. In read back of a clearance to climb to or and RNP 4 are the only NavSpecs applicable to
descend from cruise altitude. (See paragraph oceanic and remote area operations. Other RNAV and
474 e); and RNP NavSpecs are applicable to continental en route,
terminal area and approach operations.
3. When approval status is requested by the b. FAA Documents. Advisory Circular (AC)
controller. (See paragraph 478 e.) 90-105, Approval Guidance for RNP Operations and
Barometric Vertical Navigation in the U.S. National
c. Use of flight plan item 18 codes PBN/A1 or
Airspace System and in Oceanic and Remote
PBN/L1 are restricted to operators and aircraft
Continental Airspace, provides operational approval
specifically authorized for RNP 10 or RNP 4, as
guidance for RNP 4 and 10. It identifies minimum
applicable.
aircraft capabilities and operator procedural and
training requirements in order to qualify for RNP 4 or
d. NonRNP 10 operators/aircraft may file any
10. AC 90-105 is consistent with the ICAO PBN
route at any altitude in a GoMex CTA. They will be
Manual discussed below. Pertinent FAA and ICAO
cleared to operate on their preferred routes and
documents are posted online in the West Atlantic
altitudes as traffic permits. 50 NM lateral separation
Route System, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean
will not be applied to NonRNP 10 aircraft.
Resource Guide for U.S. Operators described in
paragraph 471.
e. NonRNP 10 aircraft are encouraged to operate
at altitudes above those where traffic is most dense c. ICAO Performance-based Navigation (PBN)
(i.e., at/above FL 380), if possible. NonRNP 10 Manual (ICAO Doc 9613). Guidance for authoriza-
aircraft should plan on completing their climb to or tion of RNP 10 and RNP 4 is provided in ICAO Doc
descent from higher FLs within radar coverage, if 9613. RNP 10 is addressed in Volume II, Part B;
possible. Chapter 1. RNP 4 is addressed in Volume II, Part C;
Chapter 1.
d. RNP 10 and RNP 4 Job Aids. Operators and
475. Operator Action authorities are encouraged to use the RNP 10 or RNP
4 Job Aids posted on the FAA Resource Guide for
In order to maximize operational flexibility provided U.S. Operators described in paragraph 471. For
by 50 NM lateral separation, operators capable of U.S. operators, a set of RNP 10 and RNP 4 Job Aids
meeting RNP 10 or RNP 4 that operate on oceanic provides references to FAA documents. An RNP 4
routes or areas in the GoMex CTAs should obtain Job Aid, references to the ICAO PBN Manual, is
authorization for RNP 10 or RNP 4 and annotate the also available on the ICAO European and North
ICAO flight plan accordingly. Atlantic Office web site. These Job Aids address the
operational and airworthiness elements of aircraft
NOTE and operator authorization and provide references to
1. RNP 10 is the minimum Navigation Specification
appropriate document paragraphs. The Job Aids
(NavSpec) required for the application of 50 NM lateral
provide a method for operators to develop and
separation. RNP 4 is an operator option. Operators/air-
craft authorized RNP 4 are not required to also obtain authorities to track the operator/aircraft program
RNP 10 authorization. elements required for RNP 10 or RNP 4
authorization.
2. RNP navigation specification (e.g., RNP 10) is the
term adopted in the ICAO Performance-based Navigation e. Qualification of Aircraft Equipped With a
(PBN) Manual (Doc 9613). It replaces the term RNP Single Long-Range Navigation System (S-LRNS)
type. For RNP 10 Operations In GoMex CTAs.
472 Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative
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1. Background. S-LRNS operations in the Gulf only source of long range navigation. Extended RNP
of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the other 10 time limits of 10 hours and greater are already
designated areas have been conducted for at least 25 approved for many IRU systems. FAA Advisory
years. Provisions allowing aircraft equipage with a Circular 90105 contains provisions for extending
S-LRNS for operations in specified oceanic and RNP 10 time limits.
off-shore areas are contained in the following
sections of 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR): 477. Flight Planning Requirements
91.511, 121.351, 125.203 and 135.165. Operators must make ICAO flight plan annotations
2. ICAO PBN Manual Reference. In reference in accordance with this paragraph and, if applicable,
to RNP 10 authorization, the ICAO PBN Manual, Paragraph 474, Provisions for NonRNP 10
Volume II, Part B, Chapter 1, paragraph 1.3.6.2 states Aircraft (Not Authorized RNP 10 or RNP 4).
that: A State authority may approve the use of a a. ICAO Flight Plan Requirement. ICAO flight
single LRNS in specific circumstances (e.g., North plans must be filed for operation on oceanic routes
Atlantic MNPS and 14 CFR 121.351 (c) refer). An and areas in the Houston Oceanic CTA/FIR, the Gulf
RNP 10 approval is still required. of Mexico portion of the Miami CTA/FIR, the
3. Policy Development. The FAA worked with Monterrey CTA and Merida High CTA.
the ICAO NACC Office (North American, Central b. To inform ATC that they have obtained RNP 10
American and Caribbean), State regulators and ATS or RNP 4 authorization and are eligible for 50 NM
providers in the GoMex and Caribbean areas to lateral separation, operators must:
implement a policy for S-LRNS equipped aircraft to
1. Annotate ICAO Flight Plan Item 10
qualify for RNP 10 for GoMex operations. Allowing
(Equipment) with the letter R and
S-LRNS equipped aircraft to qualify for RNP 10
enables more operator aircraft to be authorized RNP 2. Annotate Item 18 (Other Information) with,
10, thereby creating a more uniform operating as appropriate, PBN/A1 (for RNP10) or PBN/L1
environment for the application of 50 NM lateral (for RNP4).
separation. The factors considered were: the NOTE
shortness of the legs outside the range of ground On the ICAO Flight Plan, the letter R in Item 10
navigation aids, the availability of radar and VHF indicates that the flight is authorized for PBN operations.
coverage in a large portion of GoMex airspace and the Item 18 PBN/ indicates the types of PBN capabilities that
absence of events attributed to S-LRNS in GoMex are authorized.
operations. c. 50 NM lateral separation will only be applied to
operators/aircraft that annotate the ICAO flight plan
4. Single LRNS/RNP 10 Authorization Limited in accordance with this policy. (See 477 b.)
to Gulf of Mexico. At this time, qualification for RNP
10 based on use of a single long-range navigation d. Operators that have not obtained RNP 10 or
system (LRNS) only applies to Gulf of Mexico RNP 4 authorization must not annotate ICAO flight
operations. Any expansion of this provision will plan Item 18 (Other information) with PBN/A1 or
require assessment and agreement by the appropriate PBN/L1, but must follow the practices detailed in
State authorities. paragraph 474.
f. RNP 10 Time Limit for INS or IRU Only 478. Pilot and Dispatcher Procedures:
Equipped Aircraft. Operators should review their Basic and In-flight Contingency
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), AFM Supplement or Procedures
other appropriate documents and/or contact the
airplane or avionics manufacturer to determine the a. Basic Pilot Procedures. The RNP 10 and
RNP 10 time limit applicable to their aircraft. They RNP 4 Job Aids contain references to pilot and, if
will then need to determine its effect, if any, on their applicable, dispatcher procedures contained in
operation. Unless otherwise approved, the basic RNP Advisory Circular 90105 and ICAO PBN Manual,
10 time limit is 6.2 hours between position updates Volume II, Parts B and C, Chapter 1.
for aircraft on which Inertial Navigation Systems b. ICAO Doc 4444, In-Flight Contingency
(INS) or Inertial Reference Units (IRU) provide the Procedures. Chapter 15 of ICAO Doc 4444
Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative 473
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(Procedures for Air Navigation Services Air Traffic e. Pilot Statement of RNP 10 or RNP 4
Management (PANS-ATM)) contains important Approval Status, If Requested. If requested by the
guidance for pilot training programs. Chapter 15 controller, the pilot must communicate approval
includes Special Procedures for In-flight Contingen- status using the following phraseology:
cies in Oceanic Airspace, as well as Weather
Deviation Procedures. Chapter 15 covers in-flight Controller Request:
diversion and turn-back scenarios, loss of navigation
capability, and procedures to follow for weather (Call sign) confirm RNP 10 or 4 approved
avoidance. This critical guidance is reprinted in the Pilot Response:
Oceanic Operations section of the U.S. Aeronautical
Affirm RNP 10 approved or Affirm RNP 4
Information Publication (AIP), the International approved, as appropriate, or
section of the Notices to Airmen Publication, and
FAA Advisory Circular 91-70, Oceanic and Remote Negative RNP 10 (See paragraph 474 for
Continental Airspace Operations. NonRNP 10 aircraft procedures.)
c. Strategic Lateral Offset Procedures (SLOP).
Pilots should use SLOP procedures in the course of f. Pilot action when navigation system mal-
regular oceanic operations. Guidance regarding functions. In addition to the actions addressed in the
SLOP, including how to perform the procedures, is Oceanic Operations section of the U.S. AIP, when
provided in the Oceanic Operations section of the pilots suspect a navigation system malfunction, the
U.S. AIP. following actions should be taken:
d. Pilot Report of NonRNP 10 Status. The pilot 1. Immediately inform ATC of navigation
must report the lack of RNP 10 or RNP 4 status in system malfunction or failure.
accordance with the following:
1. When the operator/aircraft is not authorized 2. Accounting for wind drift, fly magnetic
RNP 10 or RNP 4 see paragraph 474. compass heading to maintain track.
2. If approval status is requested by the 3. Request radar vectors from ATC, when
controller see paragraph 478 e. available.
474 Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of Mexico 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative
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511. Preflight Preparation and including the number indicated in the FDC NOTAM
legend. Printed NOTAMs are not provided during a
a. Every pilot is urged to receive a preflight briefing unless specifically requested by the pilot since the
briefing and to file a flight plan. This briefing should FSS specialist has no way of knowing whether the pilot has
consist of the latest or most current weather, airport, already checked the Notices to Airmen Publication prior to
and en route NAVAID information. Briefing service calling. Remember to ask for NOTAMs in the Notices to
may be obtained from an FSS either by telephone, by Airmen Publication. This information is not normally
radio when airborne, or by a personal visit to the furnished during your briefing.
station. Pilots with a current medical certificate in the REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 513 , Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System
48 contiguous States may access Lockheed Martin
Flight Services or the Direct User Access Terminal e. Pilots are urged to use only the latest issue of
System (DUATS) via the internet. Lockheed Martin aeronautical charts in planning and conducting flight
Flight Services and DUATS will provide preflight operations. Aeronautical charts are revised and
weather data and allow pilots to file domestic VFR or reissued on a regular scheduled basis to ensure that
IFR flight plans. depicted data are current and reliable. In the
conterminous U.S., Sectional Charts are updated
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 712 , FAA Weather Services, lists DUATS vendors.
every 6 months, IFR En Route Charts every 56 days,
and amendments to civil IFR Approach Charts are
NOTE
accomplished on a 56day cycle with a change notice
Pilots filing flight plans via fast file who desire to have
their briefing recorded, should include a statement at the volume issued on the 28day midcycle. Charts that
end of the recording as to the source of their weather have been superseded by those of a more recent date
briefing. may contain obsolete or incomplete flight
information.
b. The information required by the FAA to process
REFERENCE
flight plans is contained on FAA Form 72331, Flight AIM, Paragraph 914 , General Description of Each Chart Series
Plan, or FAA Form 72334, International Flight Plan.
f. When requesting a preflight briefing, identify
The forms are available at all flight service stations.
yourself as a pilot and provide the following:
Additional copies will be provided on request.
REFERENCE
1. Type of flight planned; e.g., VFR or IFR.
AIM, Paragraph 514 , Flight Plan VFR Flights
AIM, Paragraph 518 , Flight Plan IFR Flights
2. Aircrafts number or pilots name.
AIM, Paragraph 519, International Flight Plan IFR Flights 3. Aircraft type.
c. Consult an FSS, Lockheed Martin Flight 4. Departure Airport.
Services, or DUATS for preflight weather briefing.
5. Route of flight.
d. FSSs are required to advise of pertinent
NOTAMs if a standard briefing is requested, but if 6. Destination.
they are overlooked, dont hesitate to remind the 7. Flight altitude(s).
specialist that you have not received NOTAM
8. ETD and ETE.
information.
g. Prior to conducting a briefing, briefers are
NOTE
required to have the background information listed
NOTAMs which are known in sufficient time for
publication and are of 7 days duration or longer are above so that they may tailor the briefing to the needs
normally incorporated into the Notices to Airmen of the proposed flight. The objective is to
Publication and carried there until cancellation time. FDC communicate a picture of meteorological and
NOTAMs, which apply to instrument flight procedures, are aeronautical information necessary for the conduct of
also included in the Notices to Airmen Publication up to a safe and efficient flight. Briefers use all available
Preflight 511
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weather and aeronautical information to summarize 2. File a flight plan. This is an excellent low cost
data applicable to the proposed flight. They do not insurance policy. The cost is the time it takes to fill it
read weather reports and forecasts verbatim unless out. The insurance includes the knowledge that
specifically requested by the pilot. FSS briefers do someone will be looking for you if you become
not provide FDC NOTAM information for special overdue at your destination.
instrument approach procedures unless specifically 3. Use current charts.
asked. Pilots authorized by the FAA to use special
instrument approach procedures must specifically 4. Use the navigation aids. Practice maintaining
request FDC NOTAM information for these a good coursekeep the needle centered.
procedures. Pilots who receive the information 5. Maintain a constant altitude which is
electronically will receive NOTAMs for special IAPs appropriate for the direction of flight.
automatically. 6. Estimate en route position times.
REFERENCE 7. Make accurate and frequent position reports
AIM, Paragraph 714 , Preflight Briefings, contains those items of a
weather briefing that should be expected or requested. to the FSSs along your route of flight.
h. FAA by 14 CFR Part 93, Subpart K, has b. Simulated IFR flight is recommended (under
designated High Density Traffic Airports (HDTAs) the hood); however, pilots are cautioned to review
and has prescribed air traffic rules and requirements and adhere to the requirements specified in 14 CFR
for operating aircraft (excluding helicopter opera- Section 91.109 before and during such flight.
tions) to and from these airports. c. When flying VFR at night, in addition to the
REFERENCE altitude appropriate for the direction of flight, pilots
Chart Supplement U.S., Special Notices Section should maintain an altitude which is at or above the
AIM, Paragraph 4121 , Airport Reservation Operations and Special minimum en route altitude as shown on charts. This
Traffic Management Programs
is especially true in mountainous terrain, where there
i. In addition to the filing of a flight plan, if the is usually very little ground reference. Do not depend
flight will traverse or land in one or more foreign on your eyes alone to avoid rising unlighted terrain,
countries, it is particularly important that pilots leave or even lighted obstructions such as TV towers.
a complete itinerary with someone directly concerned
and keep that person advised of the flights progress. 513. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) System
If serious doubt arises as to the safety of the flight, that a. Time-critical aeronautical information which
person should first contact the FSS. is of either a temporary nature or not sufficiently
REFERENCE known in advance to permit publication on
AIM, Paragraph 5111 , Flights Outside the U.S. and U.S. Territories
aeronautical charts or in other operational publica-
j. Pilots operating under provisions of 14 CFR tions receives immediate dissemination via the
Part 135 on a domestic flight and not having an FAA National NOTAM System.
assigned 3letter designator, are urged to prefix the NOTE
normal registration (N) number with the letter T on 1. NOTAM information is that aeronautical information
flight plan filing; e.g., TN1234B. that could affect a pilots decision to make a flight. It
REFERENCE
includes such information as airport or aerodrome
AIM, Paragraph 424 , Aircraft Call Signs primary runway closures, taxiways, ramps, obstructions,
communications, airspace, changes in the status of
navigational aids, ILSs, radar service availability, and
512. Follow IFR Procedures Even When other information essential to planned en route, terminal,
Operating VFR or landing operations.
2. NOTAM information is transmitted using standard
a. To maintain IFR proficiency, pilots are urged to
contractions to reduce transmission time. See TBL 512
practice IFR procedures whenever possible, even for a listing of the most commonly used contractions. For
when operating VFR. Some suggested practices a complete listing, see FAA JO Order 7340.2,
include: Contractions.
1. Obtain a complete preflight and weather b. NOTAM information is classified into five
briefing. Check the NOTAMs. categories. These are NOTAM (D) or distant, Flight
512 Preflight
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Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs, Pointer NOTAMs, crossreferencing important information that may
Special Activity Airspace (SAA) NOTAMs, and not be found under an airport or NAVAID identifier.
Military NOTAMs. Keywords in pointer NOTAMs must match the
keywords in the NOTAM that is being pointed out.
1. NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for
The keyword in pointer NOTAMs related to
all navigational facilities that are part of the National
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) must be
Airspace System (NAS), all public use airports,
AIRSPACE.
seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Chart
Supplement U.S. The complete file of all NOTAM 4. SAA NOTAMs. These NOTAMs are issued
(D) information is maintained in a computer database when Special Activity Airspace will be active outside
at the Weather Message Switching Center (WMSC), the published schedule times and when required by
located in Atlanta, Georgia. This category of the published schedule. Pilots and other users are still
information is distributed automatically via Service responsible to check published schedule times for
A telecommunications system. Air traffic facilities, Special Activity Airspace as well as any NOTAMs
primarily FSSs, with Service A capability have for that airspace.
access to the entire WMSC database of NOTAMs. 5. Military NOTAMs. NOTAMs pertaining
These NOTAMs remain available via Service A for to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy
the duration of their validity or until published. Once navigational aids/airports that are part of the NAS.
published, the NOTAM data is deleted from the c. Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP). The
system. NOTAM (D) information includes such data NTAP is published by Mission Support Services,
as taxiway closures, personnel and equipment near or ATC Products and Publications, every 28 days. Data
crossing runways, and airport lighting aids that do not of a permanent nature can be published in the NTAP
affect instrument approach criteria, such as VASI. as an interim step between publication cycles of the
All NOTAM Ds must have one of the keywords listed Chart Supplement U.S. and aeronautical charts. The
in TBL 511 as the first part of the text after the NTAP is divided into four parts:
location identifier. 1. Notices in part 1 are provided by ATC
Products and Publications. This part contains
2. FDC NOTAMs. On those occasions when
selected FDC NOTAMs that are expected to be in
it becomes necessary to disseminate information
which is regulatory in nature, the National Flight Data effect on the effective date of the publication. This
part is divided into three sections:
Center (NFDC), in Washington, DC, will issue an
FDC NOTAM. FDC NOTAMs contain such things as (a) Section 1, Airway NOTAMs, reflects
amendments to published IAPs and other current airway changes that fall within an ARTCCs
aeronautical charts. They are also used to advertise airspace.
temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as (b) Section 2, Procedural NOTAMs.
natural disasters or large-scale public events that may (c) Section 3, General NOTAMs, contains
generate a congestion of air traffic over a site. NOTAMs that are general in nature and not tied to a
NOTE specific airport/facility (for example, flight advisor-
1. DUATS vendors will provide FDC NOTAMs only upon ies and restrictions, open duration special security
site-specific requests using a location identifier. instructions, and special flight rules area).
2. NOTAM data may not always be current due to the 2. Part 2, provided by NFDC, contains Part 95
changeable nature of national airspace system compo- Revisions, Revisions to Minimum En Route IFR
nents, delays inherent in processing information, and Altitudes and Changeover Points.
occasional temporary outages of the U.S. NOTAM system.
While en route, pilots should contact FSSs and obtain 3. Part 3, International NOTAMs, is divided into
updated information for their route of flight and two sections:
destination. (a) Section 1, International Flight Prohibi-
3. Pointer NOTAMs. NOTAMs issued by a tions, Potential Hostile Situations, and Foreign
flight service station to highlight or point out another Notices.
NOTAM, such as an FDC or NOTAM (D) NOTAM. (b) Section 2, International Oceanic Airspace
This type of NOTAM will assist users in Notices.
Preflight 513
AIM 12/10/15
4. Part 4, Graphic Notices, compiled by ATC information, Special Traffic Management Programs
Products and Publications from data provided by (STMP), and airport-specific information. This part
FAA service area offices and other lines of business, is comprised of 6 sections: General, Special Military
contains special notices and graphics pertaining to Operations, Airport and Facility Notices, Major
almost every aspect of aviation such as: military Sporting and Entertainment Events, Airshows, and
training areas, large scale sporting events, air show Special Notices.
TBL 511
NOTAM Keywords
Keyword Definition
RWY . . . . . . . Runway
Example !BNA BNA RWY 36 CLSD 13091313001309132000EST
TWY . . . . . . . Taxiway
Example !BTV BTV TWY C EDGE LGT OBSC 13101313001310141300EST
APRON . . . . . Apron/Ramp
Example !BNA BNA APRON NORTH APRON EAST SIDE CLSD 13111221500-1312220700
AD . . . . . . . . . Aerodrome
Example !BET BET AD ELK NEAR MVMT AREAS 1309251300-1309262200EST
OBST . . . . . . . Obstruction
Example !SJT SJT OBST MOORED BALLOON WITHIN AREA DEFINED AS 1NM RADIUS OF SJT 2430FT
(510FT AGL) FLAGGED 13092514001309261400EST
NAV . . . . . . . . Navigation Aids
Example !SHV SHV NAV ILS RWY 32 110.3 COMMISSIONED 1311251600-PERM
COM . . . . . . . Communications
Example !INW INW COM REMOTE COM OUTLET 122.6 OUT OF SERVICE 1307121330-1307151930EST
SVC . . . . . . . . Services
Example !ROA ROA SVC TWR COMMISSIONED 1301050001-PERM
AIRSPACE . . Airspace
Example !MIV MIV AIRSPACE AIRSHOW ACFT WITHIN AREA DEFINED AS 5NM RADIUS OF MIV
SFC-10000FT AVOIDANCE ADVISED 1308122100-1308122300
ODP . . . . . . . . Obstacle Departure Procedure
Example !FDC 2/9700 DIK ODP DICKINSON - THEODORE ROOSEVELT RGNL, DICKINSON, ND.
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES AMDT 1...
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: RWY 25, CLIMB HEADING 250 TO 3500 BEFORE TURNING LEFT. ALL
OTHER DATA REMAINS AS PUBLISHED.
THIS IS TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES, AMDT 1A.
1305011200-PERM
SID . . . . . . . . . Standard Instrument Departure
Example !FDC x/xxxx DFW SID DALLAS/FORT WORTH INTL, DALLAS, TX.
PODDE THREE DEPARTURE...
CHANGE NOTES TO READ: RWYS 17C/R, 18L/R: DO NOT EXCEED 240KT UNTIL LARRN. RWYS
35L/C, 36L/R: DONOT EXCEED 240KT UNTIL KMART 1305011200-1312111200EST
STAR . . . . . . . Standard Terminal Arrival
Example !FDC x/xxxx DCA STAR RONALD REAGAN WASHINGTON NATIONAL,WASHINGTON, DC.
WZRRD TWO ARRIVAL...
SHAAR TRANSITION: ROUTE FROM DRUZZ INT TO WZRRD INT NOT AUTHORIZED. AFTER
DRUZZ INT EXPECT RADAR VECTORS TO AML VORTAC 1305011200-1312111200ES
514 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
Keyword Definition
CHART . . . . . Chart
Example !FDC 2/9997 DAL IAP DALLAS LOVE FIELD, DALLAS, TX.
ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5...
CHART NOTE: SIMULTANEOUS APPROACH AUTHORIZED WITH RWY 31L. MISSED APPROACH:
CLIMB TO 1000 THEN CLIMBING RIGHT TURN TO 5000 ON HEADING 330 AND CVE R-046 TO
FINGR INT/CVE 36.4 DME AND HOLD. CHART LOC RWY 31L.
THIS IS ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5A. 1305011200-PERM
DATA . . . . . . . Data
Example !FDC 2/9700 DIK ODP DICKINSON - THEODORE ROOSEVELT RGNL, DICKINSON, ND.
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES AMDT 1...
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: RWY 25, CLIMB HEADING 250 TO 3500 BEFORE TURNING LEFT. ALL
OTHER DATA REMAINS AS PUBLISHED.
THIS IS TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES, AMDT 1A.
1305011200-PERM
IAP . . . . . . . . . Instrument Approach Procedure
Example !FDC 2/9997 DAL IAP DALLAS LOVE FIELD, DALLAS, TX.
ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5...
CHART NOTE: SIMULTANEOUS APPROACH AUTHORIZED WITH RWY 31L. MISSED APPROACH:
CLIMB TO 1000 THEN CLIMBING RIGHT TURN TO 5000 ON HEADING 330 AND CVE R-046 TO
FINGR INT/CVE 36.4 DME AND HOLD. CHART LOC RWY 31L.
THIS IS ILS OR LOC RWY 31R, AMDT 5A. 1305011200-PERM
VFP . . . . . . . . Visual Flight Procedures
Example !FDC X/XXXX JFK VFP JOHN F KENNEDY INTL, NEW YORK, NY.
PARKWAY VISUAL RWY 13L/R, ORIG...WEATHER MINIMUMS 3000 FOOT CEILING AND 3 MILES
VISIBILITY. 1303011200-1308011400EST
ROUTE . . . . . Route
Example !FDC x/xxxx ZFW OK..ROUTE ZFW ZKC.
V140 SAYRE (SYO) VORTAC, OK TO TULSA (TUL) VORTAC, OK MEA 4300.
1305041000-1306302359EST
SPECIAL . . . Special
Example !FDC x/xxxx PAJN SPECIAL JUNEAU INTERNATIONAL, JUNEAU, AK.
LDA-2 RWY 8 AMDT 9
PROCEDURE TURN NA. 1305011200-1312111200EST
SECURITY . . Security
Example !FDC ZZZ SECURITY..SPECIAL NOTICE..THIS NOTICE IS TO EMPHASIZE THAT BEFORE
OPERATING IN OR ADJACENT TO IRANIAN AIRSPACE ALL U.S. AIRMEN AND OPERATORS
SHOULD BE FAMILIAR WITH CURRENT CONDITIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST. THE U.S. DEPART-
MENT OF STATE HAS ISSUED A TRAVEL WARNING FOR IRAN ADVISING, IN PART, THAT THE U.S.
GOVERNMENT DOES NOT CURRENTLY MAINTAIN DIPLOMATIC OR CONSULAR RELATIONS
WITH THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN. ANY U.S. OPERATOR PLANNING A FLIGHT THROUGH
IRANIAN AIRSPACE SHOULD PLAN IN ADVANCE AND HAVE ALL CURRENT NOTAMS AND
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION FOR ANY PLANNED FLIGHT 1311011200-1403301800EST
U........... Unverified Aeronautical Information
(for use only where authorized by Letter of Agreement)*
O .......... Other Aeronautical Information**
NOTE
1. * Unverified Aeronautical Information can be movement area or other information received that meets NOTAM criteria
and has not been confirmed by the Airport Manager (AMGR) or their designee. If Flight Service is unable to contact airport
management, Flight Service must forward (U) NOTAM information to the United States NOTAM System (USNS).
Subsequent to USNS distribution of a (U) NOTAM, Flight Service will inform airport management of the action taken as
soon as practical. Any such NOTAM will be prefaced with (U) as the keyword and followed by the appropriate keyword
contraction, following the location identifier.
2. ** Other Aeronautical Information is that which is received from any authorized source that may be beneficial
to aircraft operations and does not meet defined NOTAM criteria. Any such NOTAM will be prefaced with (O) as the
keyword following the location identifier.
Preflight 515
AIM 12/10/15
516 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
Preflight 517
AIM 12/10/15
each leg when the stop is expected to be more than the route are good practice. Such contacts permit
1 hour duration. significant information to be passed to the transiting
aircraft and also serve to check the progress of the
e. Pilots are encouraged to give their departure
flight should it be necessary for any reason to locate
times directly to the FSS serving the departure airport
the aircraft.
or as otherwise indicated by the FSS when the flight
plan is filed. This will ensure more efficient flight EXAMPLE
plan service and permit the FSS to advise you of 1. Bonanza 314K, over Kingfisher at (time), VFR flight
significant changes in aeronautical facilities or plan, Tulsa to Amarillo.
meteorological conditions. When a VFR flight plan 2. Cherokee 5133J, over Oklahoma City at (time),
is filed, it will be held by the FSS until 1 hour after the Shreveport to Denver, no flight plan.
proposed departure time unless:
h. Pilots not operating on an IFR flight plan and
1. The actual departure time is received. when in level cruising flight, are cautioned to
conform with VFR cruising altitudes appropriate to
2. A revised proposed departure time is
the direction of flight.
received.
3. At a time of filing, the FSS is informed that i. When filing VFR flight plans, indicate aircraft
the proposed departure time will be met, but actual equipment capabilities by appending the appropriate
time cannot be given because of inadequate suffix to aircraft type in the same manner as that
communications (assumed departures). prescribed for IFR flight.
REFERENCE
f. On pilots request, at a location having an active AIM, Paragraph 518 , Flight Plan Domestic IFR Flights
tower, the aircraft identification will be forwarded by
j. Under some circumstances, ATC computer
the tower to the FSS for reporting the actual departure
tapes can be useful in constructing the radar history
time. This procedure should be avoided at busy
of a downed or crashed aircraft. In each case,
airports.
knowledge of the aircrafts transponder equipment is
g. Although position reports are not required for necessary in determining whether or not such
VFR flight plans, periodic reports to FAA FSSs along computer tapes might prove effective.
518 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 511
FAA Flight Plan
Form 72331 (882)
12. FUEL ON BOARD 13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S) 14. PILOTS NAME, ADDRESS & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE 15. NUMBER
HOURS ABOARD
MINUTES
17. DESTINATION CONTACT/TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL)
16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT CIVIL AIRCRAFT PILOTS, FAR 91 requires you file an IFR flight plan to operate under instrument flight rules in
controlled airspace. Failure to file could result in a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 for each violation (Section 901 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as amended). Filing of a VFR flight plan is recommended as a good operating practice. See also
Part 99 for requirements concerning DVFR flight plans.
FAA Form 7233-1 (8-82) CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH _________________ FSS ON ARRIVAL
k. Flight Plan Form (See FIG 511). 8. Block 8. Define the route of flight by using
NAVAID identifier codes and airways.
l. Explanation of VFR Flight Plan Items.
1. Block 1. Check the type flight plan. Check 9. Block 9. Enter the destination airport
both the VFR and IFR blocks if composite VFR/IFR. identifier code, or if unknown, the airport name.
2. Block 2. Enter your complete aircraft NOTE
identification including the prefix N if applicable. Include the city name (or even the state name) if needed for
clarity.
3. Block 3. Enter the designator for the aircraft,
or if unknown, consult an FSS briefer. 10. Block 10. Enter your estimated time
4. Block 4. Enter your true airspeed (TAS). en route in hours and minutes.
5. Block 5. Enter the departure airport identifi- 11. Block 11. Enter only those remarks that
er code, or if unknown, the name of the airport. may aid in VFR search and rescue, such as planned
stops en route or student cross country, or remarks
6. Block 6. Enter the proposed departure time
pertinent to the clarification of other flight plan
in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) (Z). If
information, such as the radiotelephony (call sign)
airborne, specify the actual or proposed departure
associated with a designator filed in Block 2, if the
time as appropriate.
radiotelephony is new, has changed within the last 60
7. Block 7. Enter the appropriate VFR altitude days, or is a special FAA-assigned temporary
(to assist the briefer in providing weather and wind radiotelephony. Items of a personal nature are not
information). accepted.
Preflight 519
AIM 12/10/15
12. Block 12. Specify the fuel on board in (c) Route Information.
hours and minutes.
(d) Plan of Operations.
13. Block 13. Specify an alternate airport if
desired. (e) Facility Outages and Scheduled Facility
Outages.
14. Block 14. Enter your complete name,
address, and telephone number. Enter sufficient (f) Volcanic Ash Activity Bulletins.
information to identify home base, airport, or (g) Special Traffic Management Programs.
operator.
NOTE
2. This list is not allinclusive. Any time there
This information is essential in the event of search and is information that may be beneficial to a large
rescue operations. number of people, an advisory may be sent.
Additionally, there may be times when an advisory is
15. Block 15. Enter total number of persons on not sent due to workload or the short length of time of
board (POB) including crew. the activity.
16. Block 16. Enter the predominant colors. 3. Route information is available on the web site
and in specific advisories. Some route information,
17. Block 17. Record the FSS name for closing
subject to the 56day publishing cycle, is located on
the flight plan. If the flight plan is closed with a
the OIS under Products, Route Management
different FSS or facility, state the recorded FSS name
Tool (RMT), and Whats New Playbook. The RMT
that would normally have closed your flight plan.
and Playbook contain routings for use by Air Traffic
NOTE and NAS operators when they are coordinated
1. Optional record a destination telephone number to realtime and are then published in an ATCSCC
assist search and rescue contact should you fail to report advisory.
or cancel your flight plan within 1/2 hour after your
estimated time of arrival (ETA). 4. Route advisories are identified by the word
2. The information transmitted to the destination FSS will Route in the header; the associated action is
consist only of flight plan blocks 2, 3, 9, and 10. Estimated required (RQD), recommended (RMD), planned
time en route (ETE) will be converted to the correct ETA. (PLN), or for your information (FYI). Operators are
expected to file flight plans consistent with the Route
RQD advisories.
515. Operational Information System
(OIS) 5. Electronic System Impact Reports are on the
intranet at http://www.atcscc.faa.gov/ois/ under
a. The FAAs Air Traffic Control System System Impact Reports. This page lists scheduled
Command Center (ATCSCC) maintains a web site outages/events/projects that significantly impact
with near realtime National Airspace System (NAS) the NAS; for example, runway closures, air shows,
status information. NAS operators are encouraged to and construction projects. Information includes
access the web site at http://www.fly.faa.gov prior to anticipated delays and traffic management initiat-
filing their flight plan. ives (TMI) that may be implemented.
b. The web site consolidates information from
advisories. An advisory is a message that is 516. Flight Plan Defense VFR (DVFR)
disseminated electronically by the ATCSCC that Flights
contains information pertinent to the NAS.
VFR flights (except DOD or law enforcement flights)
1. Advisories are normally issued for the into a Coastal or Domestic ADIZ/DEWIZ are
following items: required to file DVFR flight plans for security
(a) Ground Stops. purposes. Detailed ADIZ procedures are found in
Section 6, National Security and Interception Proce-
(b) Ground Delay Programs. dures, of this chapter. (See 14 CFR Part 99.)
5110 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
517. Composite Flight Plan (VFR/IFR 72334 (International Flight Plan), as described in
Flights) paragraph 519.
a. General
a. Flight plans which specify VFR operation for
one portion of a flight, and IFR for another portion, 1. Prior to departure from within, or prior to
will be accepted by the FSS at the point of departure. entering controlled airspace, a pilot must submit a
If VFR flight is conducted for the first portion of the complete flight plan and receive an air traffic
flight, pilots should report their departure time to the clearance, if weather conditions are below VFR
FSS with whom the VFR/IFR flight plan was filed; minimums. Instrument flight plans may be submitted
and, subsequently, close the VFR portion and request to the nearest FSS or ATCT either in person or by
ATC clearance from the FSS nearest the point at telephone (or by radio if no other means are
which change from VFR to IFR is proposed. available). Pilots should file IFR flight plans at least
Regardless of the type facility you are communicat- 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure to
ing with (FSS, center, or tower), it is the pilots preclude possible delay in receiving a departure
responsibility to request that facility to CLOSE VFR clearance from ATC. In order to provide FAA traffic
FLIGHT PLAN. The pilot must remain in VFR management units strategic route planning capabili-
weather conditions until operating in accordance with ties, nonscheduled operators conducting IFR
the IFR clearance. operations above FL 230 are requested to voluntarily
file IFR flight plans at least 4 hours prior to estimated
b. When a flight plan indicates IFR for the first time of departure (ETD). To minimize your delay in
portion of flight and VFR for the latter portion, the entering Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
pilot will normally be cleared to the point at which the surface areas at destination when IFR weather
change is proposed. After reporting over the conditions exist or are forecast at that airport, an IFR
clearance limit and not desiring further IFR flight plan should be filed before departure.
clearance, the pilot should advise ATC to cancel the Otherwise, a 30 minute delay is not unusual in
IFR portion of the flight plan. Then, the pilot should receiving an ATC clearance because of time spent in
contact the nearest FSS to activate the VFR portion of processing flight plan data. Traffic saturation
the flight plan. If the pilot desires to continue the IFR frequently prevents control personnel from accepting
flight plan beyond the clearance limit, the pilot should flight plans by radio. In such cases, the pilot is advised
contact ATC at least 5 minutes prior to the clearance to contact the nearest FSS for the purpose of filing the
limit and request further IFR clearance. If the flight plan.
requested clearance is not received prior to reaching
the clearance limit fix, the pilot will be expected to NOTE
1. There are several methods of obtaining IFR clearances
enter into a standard holding pattern on the radial or
at nontower, nonFSS, and outlying airports. The
course to the fix unless a holding pattern for the procedure may vary due to geographical features, weather
clearance limit fix is depicted on a U.S. Government conditions, and the complexity of the ATC system. To
or commercially produced (meeting FAA require- determine the most effective means of receiving an IFR
ments) low or high altitude enroute, area or STAR clearance, pilots should ask the nearest FSS the most
chart. In this case the pilot will hold according to the appropriate means of obtaining the IFR clearance.
depicted pattern. 2. When requesting an IFR clearance, it is highly
recommended that the departure airport be identified by
stating the city name and state and/or the airport location
518. Flight Plan (FAA Form 72331) identifier in order to clarify to ATC the exact location of the
Domestic IFR Flights intended airport of departure.
Preflight 5111
AIM 12/10/15
TBL 513
Aircraft Equipment Suffixes
No RVSM No Transponder /X
No DME
Transponder with no Mode C /T
Transponder with Mode C /U
No Transponder /D
DME
Transponder with no Mode C /B
Transponder with Mode C /A
No Transponder /M
TACAN
Transponder with no Mode C /N
Transponder with Mode C /P
No Transponder /Y
RNAV, no GNSS
Transponder with no Mode C /C
Transponder with Mode C /I
No Transponder /V
GNSS
Transponder with no Mode C /S
Transponder with Mode C /G
5112 Preflight
4/27/17
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
b. Airways and Jet Routes Depiction on Flight enough information should be included to clearly
Plan indicate the route requested.
EXAMPLE
1. It is vitally important that the route of flight LAX J5 LKV J3 GEG YXC FL 330 J500 VLR J515 YWG
be accurately and completely described in the flight Spelled out: from Los Angeles International via Jet Route 5
plan. To simplify definition of the proposed route, Lakeview, Jet Route 3 Spokane, direct Cranbrook, British
and to facilitate ATC, pilots are requested to file via Columbia VOR/DME, Flight Level 330 Jet Route 500 to
airways or jet routes established for use at the altitude Langruth, Manitoba VORTAC, Jet Route 515 to Winnepeg,
or flight level planned. Manitoba.
5. When filing IFR, it is to the pilots advantage
2. If flight is to be conducted via designated to file a preferred route.
airways or jet routes, describe the route by indicating
REFERENCE
the type and number designators of the airway(s) or Preferred IFR Routes are described and tabulated in the Chart
jet route(s) requested. If more than one airway or jet Supplement U.S.
route is to be used, clearly indicate points of 6. ATC may issue a SID or a STAR, as
transition. If the transition is made at an unnamed appropriate.
intersection, show the next succeeding NAVAID or
REFERENCE
named intersection on the intended route and the AIM, Paragraph 528 , Instrument Departure Procedures (DP)
complete route from that point. Reporting points may Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument
be identified by using authorized name/code as Departures (SID)
AIM, Paragraph 541 , Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedures
depicted on appropriate aeronautical charts. The
NOTE
following two examples illustrate the need to specify
Pilots not desiring a SID or STAR should so indicate in the
the transition point when two routes share more than remarks section of the flight plan as no SID or no
one transition fix. STAR.
EXAMPLE c. Direct Flights
1. ALB J37 BUMPY J14 BHM
1. All or any portions of the route which will not
Spelled out: from Albany, New York, via Jet Route 37
transitioning to Jet Route 14 at BUMPY intersection,
be flown on the radials or courses of established
thence via Jet Route 14 to Birmingham, Alabama. airways or routes, such as direct route flights, must be
defined by indicating the radio fixes over which the
flight will pass. Fixes selected to define the route
2. ALB J37 ENO J14 BHM must be those over which the position of the aircraft
Spelled out: from Albany, New York, via Jet Route 37 can be accurately determined. Such fixes automati-
transitioning to Jet Route 14 at Smyrna VORTAC (ENO) cally become compulsory reporting points for the
thence via Jet Route 14 to Birmingham, Alabama. flight, unless advised otherwise by ATC. Only those
3. The route of flight may also be described by navigational aids established for use in a particular
naming the reporting points or NAVAIDs over which structure; i.e., in the low or high structures, may be
the flight will pass, provided the points named are used to define the en route phase of a direct flight
established for use at the altitude or flight level within that altitude structure.
planned. 2. The azimuth feature of VOR aids and that
azimuth and distance (DME) features of VORTAC
EXAMPLE
and TACAN aids are assigned certain frequency
BWI V44 SWANN V433 DQO
Spelled out: from Baltimore-Washington International, via protected areas of airspace which are intended for
Victor 44 to Swann intersection, transitioning to Victor 433 application to established airway and route use, and
at Swann, thence via Victor 433 to Dupont. to provide guidance for planning flights outside of
established airways or routes. These areas of airspace
4. When the route of flight is defined by named are expressed in terms of cylindrical service volumes
reporting points, whether alone or in combination of specified dimensions called class limits or
with airways or jet routes, and the navigational aids categories.
(VOR, VORTAC, TACAN, NDB) to be used for the REFERENCE
flight are a combination of different types of aids, AIM, Paragraph 118 , Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes
Preflight 5113
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
4/27/17
12/10/15
5114 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
(h) Plan additional route description way- Reference System (NRS) waypoints. For latitude/
points as required to ensure accurate navigation via longitude filing the arrival fix must be identified by
the filed route of flight. Navigation is the pilots both the latitude/longitude coordinates and a fix
responsibility unless ATC assistance is requested. identifier.
(i) Plan the route of flight so as to avoid EXAMPLE
prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 NM unless MIA 1 SRQ 2 3407/10615 3 3407/11546 TNP 4 LAX 5
Preflight 5115
AIM 12/10/15
FIG 512
FAA Flight Plan
Form 72331 (882)
12. FUEL ON BOARD 13. ALTERNATE AIRPORT(S) 14. PILOTS NAME, ADDRESS & TELEPHONE NUMBER & AIRCRAFT HOME BASE 15. NUMBER
HOURS ABOARD
MINUTES
17. DESTINATION CONTACT/TELEPHONE (OPTIONAL)
16. COLOR OF AIRCRAFT CIVIL AIRCRAFT PILOTS, FAR 91 requires you file an IFR flight plan to operate under instrument flight rules in
controlled airspace. Failure to file could result in a civil penalty not to exceed $1,000 for each violation (Section 901 of the
Federal Aviation Act of 1958, as amended). Filing of a VFR flight plan is recommended as a good operating practice. See also
Part 99 for requirements concerning DVFR flight plans.
FAA Form 7233-1 (8-82) CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN WITH _________________ FSS ON ARRIVAL
5116 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
11. Block 11. Enter only those remarks pertin- g. The information transmitted to the ARTCC for
ent to ATC or to the clarification of other flight plan IFR flight plans will consist of only flight plan
information, such as the appropriate radiotelephony blocks 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11.
(call sign) associated with the FAA-assigned h. A description of the International Flight Plan
three-letter company designator filed in Block 2, if Form is contained in the International Flight
the radiotelephony is new or has changed within the Information Manual (IFIM).
last 60 days. In cases where there is no three-letter
designator but only an assigned radiotelephony or an
assigned three-letter designator is used in a medical 519. International Flight Plan (FAA Form
emergency, the radiotelephony must be included in 72334) IFR Flights (For Domestic or
the remarks field. Items of a personal nature are not International Flights)
accepted. a. General
NOTE Use of FAA Form 72334 is:
1. The pilot is responsible for knowing when it is 1. Mandatory for assignment of RNAV SIDs
appropriate to file the radiotelephony in remarks under the
60-day rule or when using FAA special radiotelephony
and STARs or other PBN routing,
assignments. 2. Mandatory for all IFR flights that will depart
2. DVRSN should be placed in Block 11 only if the U.S. domestic airspace, and
pilot/company is requesting priority handling to their 3. Recommended for domestic IFR flights.
original destination from ATC as a result of a diversion as
NOTE
defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary.
1. An abbreviated description of FAA Form 72334
3. Do not assume that remarks will be automatically (International Flight Plan) may be found in this section. A
transmitted to every controller. Specific ATC or en route detailed description of FAA Form 72334 may be found on
requests should be made directly to the appropriate the FAA web site at:
controller. h t t p : / / w w w. f a a . g o v / a b o u t / o f f i c e _ o rg /
headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/enroute/flight_pl
12. Block 12. Specify the fuel on board, an_filing/
computed from the departure point. 2. Filers utilizing FAA Form 72331 (Flight Plan) may not
be eligible for assignment of RNAV SIDs and STARs. Filers
13. Block 13. Specify an alternate airport if desiring assignment of these procedures should file using
desired or required, but do not include routing to the FAA Form 72334, as described in this section.
alternate airport. 3. When filing an IFR flight plan using FAA Form 72334,
it is recommended that filers include all operable
14. Block 14. Enter the complete name,
navigation, communication, and surveillance equipment
address, and telephone number of pilot-in-command,
capabilities by adding appropriate equipment qualifiers as
or in the case of a formation flight, the formation shown in Tables 513 and 514. These equipment
commander. Enter sufficient information to identify qualifiers should be filed in Item 10 of FAA Form 72334.
home base, airport, or operator.
4. ATC issues clearances based on aircraft capabilities
NOTE filed in Items 10 and 18 of FAA Form 72334. Operators
This information would be essential in the event of search should file all capabilities for which the aircraft and crew
and rescue operation. is certified, capable, and authorized. PBN/ capability
should be filed as per paragraph 5-1-9 b 8 Items 18 (c) and
15. Block 15. Enter the total number of persons (d).
on board including crew.
b. Explanation of Items Filed in FAA Form
16. Block 16. Enter the predominant colors. 72334
Preflight 5117
AIM 12/10/15
outside U.S. domestic airspace may vary signific- 3. Item 9. Number, Type of Aircraft, and
antly from country to country. It is, therefore, Wake Turbulence Category.
recommended that operators planning flights out-
side U.S. domestic airspace become familiar with (a) Number. Insert the number of aircraft, if
applicable international documents, including more than 1 (maximum 99).
Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP); Inter-
national Flight Information Manuals (IFIM); and
ICAO Document 4444, Procedures for Air Naviga- (b) Type of Aircraft.
tion Services/Air Traffic Management, Appendix 2.
NOTE (1) Insert the appropriate designator as
FAA Form 72334 is shown in FIG 513. The filer is specified in ICAO Doc 8643, Aircraft Type
normally responsible for providing the information Designators;
required in Items 3 through 19.
1. Item 7. Aircraft Identification. Insert the (2) Or, if no such designator has been
full registration number of the aircraft, or the assigned, or in the case of formation flights consisting
approved FAA/ICAO company or organizational of more than one type;
designator, followed by the flight number.
EXAMPLE (3) Insert ZZZZ, and specify in Item 18, the
N235RA, AAL3342, BONGO33 (numbers and) type(s) of aircraft preceded by TYP/.
NOTE
Callsigns filed in this item must begin with a letter followed (c) Wake Turbulence Category. Insert an
by 16 additional alphanumeric characters. oblique stroke followed by one of the following
2. Item 8. Flight Rules and Type of Flight. letters to indicate the wake turbulence category of
the aircraft:
(a) Flight Rules. Insert the character I to
indicate IFR
(1) H HEAVY, to indicate an aircraft
(b) Type of Flight. Insert one of the type with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
following letters to denote the type of flight: 300,000 pounds (136 000 kg), or more;
(1) S if scheduled air service
(2) N if nonscheduled air transport (2) M MEDIUM, to indicate an aircraft
operation type with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
less than 300,000 pounds (136,000 kg), but more than
(3) G if general aviation 15,500 pounds (7,000 kg);
(4) M if military
(5) X if other than any of the defined (3) L LIGHT, to indicate an aircraft type
categories above. with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of
15,500 pounds (7,000 kg) or less.
NOTE
Type of flight is optional for flights that will be conducted
entirely within U.S. domestic airspace. 4. Item 10. Equipment
5118 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 513
FAA International Flight Plan Form 72334 (906)
Preflight 5119
AIM 12/10/15
5120 Preflight
11/10/16
12/10/15 AIM
TBL 514
Aircraft COM, NAV, and Approach Equipment Qualifiers
INSERT one letter as follows:
N if no COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment
is unserviceable,
(OR)
S if standard COM/NAV/approach aid equipment for the route to be flown is carried and
serviceable (see Note 1),
(AND/OR)
INSERT one or more of the following letters to indicate the COM/NAV/approach aid equipment available
and serviceable:
NOTE
The capabilities described below comprise the following elements:
a. Presence of relevant serviceable equipment on board the aircraft.
b. Equipment and capabilities commensurate with flight crew qualifications.
c. Where applicable, authorization from the appropriate authority.
NOTE
1. If the letter S is used, standard equipment is considered to be VHF RTF, VOR, and ILS within U.S. domestic airspace.
2. If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS augmentation, if any, are specified in Item 18 following the indicator
NAV/ and separated by a space.
3. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements Standard For ATN Baseline 1 (ATN B1 INTEROP Standard
DO-280B/ED-110B) for data link services air traffic control clearance and information/air traffic control communications
management/air traffic control microphone check.
4. If the letter R is used, the performancebased navigation levels that are authorized must be specified in Item 18 following
the indicator PBN/. For further details, see Paragraph 519 b 8, Item 18 (c) and (d).
5. If the letter Z is used, specify in Item 18 the other equipment carried, preceded by COM/, DAT/, and/or NAV/, as
appropriate.
6. Information on navigation capability is provided to ATC for clearance and routing purposes.
Preflight 5121
AIM 12/10/15
TBL 515
Aircraft Surveillance Equipment, Including Designators for Transponder, ADSB, ADSC, and Capabilities
INSERT N if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable,
OR
INSERT one or more of the following descriptors, to a maximum of 20 characters, to describe the serviceable surveillance equip-
ment and/or capabilities on board:
EXAMPLE
1. SDGW/SB1U1 {VOR, ILS, VHF, DME, GNSS, RVSM, Mode S transponder, ADS-B 1090 Extended Squitter out, ADS-B
UAT out}
2. S/C {VOR, ILS, VHF, Mode C transponder}
5122 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
5. Item 13. Departure Aerodrome/Time (1) Consecutive fixes, navaids and waypo-
ints should be separated by the characters DCT,
(a) Insert the ICAO fourletter location meaning direct.
indicator of the departure aerodrome, or
EXAMPLE
NOTE FLACK DCT IRW DCT IRW125023
ICAO location indicators must consist of 4 letters. Airport NOTE
identifiers such as 5IA7, 39LL and Z40 are not in ICAO IRW125023 identifies the fix located on the Will Rogers
standard format. VORTAC 125 radial at 23 DME.
(b) If no fourletter location indicator has (2) Combinations of published routes, and
been assigned to the departure aerodrome, insert fixes, navaids or waypoints should be separated by a
ZZZZ and specify the nonICAO location identifier, single space.
or fix/radial/distance from a nearby navaid, followed EXAMPLE
by the name of the aerodrome, in Item 18, following WORTH5 MQP V66 ABI V385
characters DEP/, (3) Although it is recommended that filed
airway junctions be identified using a named junction
(c) Then, without a space, insert the estimated
fix when possible, there may be cases where it is
offblock time.
necessary to file junctioning airways without a named
EXAMPLE fix. In these cases, separate consecutive airways with
1. KSMF2215 a space.
2. ZZZZ0330 EXAMPLE
V325 V49
6. Item 15. Cruise Speed, Level and Route NOTE
This method of filing an airway junction may result in a
(a) Cruise Speed (maximum 5 characters). processing ambiguity. This might cause the flight plan to be
Insert the true airspeed for the first or the whole rejected in some cases.
cruising portion of the flight, in terms of knots,
7. Item 16. Destination Aerodrome, Total
expressed as N followed by 4 digits (e.g. N0485), or
EET, Alternate and 2nd Alternate Aerodrome
Mach number to the nearest hundredth of unit Mach,
expressed as M followed by 3 digits (for example, (a) Destination Aerodrome and Total Estim-
M082). ated Elapsed Time (EET).
(1) Insert the ICAO fourletter location
(b) Cruising level (maximum 5 characters).
identifier for the destination aerodrome; or, if no
Insert the planned cruising level for the first or the
ICAO location identifier has been assigned,
whole portion of the route to be flown, in terms of
(Location identifiers, such as WY66, A08, and 5B1,
flight level, expressed as F followed by 3 figures (for
are not an ICAO standard format),
example, F180; F330), or altitude in hundreds of feet,
expressed as A followed by 3 figures (for example, (2) Insert ZZZZ and specify the nonICAO
A040; A170). location identifier, or fix/radial/distance from a
nearby navaid, followed the name of the aerodrome,
(c) Route. Insert the requested route of flight in Item 18, following characters DEST/,
in accordance with guidance below.
(3) Then, without a space, insert the total
NOTE estimated time en route to the destination.
Speed and/or altitude changes en route will be accepted by EXAMPLE
FAA computer systems, but will not be processed or
1. KOKC0200
forwarded to controllers. Pilots are expected to maintain
the last assigned altitude and request revised altitude 2. ZZZZ0330
clearances directly from ATC. (b) Alternate and 2nd Alternate Aerodrome
(d) Insert the desired route of flight using a (Optional).
combination of published routes and/or fixes in the (1) Following the intended destination,
following formats: insert the ICAO fourletter location identifier(s) of
Preflight 5123
AIM 12/10/15
alternate aerodromes; or, if no location identifier(s) (7) HOSP: For a medical flight declared by
have been assigned; medical authorities.
(2) Insert ZZZZ and specify the name of the (8) HUM: For a flight operating on a
aerodrome in Item 18, following the characters humanitarian mission.
ALTN/. (9) MARSA: For a flight for which a
EXAMPLE military entity assumes responsibility for separation
1. KDFW0234 KPWA of military aircraft.
2. KBOS0304 ZZZZ (10) MEDEVAC: For a life critical medical
NOTE
emergency evacuation.
Although alternate airport information filed in an FPL will (11) NONRVSM: For a non-RVSM
be accepted by air traffic computer systems, it will not be capable flight intending to operate in RVSM airspace.
presented to controllers. If diversion to an alternate airport
becomes necessary, pilots are expected to notify ATC and (12) SAR: For a flight engaged in a search
request an amended clearance. and rescue mission.
8. Item 18. Other Information (13) STATE: For a flight engaged in
military, customs, or police services.
(a) Insert 0 (zero) if no other information; or,
NOTE
any other necessary information in the sequence Other reasons for special handling by ATS are denoted
shown below, in the form of the appropriate indicator under the designator RMK/.
followed by an oblique stroke and the information to
be recorded: (c) PBN/ Indication of RNAV and/or RNP
capabilities. Include as many of the descriptors below
NOTE as apply to the flight, up to a maximum of 8 entries;
1. Operators are warned that the use of indicators not that is a total of not more than 16 characters.
included in the provisions may result in data being rejected,
processed incorrectly, or lost. TBL 516
5124 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
Preflight 5125
AIM 12/10/15
(o) CODE/ Aircraft address (expressed in (v) TALT/ ICAO 4-letter indicator(s) for
the form of an alphanumerical code of six take-off alternate, as specified in Doc 7910, Location
hexadecimal characters) when required by the Indicators, or name of take-off alternate aerodrome,
appropriate ATS authority. Include CODE/ when if no indicator is allocated. For aerodromes not listed
ADS-B capability is filed in Item 10. in the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication,
indicate location in LAT/LONG or bearing and
EXAMPLE distance from the nearest significant point, as
F00001 is the lowest aircraft address contained in the described in DEP/ above.
specific block administered by ICAO.
(w) RIF/ The route details to the revised
(p) DLE/ En route delay or holding, insert destination aerodrome, followed by the ICAO
the significant point(s) on the route where a delay is four-letter location indicator of the aerodrome. The
planned to occur, followed by the length of delay revised route is subject to reclearance in flight.
using four figure time in hours and minutes (hhmm).
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE 1. RIF/DTA HEC KLAX
DLE/MDG0030 2. RIF/ESP G94 CLA YPPH
(q) OPR/ Name of the operator, if not (x) RMK/ Any other plainlanguage re-
obvious from the aircraft identification in Item 7. marks when required by the ATC or deemed
necessary.
(r) ORGN/ The originators 8-letter AFTN EXAMPLE
address or other appropriate contact details, in cases 1. RMK/NRP
where the originator of the flight plan may not be
readily identified, as required by the appropriate ATS 2. RMK/DRVSN
authority. The FAA does not require ORGN/ (y) RVR/ The minimum RVR requirement of
information. the flight in meters. This item is defined by
5126 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
Eurocontrol, not ICAO. The FAA does not require or (3) J/ (JACKETS).
use this item, but will accept it in a flight plan. [a] Cross out LIGHT if life jackets are
NOTE not equipped with lights.
This provision is detailed in the European Regional
[b] Cross out FLUORES if life jackets
Supplementary Procedures (EUR SUPPs, Doc 7030),
Chapter 2.
are not equipped with fluorescein.
[c] Cross out UHF or VHF or both as
(z) RFP/ Q followed by a digit to indicate the
in R/ above to indicate radio capability of jackets, if
sequence of the replacement flight plan being
any.
submitted. This item is defined by Eurocontrol, not
ICAO. The FAA will not use this item, but will accept (4) D/ (DINGHIES).
it in a flight plan. [a] NUMBER. Cross out indicators
NOTE NUMBER and CAPACITY if no dinghies are
This provision is detailed in the European Regional carried, or insert number of dinghies carried; and
Supplementary Procedures (EUR SUPPs, Doc 7030),
[b] CAPACITY. Insert total capacity, in
chapter 2.
persons, of all dinghies carried; and
9. Item 19. Supplementary Information
[c] COVER. Cross out indicator
NOTE COVER if dinghies are not covered; and
Item 19 data must be included when completing FAA Form
72334. This information will be retained by the [d] COLOR. Insert color of dinghies if
facility/organization that transmits the flight plan to Air carried.
Traffic Control (ATC), for Search and Rescue purposes, but (5) A/ (AIRCRAFT COLOR AND
it will not be transmitted to ATC as part of the FPL. MARKINGS). Insert color of aircraft and significant
(a) E/ (ENDURANCE). Insert 4digits group markings.
giving the fuel endurance in hours and minutes. (6) N/ (REMARKS). Cross out indicator N
(b) P/ (PERSONS ON BOARD). Insert the if no remarks, or indicate any other survival
total number of persons (passengers and crew) on equipment carried and any other remarks regarding
board. survival equipment.
(7) C/ (PILOT). Insert name of pilotin
(c) Emergency and survival equipment
command.
(1) R/ (RADIO).
5110. IFR Operations to High Altitude
[a] Cross out UHF if frequency 243.0 Destinations
MHz is not available.
a. Pilots planning IFR flights to airports located in
[b] Cross out VHF frequency 121.5 mountainous terrain are cautioned to consider the
MHz is not available. necessity for an alternate airport even when the
[c] Cross out ELBA if emergency forecast weather conditions would technically relieve
locator transmitter (ELT) is not available. them from the requirement to file one.
REFERENCE
(2) S/ (SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT). 14 CFR Section 91.167.
AIM, Paragraph 4119 , Tower En Route Control (TEC)
[a] Cross out POLAR if polar survival
equipment is not carried. b. The FAA has identified three possible situations
[b] Cross out DESERT if desert where the failure to plan for an alternate airport when
survival equipment is not carried. flying IFR to such a destination airport could result in
a critical situation if the weather is less than forecast
[c] Cross out MARITIME if maritime and sufficient fuel is not available to proceed to a
survival equipment is not carried. suitable airport.
[d] Cross out J if JUNGLE survival 1. An IFR flight to an airport where the
equipment is not carried. Minimum Descent Altitudes (MDAs) or landing
Preflight 5127
AIM 12/10/15
visibility minimums for all instrument approaches b. Pilots should remember that there is a need to
are higher than the forecast weather minimums continuously guard the VHF emergency frequency
specified in 14 CFR Section 91.167(b). For example, 121.5 MHz when on long over-water flights, except
there are 3 high altitude airports in the U.S. with when communications on other VHF channels,
approved instrument approach procedures where all equipment limitations, or cockpit duties prevent
of the MDAs are greater than 2,000 feet and/or the simultaneous guarding of two channels. Guarding of
landing visibility minimums are greater than 3 miles 121.5 MHz is particularly critical when operating in
(Bishop, California; South Lake Tahoe, California; proximity to Flight Information Region (FIR)
and AspenPitkin Co./Sardy Field, Colorado). In the boundaries, for example, operations on Route R220
case of these airports, it is possible for a pilot to elect, between Anchorage and Tokyo, since it serves to
on the basis of forecasts, not to carry sufficient fuel to facilitate communications with regard to aircraft
get to an alternate when the ceiling and/or visibility which may experience in-flight emergencies, com-
is actually lower than that necessary to complete the munications, or navigational difficulties.
approach. REFERENCE
ICAO Annex 10, Vol II, Paras 5.2.2.1.1.1 and 5.2.2.1.1.2.
2. A small number of other airports in
c. The filing of a flight plan, always good practice,
mountainous terrain have MDAs which are slightly
takes on added significance for extended flights
(100 to 300 feet) below 2,000 feet AGL. In situations
outside U.S. airspace and is, in fact, usually required
where there is an option as to whether to plan for an
by the laws of the countries being visited or
alternate, pilots should bear in mind that just a slight
overflown. It is also particularly important in the case
worsening of the weather conditions from those
of such flights that pilots leave a complete itinerary
forecast could place the airport below the published
and schedule of the flight with someone directly
IFR landing minimums.
concerned and keep that person advised of the flights
3. An IFR flight to an airport which requires progress. If serious doubt arises as to the safety of the
special equipment; i.e., DME, glide slope, etc., in flight, that person should first contact the appropriate
order to make the available approaches to the lowest FSS. Round Robin Flight Plans to Mexico are not
minimums. Pilots should be aware that all other accepted.
minimums on the approach charts may require d. All pilots should review the foreign airspace
weather conditions better than those specified in and entry restrictions published in the IFIM during
14 CFR Section 91.167(b). An inflight equipment the flight planning process. Foreign airspace
malfunction could result in the inability to comply penetration without official authorization can involve
with the published approach procedures or, again, in both danger to the aircraft and the imposition of
the position of having the airport below the published severe penalties and inconvenience to both passen-
IFR landing minimums for all remaining instrument gers and crew. A flight plan on file with ATC
approach alternatives. authorities does not necessarily constitute the prior
permission required by certain other authorities. The
possibility of fatal consequences cannot be ignored in
5111. Flights Outside the U.S. and U.S. some areas of the world.
Territories e. Current NOTAMs for foreign locations must
also be reviewed. The publication Notices to Airmen,
a. When conducting flights, particularly extended
Domestic/International, published biweekly, con-
flights, outside the U.S. and its territories, full
tains considerable information pertinent to foreign
account should be taken of the amount and quality of
flight. Current foreign NOTAMs are also available
air navigation services available in the airspace to be
from the U.S. International NOTAM Office in
traversed. Every effort should be made to secure
Washington, D.C., through any local FSS.
information on the location and range of navigational
aids, availability of communications and meteoro- f. When customs notification is required, it is the
logical services, the provision of air traffic services, responsibility of the pilot to arrange for customs
including alerting service, and the existence of search notification in a timely manner. The following
and rescue services. guidelines are applicable:
5128 Preflight
12/10/15 AIM
1. When customs notification is required on (c) This notice will be valid as long as actual
flights to Canada and Mexico and a predeparture arrival is within 15 minutes of the original ETA,
flight plan cannot be filed or an advise customs otherwise a new notice must be given to Customs.
message (ADCUS) cannot be included in a Notices will be accepted up to 23 hours in advance.
predeparture flight plan, call the nearest en route Unless an exemption has been granted by Customs,
domestic or International FSS as soon as radio private aircraft are required to make first landing in
communication can be established and file a VFR or the U.S. at one of the following designated airports
DVFR flight plan, as required, and include as the last nearest to the point of border of coastline crossing:
item the advise customs information. The station with Designated Airports
which such a flight plan is filed will forward it to the
appropriate FSS who will notify the customs office ARIZONA
responsible for the destination airport. Bisbee Douglas Intl Airport
2. If the pilot fails to include ADCUS in the Douglas Municipal Airport
radioed flight plan, it will be assumed that other Nogales Intl Airport
arrangements have been made and FAA will not Tucson Intl Airport
advise customs. Yuma MCASYuma Intl Airport
3. The FAA assumes no responsibility for any CALIFORNIA
delays in advising customs if the flight plan is given Calexico Intl Airport
too late for delivery to customs before arrival of the Brown Field Municipal Airport (San Diego)
aircraft. It is still the pilots responsibility to give
timely notice even though a flight plan is given to FLORIDA
FAA. Fort Lauderdale Executive Airport
Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood Intl Airport
4. Air Commerce Regulations of the Treasury
Departments Customs Service require all private Key West Intl Airport (Miami Intl Airport)
aircraft arriving in the U.S. via: Opa Locka Airport (Miami)
KendallTamiami Executive Airport (Miami)
(a) The U.S./Mexican border or the Pacific St. Lucie County Intl Airport (Fort Pierce)
Coast from a foreign place in the Western Tampa Intl Airport
Hemisphere south of 33 degrees north latitude and Palm Beach Intl Airport (West Palm Beach)
between 97 degrees and 120 degrees west longitude;
or LOUISANA
(b) The Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Coasts New Orleans Intl Airport (Moisant Field)
from a foreign place in the Western Hemisphere south New Orleans Lakefront Airport
of 30 degrees north latitude, must furnish a notice of NEW MEXICO
arrival to the Customs service at the nearest
Las Cruces Intl Airport
designated airport. This notice may be furnished
directly to Customs by: NORTH CAROLINA
(1) Radio through the appropriate FAA New Hanover Intl Airport (Wilmington)
Flight Service Station. TEXAS
(2) Normal FAA flight plan notification Brownsville/South Padre Island Intl Airport
procedures (a flight plan filed in Mexico does not Corpus Christi Intl Airport
meet this requirement due to unreliable relay of data); Del Rio Intl Airport
or Eagle Pass Municipal Airport
(3) Directly to the district Director of El Paso Intl Airport
Customs or other Customs officer at place of first William P. Hobby Airport (Houston)
intended landing but must be furnished at least 1 hour Laredo Intl Airport
prior to crossing the U.S./Mexican border or the U.S. McAllen Miller Intl Airport
coastline. Presidio Lely Intl Airport
Preflight 5129
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
4/27/17
12/10/15
5130 Preflight
4/27/17
12/10/15 AIM
canceling the flight plan by telephone but will quickly Operators may satisfy the predictive RAIM require-
release the airspace for use by other aircraft. ment through any one of the following methods:
1. Operators may monitor the status of each
5116. RNAV and RNP Operations satellite in its plane/slot position, by accounting for
the latest GPS constellation status (for example,
a. During the preflight planning phase the NOTAMs or NANUs), and compute RAIM availabil-
availability of the navigation infrastructure required ity using modelspecific RAIM prediction software;
for the intended operation, including any nonRNAV
contingencies, must be confirmed for the period of 2. Operators may use the Service Availability
intended operation. Availability of the onboard Prediction Tool (SAPT) on the FAA en route and
navigation equipment necessary for the route to be terminal RAIM prediction web site;
flown must be confirmed. 3. Operators may contact a Flight Service
b. If a pilot determines a specified RNP level Station (not DUATS) to obtain nonprecision
cannot be achieved, revise the route or delay the approach RAIM;
operation until appropriate RNP level can be ensured. 4. Operators may use a third party interface,
incorporating FAA/VOLPE RAIM prediction data
c. The onboard navigation database must be
without altering performance values, to predict
current and appropriate for the region of intended
RAIM outages for the aircrafts predicted flight path
operation and must include the navigation aids,
and times;
waypoints, and coded terminal airspace procedures
for the departure, arrival and alternate airfields. 5. Operators may use the receivers installed
RAIM prediction capability (for TSOC129a/Class
d. During system initialization, pilots of aircraft A1/B1/C1 equipment) to provide nonprecision
equipped with a Flight Management System or other approach RAIM, accounting for the latest GPS
RNAVcertified system, must confirm that the constellation status (for example, NOTAMs or
navigation database is current, and verify that the NANUs). Receiver nonprecision approach RAIM
aircraft position has been entered correctly. Flight should be checked at airports spaced at intervals not
crews should crosscheck the cleared flight plan to exceed 60 NM along the RNAV 1 procedures
against charts or other applicable resources, as well as flight track. Terminal or Approach RAIM must
the navigation system textual display and the aircraft be available at the ETA over each airport checked; or,
map display. This process includes confirmation of
the waypoints sequence, reasonableness of track 6. Operators not using modelspecific software
angles and distances, any altitude or speed or FAA/VOLPE RAIM data will need FAA
constraints, and identification of flyby or flyover operational approval.
waypoints. A procedure must not be used if validity NOTE
of the navigation database is in doubt. If TSOC145/C146 equipment is used to satisfy the RNAV
and RNP requirement, the pilot/operator need not perform
e. Prior to commencing takeoff, the flight crew the prediction if WAAS coverage is confirmed to be
must verify that the RNAV system is operating available along the entire route of flight. Outside the U.S.
correctly and the correct airport and runway data have or in areas where WAAS coverage is not available,
been loaded. operators using TSOC145/C146 receivers are required to
check GPS RAIM availability.
f. During the preflight planning phase RAIM
prediction must be performed if TSOC129()
5117. Cold Temperature Operations
equipment is used to solely satisfy the RNAV and
RNP requirement. GPS RAIM availability must be Pilots should begin planning for operating into
confirmed for the intended route of flight (route and airports with cold temperatures during the preflight
time) using current GPS satellite information. In the planning phase. Instrument approach charts will
event of a predicted, continuous loss of RAIM of contain a snowflake symbol and a temperature when
more than five (5) minutes for any part of the intended cold temperature correction must be applied. Pilots
flight, the flight should be delayed, canceled, or operating into airports requiring cold temperature
rerouted where RAIM requirements can be met. corrections should request the lowest forecast
Preflight 5131
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
4/27/17
12/10/15
temperature at the airport for departure and arrival the system is on and operating on each designated
times. If the temperature is forecast to be at or below segment. Advise ATC when intending to apply cold
any published cold temperature restriction, calculate temperature correction and of the amount of
an altitude correction for the appropriate segment(s) correction required on initial contact (or as soon as
and/or review procedures for operating automatic possible) for the intermediate segment and/or the
cold temperature compensating systems, as applica- published missed approach. This information is
ble. The pilot is responsible to calculate and apply the required for ATC to provide aircraft appropriate
corrections to the affected segment(s) when the actual vertical separation between known traffic.
reported temperature is at or below any published
REFERENCE
cold temperature restriction, or pilots with automatic AIM, Paragraph 723 , Altimeter Errors
cold temperature compensating systems must ensure AIM TBL 723, ICAO Cold Temperature Error
5132 Preflight
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
responsible civil aviation authority, and file appropri- HAVE NOT been advised of any expected delay to
ate equipment information in ICAO field 10a and in determine when it is appropriate to query the controller.
the ICAO field 18 DAT (Other Data Applications) of REFERENCE
Advisory Circulars 9173A, Part 91 and Part 135 SinglePilot Proced-
the flight plan. ures during Taxi Operations, and 12074A, Parts 91, 121, 125, and 135
Flightcrew Procedures during Taxi Operations
Aircraft: Cessna 234AR holding in position Runway 24L h. If landing traffic is a factor during line up and
at Bravo. wait operations, ATC will inform the aircraft in
position of the closest traffic within 6 flying miles re-
NOTE
questing a fullstop, touchandgo, stopandgo, or
FAA analysis of accidents and incidents involving aircraft
holding in position indicate that two minutes or more an unrestricted low approach to the same runway.
elapsed between the time the instruction was issued to line Pilots should take care to note the position of landing
up and wait and the resulting event (for example, landover traffic. ATC will also advise the landing traffic when
or goaround). Pilots should consider the length of time an aircraft is authorized to line up and wait on the
that they have been holding in position whenever they same runway.
EXAMPLE revised route or the revised flight plan by the time a pilot re-
Tower: Cessna 234AR, Runway 24L, line up and wait. quests clearance.
Traffic a Boeing 737, six mile final. b. Controllers will issue a detailed clearance when
Tower: Delta 1011, continue, traffic a Cessna 210
they know that the original filed flight plan has been
holding in position Runway 24L.
changed or when the pilot requests a full route clear-
NOTE ance.
ATC will normally withhold landing clearance to arrival
aircraft when another aircraft is in position and holding on c. The clearance as issued will include the destina-
the runway. tion airport filed in the flight plan.
i. Never land on a runway that is occupied by d. ATC procedures now require the controller to
another aircraft, even if a landing clearance was state the DP name, the current number and the DP
issued. Do not hesitate to ask the controller about the transition name after the phrase Cleared to (destina-
traffic on the runway and be prepared to execute a go tion) airport and prior to the phrase, then as filed,
around. for ALL departure clearances when the DP or DP
transition is to be flown. The procedures apply wheth-
NOTE er or not the DP is filed in the flight plan.
Always clarify any misunderstanding or confusion
concerning ATC instructions or clearances. ATC should be e. STARs, when filed in a flight plan, are consid-
advised immediately if there is any uncertainty about the ered a part of the filed route of flight and will not
ability to comply with any of their instructions. normally be stated in an initial departure clearance. If
the ARTCCs jurisdictional airspace includes both
the departure airport and the fix where a STAR or
525. Abbreviated IFR Departure Clear- STAR transition begins, the STAR name, the current
ance (Cleared. . .as Filed) Procedures number and the STAR transition name MAY be stated
a. ATC facilities will issue an abbreviated IFR de- in the initial clearance.
parture clearance based on the ROUTE of flight filed f. Cleared to (destination) airport as filed does
in the IFR flight plan, provided the filed route can be NOT include the en route altitude filed in a flight plan.
approved with little or no revision. These abbreviated An en route altitude will be stated in the clearance or
clearance procedures are based on the following the pilot will be advised to expect an assigned or filed
conditions: altitude within a given time frame or at a certain point
after departure. This may be done verbally in the de-
1. The aircraft is on the ground or it has departed
parture instructions or stated in the DP.
visual flight rules (VFR) and the pilot is requesting
IFR clearance while airborne. g. In both radar and nonradar environments, the
controller will state Cleared to (destination) airport
2. That a pilot will not accept an abbreviated as filed or:
clearance if the route or destination of a flight plan
1. If a DP or DP transition is to be flown, specify
filed with ATC has been changed by the pilot or the
the DP name, the current DP number, the DP
company or the operations officer before departure.
transition name, the assigned altitude/flight level, and
3. That it is the responsibility of the company or any additional instructions (departure control fre-
operations office to inform the pilot when they make quency, beacon code assignment, etc.) necessary to
a change to the filed flight plan. clear a departing aircraft via the DP or DP transition
and the route filed.
4. That it is the responsibility of the pilot to
EXAMPLE
inform ATC in the initial call-up (for clearance) when
National Seven Twenty cleared to Miami Airport Intercon-
the filed flight plan has been either: tinental one departure, Lake Charles transition then as
(a) Amended, or filed, maintain Flight Level two seven zero.
2. When there is no DP or when the pilot cannot
(b) Canceled and replaced with a new filed accept a DP, the controller will specify the assigned
flight plan. altitude or flight level, and any additional instructions
NOTE necessary to clear a departing aircraft via an
The facility issuing a clearance may not have received the appropriate departure routing and the route filed.
NOTE EXAMPLE
A detailed departure route description or a radar vector Los Angeles center, Apache Six One Papa, VFR estimat-
may be used to achieve the desired departure routing. ing Paso Robles VOR at three two, one thousand five
hundred, request IFR to Bakersfield.
3. If it is necessary to make a minor revision to
the filed route, the controller will specify the assigned 526. Departure Restrictions, Clearance
DP or DP transition (or departure routing), the Void Times, Hold for Release, and Release
revision to the filed route, the assigned altitude or Times
flight level and any additional instructions necessary
to clear a departing aircraft. a. ATC may assign departure restrictions, clear-
ance void times, hold for release, and release times,
EXAMPLE when necessary, to separate departures from other
Jet Star One Four Two Four cleared to Atlanta Airport, traffic or to restrict or regulate the departure flow.
South Boston two departure then as filed except change
route to read South Boston Victor 20 Greensboro, maintain 1. Clearance Void Times. A pilot may receive
one seven thousand. a clearance, when operating from an airport without
a control tower, which contains a provision for the
4. Additionally, in a nonradar environment, the
clearance to be void if not airborne by a specific time.
controller will specify one or more fixes, as
A pilot who does not depart prior to the clearance void
necessary, to identify the initial route of flight.
time must advise ATC as soon as possible of their
EXAMPLE intentions. ATC will normally advise the pilot of the
Cessna Three One Six Zero Foxtrot cleared to Charlotte time allotted to notify ATC that the aircraft did not
Airport as filed via Brooke, maintain seven thousand. depart prior to the clearance void time. This time
h. To ensure success of the program, pilots should: cannot exceed 30 minutes. Failure of an aircraft to
contact ATC within 30 minutes after the clearance
1. Avoid making changes to a filed flight plan void time will result in the aircraft being considered
just prior to departure. overdue and search and rescue procedures initiated.
2. State the following information in the initial NOTE
call-up to the facility when no change has been made 1. Other IFR traffic for the airport where the clearance is
to the filed flight plan: Aircraft call sign, location, issued is suspended until the aircraft has contacted ATC or
type operation (IFR) and the name of the airport (or until 30 minutes after the clearance void time or 30 minutes
fix) to which you expect clearance. after the clearance release time if no clearance void time
is issued.
EXAMPLE 2. Pilots who depart at or after their clearance void time
Washington clearance delivery (or ground control if ap- are not afforded IFR separation and may be in violation of
propriate) American Seventy Six at gate one, IFR 14 CFR Section 91.173 which requires that pilots receive
Los Angeles. an appropriate ATC clearance before operating IFR in
3. If the flight plan has been changed, state the controlled airspace.
change and request a full route clearance. EXAMPLE
Clearance void if not off by (clearance void time) and, if re-
EXAMPLE
quired, if not off by (clearance void time) advise (facility)
Washington clearance delivery, American Seventy Six at
not later than (time) of intentions.
gate one. IFR San Francisco. My flight plan route has been
amended (or destination changed). Request full route 2. Hold for Release. ATC may issue hold for
clearance. release instructions in a clearance to delay an
aircrafts departure for traffic management reasons
4. Request verification or clarification from
(i.e., weather, traffic volume, etc.). When ATC states
ATC if ANY portion of the clearance is not clearly
in the clearance, hold for release, the pilot may not
understood.
depart utilizing that IFR clearance until a release time
5. When requesting clearance for the IFR or additional instructions are issued by ATC. In
portion of a VFR/IFR flight, request such clearance addition, ATC will include departure delay informa-
prior to the fix where IFR operation is proposed to tion in conjunction with hold for release
commence in sufficient time to avoid delay. Use the instructions. The ATC instruction, hold for release,
following phraseology: applies to the IFR clearance and does not prevent the
pilot from departing under VFR. However, prior to advised prior to takeoff of the initial heading to be
takeoff the pilot should cancel the IFR flight plan and flown but may not be advised of the purpose of the
operate the transponder on the appropriate VFR code. heading. When the initial heading will take the
An IFR clearance may not be available after aircraft off an assigned procedure (for example, an
departure. RNAV SID with a published lateral path to a
EXAMPLE waypoint and crossing restrictions from the departure
(Aircraft identification) cleared to (destination) airport as end of runway), the controller will assign an altitude
filed, maintain (altitude), and, if required (additional in- to maintain with the initial heading.
structions or information), hold for release, expect (time in
hours and/or minutes) departure delay. 2. At some airports when a departure will fly an
RNAV SID that begins at the runway, ATC may
3. Release Times. A release time is a advise aircraft of the initial fix/waypoint on the
departure restriction issued to a pilot by ATC, RNAV route. The purpose of the advisory is to remind
specifying the earliest time an aircraft may depart. pilots to verify the correct procedure is programmed
ATC will use release times in conjunction with in the FMS before takeoff. Pilots must immediately
traffic management procedures and/or to separate a advise ATC if a different RNAV SID is entered in the
departing aircraft from other traffic. aircrafts FMC. When this advisory is absent, pilots
EXAMPLE are still required to fly the assigned SID as published.
(Aircraft identification) released for departure at (time in
EXAMPLE
hours and/or minutes).
Delta 345 RNAV to MPASS, Runway26L, cleared for
4. Expect Departure Clearance Time takeoff.
(EDCT). The EDCT is the runway release time NOTE
assigned to an aircraft included in traffic management 1. The SID transition is not restated as it is contained in the
programs. Aircraft are expected to depart no earlier ATC clearance.
than 5 minutes before, and no later than 5 minutes
2. Aircraft cleared via RNAV SIDs designed to begin with
after the EDCT. a vector to the initial waypoint are assigned a heading be-
b. If practical, pilots departing uncontrolled air- fore departure.
ports should obtain IFR clearances prior to becoming 3. Pilots operating in a radar environment are
airborne when two-way communications with the expected to associate departure headings or an RNAV
controlling ATC facility is available. departure advisory with vectors or the flight path to
527. Departure Control their planned route or flight. When given a vector
taking the aircraft off a previously assigned nonradar
a. Departure Control is an approach control func- route, the pilot will be advised briefly what the vector
tion responsible for ensuring separation between is to achieve. Thereafter, radar service will be
departures. So as to expedite the handling of depar- provided until the aircraft has been reestablished
tures, Departure Control may suggest a takeoff on-course using an appropriate navigation aid and
direction other than that which may normally have the pilot has been advised of the aircrafts position or
been used under VFR handling. Many times it is pre- a handoff is made to another radar controller with
ferred to offer the pilot a runway that will require the further surveillance capabilities.
fewest turns after takeoff to place the pilot on course
or selected departure route as quickly as possible. At c. Controllers will inform pilots of the departure
many locations particular attention is paid to the use control frequencies and, if appropriate, the transpon-
of preferential runways for local noise abatement pro- der code before takeoff. Pilots must ensure their
grams, and route departures away from congested transponder is adjusted to the on or normal operat-
areas. ing position as soon as practical and remain on during
all operations unless otherwise requested to change to
b. Departure Control utilizing radar will normally standby by ATC. Pilots should not change to the de-
clear aircraft out of the terminal area using DPs via ra- parture control frequency until requested. Controllers
dio navigation aids. may omit the departure control frequency if a DP has
1. When a departure is to be vectored or will be assigned and the departure control fre-
immediately following takeoff, the pilot will be quency is published on the DP.
528. Instrument Departure Procedures designer conducts an obstacle analysis to support de-
(DP) Obstacle Departure Procedures parture operations. If an aircraft may turn in any
(ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures direction from a runway within the limits of the as-
(SID) sessment area (see paragraph 528b3) and remain
clear of obstacles, that runway passes what is called
Instrument departure procedures are preplanned in- a diverse departure assessment and no ODP will be
strument flight rule (IFR) procedures which provide
published. A SID may be published if needed for air
obstruction clearance from the terminal area to the traffic control purposes. However, if an obstacle pen-
appropriate en route structure. There are two types of etrates what is called the 40:1 obstacle identification
DPs, Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs), printed
surface, then the procedure designer chooses whether
either textually or graphically, and Standard Instru- to:
ment Departures (SIDs), always printed graphically.
All DPs, either textual or graphic may be designed us- 1. Establish a steeper than normal climb
ing either conventional or RNAV criteria. RNAV gradient; or
procedures will have RNAV printed in the title, 2. Establish a steeper than normal climb
e.g., SHEAD TWO DEPARTURE (RNAV). ODPs gradient with an alternative that increases takeoff
provide obstruction clearance via the least onerous minima to allow the pilot to visually remain clear of
route from the terminal area to the appropriate en the obstacle(s); or
route structure. ODPs are recommended for obstruc-
3. Design and publish a specific departure route;
tion clearance and may be flown without ATC
or
clearance unless an alternate departure procedure
(SID or radar vector) has been specifically assigned 4. A combination or all of the above.
by ATC. Graphic ODPs will have (OBSTACLE) b. What criteria is used to provide obstruction
printed in the procedure title, e.g., GEYSR THREE clearance during departure?
DEPARTURE (OBSTACLE), or, CROWN ONE
1. Unless specified otherwise, required obstacle
DEPARTURE (RNAV) (OBSTACLE). Standard In-
clearance for all departures, including diverse, is
strument Departures are air traffic control (ATC)
based on the pilot crossing the departure end of the
procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic
runway at least 35 feet above the departure end of
form to provide obstruction clearance and a transition
runway elevation, climbing to 400 feet above the
from the terminal area to the appropriate en route
departure end of runway elevation before making the
structure. SIDs are primarily designed for system en-
initial turn, and maintaining a minimum climb
hancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload.
gradient of 200 feet per nautical mile (FPNM), unless
ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID.
required to level off by a crossing restriction, until the
All DPs provide the pilot with a way to depart the air-
minimum IFR altitude. A greater climb gradient may
port and transition to the en route structure safely.
be specified in the DP to clear obstacles or to achieve
Pilots operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are strongly
an ATC crossing restriction. If an initial turn higher
encouraged to file and fly a DP at night, during mar-
than 400 feet above the departure end of runway
ginal Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) and
elevation is specified in the DP, the turn should be
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC), when
commenced at the higher altitude. If a turn is
one is available. The following paragraphs will pro-
specified at a fix, the turn must be made at that fix.
vide an overview of the DP program, why DPs are
Fixes may have minimum and/or maximum crossing
developed, what criteria are used, where to find them,
altitudes that must be adhered to prior to passing the
how they are to be flown, and finally pilot and ATC
fix. In rare instances, obstacles that exist on the
responsibilities.
extended runway centerline may make an early
a. Why are DPs necessary? The primary reason is turn more desirable than proceeding straight ahead.
to provide obstacle clearance protection information In these cases, the published departure instructions
to pilots. A secondary reason, at busier airports, is to will include the language turn left(right) as soon as
increase efficiency and reduce communications and practicable. These departures will also include a
departure delays through the use of SIDs. When an in- ceiling and visibility minimum of at least 300 and 1.
strument approach is initially developed for an Pilots encountering one of these DPs should preplan
airport, the need for DPs is assessed. The procedure the climb out to gain altitude and begin the turn as
5. Climb gradients greater than 200 FPNM are Publications and/or appear as an option on a Graphic
specified when required to support procedure design ODP.
constraints, obstacle clearance, and/or airspace EXAMPLE
restrictions. Compliance with a climb gradient for Climb in visual conditions so as to cross the McElory Air-
these purposes is mandatory when the procedure is port southbound, at or above 6000, then climb via
part of the ATC clearance, unless increased takeoff Keemmling radial zero three three to Keemmling VOR-
minimums are provided and weather conditions TAC.
allow compliance with these minimums. Addition- c. Who is responsible for obstacle clearance? DPs
ally, ATC required crossing restrictions may also are designed so that adherence to the procedure by the
require climb gradients greater than 200 FPNM. pilot will ensure obstacle protection. Additionally:
These climb gradients may be amended or canceled
at ATCs discretion. Multiple ATC climb gradients 1. Obstacle clearance responsibility also rests
are permitted. An ATC climb gradient will not be with the pilot when he/she chooses to climb in visual
used on an ODP. conditions in lieu of flying a DP and/or depart under
increased takeoff minima rather than fly the climb
EXAMPLE gradient. Standard takeoff minima are one statute
Cross ALPHA intersection at or below 4000; maintain mile for aircraft having two engines or less and
6000. The pilot climbs at least 200 FPNM to 6000. If 4000 onehalf statute mile for aircraft having more than
is reached before ALPHA, the pilot levels off at 4000 until
two engines. Specified ceiling and visibility minima
passing ALPHA; then immediately resumes at least 200
FPNM climb. (VCOA or increased takeoff minima) will allow
visual avoidance of obstacles until the pilot enters the
EXAMPLE standard obstacle protection area. Obstacle avoid-
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS: RWY 27, Standard with a min- ance is not guaranteed if the pilot maneuvers farther
imum climb of 280 per NM to 2500, ATC climb of 310 per
from the airport than the specified visibility minimum
NM to 4000 ft. A climb of at least 280 FPNM is required
to 2500 and is mandatory when the departure procedure is prior to reaching the specified altitude. DPs may also
included in the ATC clearance. ATC requires a climb gradi- contain what are called Low Close in Obstacles.
ent of 310 FPNM to 4000, however, this ATC climb These obstacles are less than 200 feet above the
gradient may be amended or canceled. departure end of runway elevation and within
one NM of the runway end, and do not require
6. Climb gradients may be specified only to an increased takeoff minimums. These obstacles are
altitude/fix, above which the normal gradient applies. identified on the SID chart or in the Takeoff
EXAMPLE Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures
Minimum climb 340 FPNM to ALPHA. The pilot climbs section of the U. S. Terminal Procedure booklet.
at least 340 FPNM to ALPHA, then at least 200 FPNM to These obstacles are especially critical to aircraft that
MIA. do not lift off until close to the departure end of the
7. A Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA) runway or which climb at the minimum rate. Pilots
procedure is a departure option for an IFR aircraft, should also consider drift following liftoff to ensure
operating in visual meteorological conditions equal sufficient clearance from these obstacles. That
to or greater than the specified visibility and ceiling, segment of the procedure that requires the pilot to see
to visually conduct climbing turns over the airport to and avoid obstacles ends when the aircraft crosses the
the published climbto altitude from which to specified point at the required altitude. In all cases
proceed with the instrument portion of the departure. continued obstacle clearance is based on having
VCOA procedures are developed to avoid obstacles climbed a minimum of 200 feet per nautical mile to
greater than 3 statute miles from the departure end of the specified point and then continuing to climb at
the runway as an alternative to complying with climb least 200 foot per nautical mile during the departure
gradients greater than 200 feet per nautical mile. until reaching the minimum enroute altitude, unless
Pilots are responsible to advise ATC as early as specified otherwise.
possible of the intent to fly the VCOA option prior to 2. ATC may assume responsibility for obstacle
departure. These textual procedures are published in clearance by vectoring the aircraft prior to reaching
the Take-Off Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure the minimum vectoring altitude by using a Diverse
Procedures section of the Terminal Procedures Vector Area (DVA). The DVA may be established
below the Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA) or chart for graphic DPs, or in the TakeOff Minimums
Minimum IFR Altitude (MIA) in a radar environment and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures section of the
at the request of Air Traffic. This type of DP meets the U.S. Terminal Procedures booklet for textual ODPs.
TERPS criteria for diverse departures, obstacles, and The required climb gradient, or higher, must be
terrain avoidance in which random radar vectors maintained to the specified altitude or fix, then the
below the MVA/MIA may be issued to departing standard climb gradient of 200 ft/NM can be
aircraft. The DVA has been assessed for departures resumed. A table for the conversion of climb gradient
which do not follow a specific ground track, but will (feet per nautical mile) to climb rate (feet per minute),
remain within the specified area. at a given ground speed, is included on the inside of
the back cover of the U.S. Terminal Procedures
(a) The existence of a DVA will be noted in booklets.
the Takeoff Minimums and Obstacle Departure Pro-
cedure section of the U.S. Terminal Procedures d. Where are DPs located? DPs will be listed by
Publication (TPP). The Takeoff Departure procedure airport in the IFR Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle)
will be listed first, followed by any applicable DVA. Departure Procedures Section, Section L, of the Ter-
minal Procedures Publications (TPPs). If the DP is
EXAMPLE textual, it will be described in TPP Section L. SIDs
DIVERSE VECTOR AREA (RADAR VECTORS) and complex ODPs will be published graphically and
AMDT 1 14289 (FAA) named. The name will be listed by airport name and
Rwy 6R, headings as assigned by ATC; requires runway in Section L. Graphic ODPs will also have the
minimum climb of 290 per NM to 400. term (OBSTACLE) printed in the charted proce-
Rwys 6L, 7L, 7R, 24R, 25R, headings as dure title, differentiating them from SIDs.
assigned by ATC.
1. An ODP that has been developed solely for
(b) Pilots should be aware that Air Traffic fa- obstacle avoidance will be indicated with the symbol
cilities may utilize a climb gradient greater than the T on appropriate Instrument Approach Procedure
standard 200 FPNM in a DVA. This information will (IAP) charts and DP charts for that airport. The T
be identified in the DVA text for pilot evaluation symbol will continue to refer users to TPP Section C.
against the aircrafts available climb performance. Pi- In the case of a graphic ODP, the TPP Section C will
lots should note that the DVA has been assessed for only contain the name of the ODP. Since there may be
departures which do not follow a specific ground both a textual and a graphic DP, Section C should still
track. ATC may also vector an aircraft off a previ- be checked for additional information. The nonstan-
ously assigned DP. In all cases, the minimum 200 dard takeoff minimums and minimum climb
FPNM climb gradient is assumed unless a higher gradients found in TPP Section C also apply to
climb gradient is specified on the departure, and charted DPs and radar vector departures unless
obstacle clearance is not provided by ATC until the different minimums are specified on the charted DP.
controller begins to provide navigational guidance in Takeoff minimums and departure procedures apply to
the form of radar vectors. all runways unless otherwise specified. New graphic
DPs will have all the information printed on the
NOTE graphic depiction. As a general rule, ATC will only
As is always the case, when used by the controller during assign an ODP from a nontowered airport when
departure, the term radar contact should not be inter- compliance with the ODP is necessary for aircraft to
preted as relieving pilots of their responsibility to maintain
aircraft separation. Pilots may use the ODP to help
appropriate terrain and obstruction clearance which may
include flying the obstacle DP. ensure separation from terrain and obstacles.
e. Responsibilities
3. Pilots must preplan to determine if the aircraft
can meet the climb gradient (expressed in feet per 1. Each pilot, prior to departing an airport on an
nautical mile) required by the departure procedure, IFR flight should:
and be aware that flying at a higher than anticipated
(a) Consider the type of terrain and other ob-
ground speed increases the climb rate requirement in
stacles on or in the vicinity of the departure airport;
feet per minute. Higher than standard climb gradients
are specified by a note on the departure procedure (b) Determine whether an ODP is available;
(c) Determine if obstacle avoidance can be 6. A clearance for a SID which contains
maintained visually or if the ODP should be flown; published altitude restrictions may be issued using
and the phraseology climb via. Climb via is an
abbreviated clearance that requires compliance with
(d) Consider the effect of degraded climb per- the procedure lateral path, associated speed and
formance and the actions to take in the event of an altitude restrictions along the cleared route or
engine loss during the departure. Pilots should notify procedure. Clearance to climb via authorizes the
ATC as soon as possible of reduced climb capability pilot to:
in that circumstance.
(a) When used in the IFR departure clearance,
NOTE
Guidance concerning contingency procedures that
in a PDC, DCL or when cleared to a waypoint depict-
address an engine failure on takeoff after V1 speed on a ed on a SID, to join the procedure after departure or
large or turbinepowered transport category airplane to resume the procedure.
may be found in AC 12091, Airport Obstacle Analysis. (b) When vertical navigation is interrupted
2. Pilots should not exceed a published speed and an altitude is assigned to maintain which is not
restriction associated with a SID waypoint until contained on the published procedure, to climb from
passing that waypoint. that previously-assigned altitude at pilots discretion
to the altitude depicted for the next waypoint.
3. After an aircraft is established on an SID and
subsequently vectored or cleared to deviate off of the (c) Once established on the depicted depar-
SID or SID transition, pilots must consider the SID ture, to navigate laterally and climb to meet all
canceled, unless the controller adds expect to published or assigned altitude and speed restrictions.
resume SID; pilots should then be prepared to rejoin
NOTE
the SID at a subsequent fix or procedure leg. If the 1. When otherwise cleared along a route or procedure that
SID contains published altitude restrictions, pilots contains published speed restrictions, the pilot must com-
should expect the controller to issue an altitude to ply with those speed restrictions independent of a climb via
maintain. ATC may also interrupt the vertical clearance.
navigation of a SID and provide alternate altitude 2. ATC anticipates pilots will begin adjusting speed the
instructions while the aircraft remains established on minimum distance necessary prior to a published speed re-
the published lateral path. Aircraft may not be striction so as to cross the waypoint/fix at the published
vectored off of an ODP or issued an altitude lower speed. Once at the published speed ATC expects pilots will
than a published altitude on an ODP until at or above maintain the published speed until additional adjustment
the MVA/MIA, at which time the ODP is canceled. is required to comply with further published or ATC as-
signed speed restrictions or as required to ensure
4. Aircraft instructed to resume a SID procedure compliance with 14 CFR Section 91.117.
such as a DP or SID which contains speed and/or
altitude restrictions, must be: 3. If ATC interrupts lateral/vertical navigation while an
aircraft is flying a SID, ATC must ensure obstacle clear-
(a) Issued/reissued all applicable restrictions, ance. When issuing a climb via clearance to join or
or resume a procedure ATC must ensure obstacle clearance
until the aircraft is established on the lateral and vertical
(b) Advised to Climb via SID or resume path of the SID.
published speed.
4. ATC will assign an altitude to cross if no altitude is de-
EXAMPLE picted at a waypoint/fix or when otherwise necessary/
Resume the Solar One departure, Climb via SID. required, for an aircraft on a direct route to a waypoint/fix
Proceed direct CIROS, resume the Solar One departure, where the SID will be joined or resumed.
Climb via SID.
5. SIDs will have a top altitude; the top altitude is the
5. A clearance for a SID which does not contain charted maintain altitude contained in the procedure
published crossing restrictions, and/or is a SID with description or assigned by ATC.
a Radar Vector segment or a Radar Vector SID, will
REFERENCE
be issued using the phraseology Maintain (alti- FAAO 7110.65, Paragraph 5-6-2, Methods
tude). PCG, Climb Via, Top Altitude
the published lateral path and any published speed or alti- tude restrictions:
tude restrictions. Climb and maintain flight level two four zero.
NOTE
7. Pilots cleared for vertical navigation using the
The published SID altitude restrictions are canceled; The
phraseology climb via must inform ATC, upon aircraft should comply with the SID lateral path and begin
initial contact, of the altitude leaving and any an unrestricted climb to FL240. Compliance with pub-
assigned restrictions not published on the procedure. lished speed restrictions is still required unless specifically
deleted by ATC.
EXAMPLE
1. (Cactus 711 is cleared to climb via the Laura Two 9. Altitude restrictions published on an ODP are
departure. The Laura Two has a top altitude of FL190): necessary for obstacle clearance and/or design
Cactus Seven Eleven leaving two thousand, climbing via constraints. Crossing altitudes and speed restrictions
the Laura Two departure. on ODPs cannot be canceled or amended by ATC.
2. (Cactus 711 is cleared to climb via the Laura Two f. RNAV Departure Procedures
departure, but ATC changed the top altitude to16,000):
All public RNAV SIDs and graphic ODPs are
Cactus Seven Eleven leaving two thousand for one-six
RNAV 1. These procedures generally start with an
thousand, climbing via the Laura Two departure.
initial RNAV or heading leg near the departure end of
8. If prior to or after takeoff an altitude runway (DER). In addition, these procedures require
restriction is issued by ATC, all previously issued system performance currently met by GPS or DME/
ATC altitude restrictions are canceled including DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria
those published on a SID. Pilots must still comply discussed in AC 90100A, U.S. Terminal and En
with all speed restrictions and lateral path require- Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations.
ments published on the SID unless canceled by ATC. RNAV 1 procedures must maintain a total system er-
ror of not more than 1 NM for 95% of the total flight
EXAMPLE time.
Prior to takeoff or after departure ATC issues an altitude
REFERENCE
change clearance to an aircraft cleared to climb via a SID AIM, Global Positioning System (GPS)
but ATC no longer requires compliance with published alti- Paragraph 1117 k, Impact of Magnetic Variation on PBN Systems
531. ARTCC Communications communications (TC), initial contact (IC), and menu
text messages (MT).
a. Direct Communications, Controllers and
Pilots. (1) Altimeter settings are usually trans-
1. ARTCCs are capable of direct communica- mitted automatically when a CPDLC session and
tions with IFR air traffic on certain frequencies. eligibility has been established with an aircraft. A
Maximum communications coverage is possible controller may also manually send an altimeter
through the use of Remote Center Air/Ground setting message.
(RCAG) sites comprised of both VHF and UHF NOTE
transmitters and receivers. These sites are located When conducting instrument approach procedures, pilots
throughout the U.S. Although they may be several are responsible to obtain and use the appropriate altimeter
hundred miles away from the ARTCC, they are setting in accordance with 14 CFR Section 97.20. CPDLC
remoted to the various ARTCCs by land lines or issued altimeter settings are excluded for this purpose.
microwave links. Since IFR operations are expedited
(2) Initial contact is a safety validation
through the use of direct communications, pilots are
transaction that compares a pilots initiated altitude
requested to use these frequencies strictly for
downlink message with an aircrafts ATC host
communications pertinent to the control of IFR
computer stored altitude. If an altitude mismatch is
aircraft. Flight plan filing, en route weather, weather
detected, the controller will verbally provide
forecasts, and similar data should be requested
corrective action.
through FSSs, company radio, or appropriate military
facilities capable of performing these services. (3) Transfer of communications automati-
2. An ARTCC is divided into sectors. Each cally establishes data link contact with a succeeding
sector is handled by one or a team of controllers and sector.
has its own sector discrete frequency. As a flight
(4) Menu text transmissions are scripted
progresses from one sector to another, the pilot is
nontrajectory altering uplink messages.
requested to change to the appropriate sector discrete
frequency. NOTE
Initial use of CPDLC will be at the Miami Air Route Traffic
3. Controller Pilot Data Link Communications Control Center (ARTCC). Air carriers will be the first
(CPDLC) is a system that supplements air/ground users. Subsequently, CPDLC will be made available to all
voice communications. As a result, it expands NAS users. Later versions will include trajectory altering
twoway air traffic control air/ground communica- services and expanded clearance and advisory message
tions capabilities. Consequently, the air traffic capabilities.
systems operational capacity is increased and any
associated air traffic delays become minimized. A b. ATC Frequency Change Procedures.
related safety benefit is that pilot/controller read 1. The following phraseology will be used by
back and hearback errors will be significantly controllers to effect a frequency change:
reduced. The CPDLCs principal operating criteria
are: EXAMPLE
(Aircraft identification) contact (facility name or location
(a) Voice remains the primary and controlling name and terminal function) (frequency) at (time, fix, or
air/ground communications means. altitude).
(b) Participating aircraft will need to have the NOTE
appropriate CPDLC avionics equipment in order to Pilots are expected to maintain a listening watch on the
receive uplink or transmit downlink messages. transferring controllers frequency until the time, fix, or
altitude specified. ATC will omit frequency change
(c) CPDLC Build 1 offers four ATC data link restrictions whenever pilot compliance is expected upon
services. These are altimeter setting (AS), transfer of receipt.
2. The following phraseology should be utilized stated by the controller or that the assigned altitude is
by pilots for establishing contact with the designated correct as stated. If this is not the case, they should
facility: inform the controller of the actual altitude being
maintained or the different assigned altitude.
(a) When operating in a radar environment:
On initial contact, the pilot should inform the CAUTION
controller of the aircrafts assigned altitude preceded Pilots should not take action to change their actual
by the words level, or climbing to, or altitude or different assigned altitude to the altitude stated
descending to, as appropriate; and the aircrafts in the controllers verification request unless the
controller specifically authorizes a change.
present vacating altitude, if applicable.
EXAMPLE
c. ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage. ARTCCs
1. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEVEL normally have at least one back-up radio receiver and
(altitude or flight level). transmitter system for each frequency, which can
usually be placed into service quickly with little or no
2. (Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEAVING
disruption of ATC service. Occasionally, technical
(exact altitude or flight level), CLIMBING TO OR
problems may cause a delay but switchover seldom
DESCENDING TO (altitude of flight level).
takes more than 60 seconds. When it appears that the
NOTE outage will not be quickly remedied, the ARTCC will
Exact altitude or flight level means to the nearest 100 foot usually request a nearby aircraft, if there is one, to
increment. Exact altitude or flight level reports on initial
switch to the affected frequency to broadcast
contact provide ATC with information required prior to
using Mode C altitude information for separation communications instructions. It is important, there-
purposes. fore, that the pilot wait at least 1 minute before
deciding that the ARTCC has actually experienced a
(b) When operating in a nonradar environ- radio frequency failure. When such an outage does
ment: occur, the pilot should, if workload and equipment
(1) On initial contact, the pilot should capability permit, maintain a listening watch on the
inform the controller of the aircrafts present position, affected frequency while attempting to comply with
altitude and time estimate for the next reporting point. the following recommended communications
procedures:
EXAMPLE
(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position), 1. If two-way communications cannot be
(altitude), ESTIMATING (reporting point) AT (time). established with the ARTCC after changing frequen-
(2) After initial contact, when a position cies, a pilot should attempt to recontact the
report will be made, the pilot should give the transferring controller for the assignment of an
controller a complete position report. alternative frequency or other instructions.
EXAMPLE 2. When an ARTCC radio frequency failure
(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position), occurs after two-way communications have been
(time), (altitude), (type of flight plan), (ETA and name of established, the pilot should attempt to reestablish
next reporting point), (the name of the next succeeding contact with the center on any other known ARTCC
reporting point), AND (remarks). frequency, preferably that of the next responsible
REFERENCE sector when practicable, and ask for instructions.
AIM, Paragraph 532 , Position Reporting However, when the next normal frequency change
3. At times controllers will ask pilots to verify along the route is known to involve another ATC
that they are at a particular altitude. The phraseology facility, the pilot should contact that facility, if
used will be: VERIFY AT (altitude). In climbing or feasible, for instructions. If communications cannot
descending situations, controllers may ask pilots to be reestablished by either method, the pilot is
VERIFY ASSIGNED ALTITUDE AS (altitude). expected to request communications instructions
Pilots should confirm that they are at the altitude from the FSS appropriate to the route of flight.
expected to advise the controller if in disagreement with the (g) When leaving any assigned holding fix or
position given. Any pilot who cannot confirm the accuracy point.
of the position given because of not being tuned to the
NAVAID referenced by the controller, should ask for NOTE
another radar position relative to the tuned in NAVAID. The reports in subparagraphs (f) and (g) may be omitted by
pilots of aircraft involved in instrument training at military
d. Position Report Items: terminal area facilities when radar service is being
1. Position reports should include the follow- provided.
ing items: (h) Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR,
(a) Identification; TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver
capability, GPS anomalies while using installed
(b) Position; IFRcertified GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or
(c) Time; partial loss of ILS receiver capability or impairment
of air/ground communications capability. Reports
(d) Altitude or flight level (include actual
should include aircraft identification, equipment
altitude or flight level when operating on a clearance
affected, degree to which the capability to operate
specifying VFRontop);
under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the
(e) Type of flight plan (not required in IFR nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.
position reports made directly to ARTCCs or
NOTE
approach control); 1. Other equipment installed in an aircraft may effectively
(f) ETA and name of next reporting point; impair safety and/or the ability to operate under IFR. If
such equipment (e.g., airborne weather radar) malfunc-
(g) The name only of the next succeeding tions and in the pilots judgment either safety or IFR
reporting point along the route of flight; and capabilities are affected, reports should be made as above.
(h) Pertinent remarks. 2. When reporting GPS anomalies, include the location
and altitude of the anomaly. Be specific when describing
533. Additional Reports the location and include duration of the anomaly if
necessary.
a. The following reports should be made to
ATC or FSS facilities without a specific ATC (i) Any information relating to the safety of
request: flight.
534. Airways and Route Systems This will be indicated in the route of flight portion of the
flight plan by specifying the type of facility to be used after
a. Three fixed route systems are established for air the location name in the following manner: Newark L/MF,
navigation purposes. They are the Federal airway Allentown VOR.
system (consisting of VOR and L/MF routes), the jet (2) With respect to position reporting,
route system, and the RNAV route system. To the reporting points are designated for VOR Airway
extent possible, these route systems are aligned in an Systems. Flights using Victor Airways will report
overlying manner to facilitate transition between over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC.
each.
(b) The L/MF airways (colored airways) are
1. The VOR and L/MF (nondirectional radio predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids and are
beacons) Airway System consists of airways depicted in brown on aeronautical charts and are
designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber
some instances higher) up to but not including 18,000 One). Green and Red airways are plotted east and
feet MSL. These airways are depicted on IFR Enroute west. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north and
Low Altitude Charts. south.
NOTE NOTE
The altitude limits of a victor airway should not be Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway
exceeded except to effect transition within or between route system exists only in the state of Alaska. All other such
structures. airways formerly so designated in the conterminous U.S.
have been rescinded.
(a) Except in Alaska, the VOR airways are:
predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation (c) The use of TSOC145 (as revised) or
aids; depicted in black on aeronautical charts; and TSOC146 (as revised) GPS/WAAS navigation
identified by a V (Victor) followed by the airway systems is allowed in Alaska as the only means of
number (for example, V12). navigation on published air traffic service (ATS)
routes, including those Victor, TRoutes, and colored
NOTE airway segments designated with a second minimum
Segments of VOR airways in Alaska are based on L/MF en route altitude (MEA) depicted in blue and
navigation aids and charted in brown instead of black on
followed by the letter G at those lower altitudes. The
en route charts.
altitudes so depicted are below the minimum
(1) A segment of an airway which is reception altitude (MRA) of the landbased
common to two or more routes carries the numbers of navigation facility defining the route segment, and
all the airways which coincide for that segment. guarantee standard en route obstacle clearance and
When such is the case, pilots filing a flight plan need twoway communications. Air carrier operators
to indicate only that airway number for the route filed. requiring operations specifications are authorized to
conduct operations on those routes in accordance
NOTE
with FAA operations specifications.
A pilot who intends to make an airway flight, using VOR
facilities, will simply specify the appropriate victor 2. The jet route system consists of jet routes
airway(s) in the flight plan. For example, if a flight is to be established from 18,000 feet MSL to FL 450
made from Chicago to New Orleans at 8,000 feet, using inclusive.
omniranges only, the route may be indicated as departing
from ChicagoMidway, cruising 8,000 feet via Victor 9 to (a) These routes are depicted on Enroute
Moisant International. If flight is to be conducted in part High Altitude Charts. Jet routes are depicted in black
by means of L/MF navigation aids and in part on on aeronautical charts and are identified by a J (Jet)
omniranges, specifications of the appropriate airways in followed by the airway number (e.g., J12). Jet routes,
the flight plan will indicate which types of facilities will be as VOR airways, are predicated solely on VOR or
used along the described routes, and, for IFR flight, permit
VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).
ATC to issue a traffic clearance accordingly. A route may
also be described by specifying the station over which the NOTE
flight will pass, but in this case since many VORs and L/MF Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF
aids have the same name, the pilot must be careful to navigation aids and are charted in brown color instead of
indicate which aid will be used at a particular location. black on en route charts.
(b) With respect to position reporting, (b) Unpublished RNAV routes are direct
reporting points are designated for jet route systems. routes, based on area navigation capability, between
Flights using jet routes will report over these points waypoints defined in terms of latitude/longitude
unless otherwise advised by ATC. coordinates, degreedistance fixes, or offsets from
established routes/airways at a specified distance and
3. Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes. direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all
unpublished RNAV routes, except for GNSS
(a) Published RNAV routes, including equipped aircraft cleared via filed published
QRoutes and TRoutes, can be flight planned for waypoints recallable from the aircrafts navigation
use by aircraft with RNAV capability, subject to any database.
limitations or requirements noted on en route charts,
in applicable Advisory Circulars, or by NOTAM. (c) Magnetic Reference Bearing (MRB) is the
RNAV routes are depicted in blue on aeronautical published bearing between two waypoints on an
charts and are identified by the letter Q or T RNAV/GPS/GNSS route. The MRB is calculated by
followed by the airway number (for example, Q13, applying magnetic variation at the waypoint to the
T205). Published RNAV routes are RNAV2 except calculated true course between two waypoints. The
when specifically charted as RNAV1. These routes MRB enhances situational awareness by indicating a
require system performance currently met by GPS, reference bearing (nowind heading) that a pilot
GPS/WAAS, or DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that should see on the compass/HSI/RMI, etc., when
satisfy the criteria discussed in AC 90100A, U.S. turning prior to/over a waypoint en route to another
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) waypoint. Pilots should use this bearing as a reference
Operations. only, because their RNAV/GPS/GNSS navigation
system will fly the true course between the
NOTE waypoints.
AC 90100A does not apply to over water RNAV routes
(reference 14 CFR 91.511, including the Qroutes in the b. Operation above FL 450 may be conducted on
Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic routes) or Alaska a point-to-point basis. Navigational guidance is
VOR/DME RNAV routes (JxxxR). The AC does not apply provided on an area basis utilizing those facilities
to offroute RNAV operations, Alaska GPS routes or depicted on the enroute high altitude charts.
Caribbean routes.
c. Radar Vectors. Controllers may vector air-
(1) Qroutes are available for use by RNAV craft within controlled airspace for separation
equipped aircraft between 18,000 feet MSL and purposes, noise abatement considerations, when an
FL 450 inclusive. Qroutes are depicted on Enroute operational advantage will be realized by the pilot or
High Altitude Charts. the controller, or when requested by the pilot. Vectors
outside of controlled airspace will be provided only
NOTE on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the
Aircraft in Alaska may only operate on GNSS Q-routes vector is to achieve when the vector is controller
with GPS (TSO-C129 (as revised) or TSO-C196 (as initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously
revised)) equipment while the aircraft remains in Air assigned nonradar route. To the extent possible,
Traffic Control (ATC) radar surveillance or with
aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to
GPS/WAAS which does not require ATC radar surveil-
lance. remain on their own navigation.
d. When flying in Canadian airspace, pilots are
(2) Troutes are available for use by GPS or cautioned to review Canadian Air Regulations.
GPS/WAAS equipped aircraft from 1,200 feet above
the surface (or in some instances higher) up to but not 1. Special attention should be given to the parts
including 18,000 feet MSL. Troutes are depicted on which differ from U.S. CFRs.
Enroute Low Altitude Charts. (a) The Canadian Airways Class B airspace
NOTE restriction is an example. Class B airspace is all
Aircraft in Alaska may only operate on GNSS T-routes controlled low level airspace above 12,500 feet MSL
with GPS/WAAS (TSO-C145 (as revised) or TSO-C146 (as or the MEA, whichever is higher, within which only
revised)) equipment. IFR and controlled VFR flights are permitted. (Low
level airspace means an airspace designated and airspace is a student pilot permit (under the guidance
defined as such in the Designated Airspace or control of a flight instructor).
Handbook.)
(d) VFR flight requires visual contact with
(b) Unless issued a VFR flight clearance by the ground or water at all times.
ATC, regardless of the weather conditions or the
2. Segments of VOR airways and high level
height of the terrain, no person may operate an
routes in Canada are based on L/MF navigation aids
aircraft under VMC within Class B airspace.
and are charted in brown color instead of blue on
(c) The requirement for entry into Class B en route charts.
FIG 531
Adhering to Airways or Routes
535. Airway or Route Course Changes instrumentation, such as Distance Measuring Equip-
ment, may be used by the pilot to lead the turn when
a. Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to
making course changes. This is consistent with the
airways or routes being flown. Special attention must
intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181, which requires
be given to this requirement during course changes.
pilots to operate along the centerline of an airway and
Each course change consists of variables that make
along the direct course between navigational aids or
the technique applicable in each case a matter only the
fixes.
pilot can resolve. Some variables which must be
considered are turn radius, wind effect, airspeed, b. Turns which begin at or after fix passage may
degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early exceed airway or route boundaries. FIG 531
turn, as illustrated below, is one method of adhering contains an example flight track depicting this,
to airways or routes. The use of any available cockpit together with an example of an early turn.
c. Without such actions as leading a turn, aircraft 537. Minimum Turning Altitude (MTA)
operating in excess of 290 knots true air speed (TAS) Due to increased airspeeds at 10,000 ft MSL or above,
can exceed the normal airway or route boundaries the published minimum enroute altitude (MEA) may
depending on the amount of course change required, not be sufficient for obstacle clearance when a turn is
wind direction and velocity, the character of the turn required over a fix, NAVAID, or waypoint. In these
fix (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection), instances, an expanded area in the vicinity of the turn
and the pilots technique in making a course change. point is examined to determine whether the published
For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL MEA is sufficient for obstacle clearance. In some
with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25 degree bank, and a locations (normally mountainous), terrain/obstacles
course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed in the expanded search area may necessitate a higher
the width of the airway or route; i.e., 4 nautical miles minimum altitude while conducting the turning
each side of centerline. However, in the airspace maneuver. Turning fixes requiring a higher minimum
below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of turning altitude (MTA) will be denoted on
290 knots TAS are not prevalent and the provision of government charts by the minimum crossing altitude
additional IFR separation in all course change (MCA) icon (x flag) and an accompanying note
situations for the occasional aircraft making a turn in describing the MTA restriction. An MTA restriction
excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable will normally consist of the air traffic service (ATS)
waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the route leading to the turn point, the ATS route leading
preponderance of traffic which operate at low speeds. from the turn point, and the required altitude; e.g.,
Consequently, the FAA expects pilots to lead turns MTA V330 E TO V520 W 16000. When an MTA is
and take other actions they consider necessary during applicable for the intended route of flight, pilots must
course changes to adhere as closely as possible to the ensure they are at or above the charted MTA not later
airways or route being flown. than the turn point and maintain at or above the MTA
until joining the centerline of the ATS route following
the turn point. Once established on the centerline
536. Changeover Points (COPs) following the turning fix, the MEA/MOCA determ-
ines the minimum altitude available for assignment.
a. COPs are prescribed for Federal airways, jet An MTA may also preclude the use of a specific
routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes altitude or a range of altitudes during a turn. For
for which an MEA is designated under 14 CFR example, the MTA may restrict the use of 10,000
Part 95. The COP is a point along the route or airway through 11,000 ft MSL. In this case, any altitude
segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or greater than 11,000 ft MSL is unrestricted, as are
waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance altitudes less than 10,000 ft MSL provided
should occur. At this point, the pilot should change MEA/MOCA requirements are satisfied.
navigation receiver frequency from the station
behind the aircraft to the station ahead. 538. Holding
b. The COP is normally located midway between a. Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other
the navigation facilities for straight route segments, than the destination airport and delay is expected, it
or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a is the responsibility of ATC to issue complete holding
dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC
the COP is NOT located at the midway point, time and best estimate of any additional en
aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and route/terminal delay.
give the mileage to the radio aids. NOTE
Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government
c. COPs are established for the purpose of or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent low/high altitude en route, and area or STAR charts should
frequency interference from other facilities, and to be used.
prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft b. If the holding pattern is charted and the
in the same airspace. Pilots are urged to observe COPs controller doesnt issue complete holding instruc-
to the fullest extent. tions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the
appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted on the h. Patterns at the most generally used holding
assigned procedure or route being flown, ATC may fixes are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or
omit all holding instructions except the charted commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements)
holding direction and the statement AS PUBLISHED; Low or High Altitude En Route, Area, Departure
for example, HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED. ATC Procedure, and STAR Charts. Pilots are expected to
must always issue complete holding instructions hold in the pattern depicted unless specifically
when pilots request them. advised otherwise by ATC.
c. If no holding pattern is charted and holding NOTE
instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding
ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. airspeed other than the standard may be depicted by an
This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard
aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed
desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed
restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding
instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to
pattern symbol.
frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), then
enter a standard pattern on the course on which the REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 538 j2, Holding
aircraft approached the fix and request further
clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the i. An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold
altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance at a fix where the pattern is not charted will include
limit will be protected so that separation will be the following information: (See FIG 532.)
provided as required.
1. Direction of holding from the fix in terms of
d. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N, NE, E, SE,
clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not etc.).
been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed
reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix, 2. Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if
initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed. included at the beginning of the transmission as the
e. When no delay is expected, the controller clearance limit).
should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
3. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on
possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes
which the aircraft is to hold.
before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.
f. Pilots should report to ATC the time and 4. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be
altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the used (leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot
clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit. request or if the controller considers it necessary).
NOTE 5. Direction of turn if left turns are to be made,
In the event of two-way communications failure, pilots are
the pilot requests, or the controller considers it
required to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185.
necessary.
g. When holding at a VOR station, pilots should
begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the 6. Time to expect further clearance and any
first complete reversal of the to/from indicator. pertinent additional delay information.
FIG 532
Holding Patterns
EXAMPLES OF HOLDING
L OM MM
RUNWAY
VOR
VOR
VORTAC
FIG 533
Holding Pattern Descriptive Terms
ABEAM
HOLDING SIDE
OUTBOUND
OUTBOUND
FIX END END
INBOUND
RECIPROCAL
FIX NONHOLDING SIDE HOLDING
COURSE
j. Holding pattern airspace protection is based on fix to avoid exiting the protected airspace. Pilots
the following procedures. unable to comply with the maximum airspeed
restriction should notify ATC.
1. Descriptive Terms.
(3) Holding patterns at USAF airfields
(a) Standard Pattern. Right turns
only 310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise
(See FIG 533.)
depicted.
(b) Nonstandard Pattern. Left turns
(4) Holding patterns at Navy fields only
2. Airspeeds. 230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
(a) All aircraft may hold at the following (5) All helicopter/power lift aircraft hold-
altitudes and maximum holding airspeeds: ing on a COPTER instrument procedure is
predicated on a minimum airspeed of 90 KIAS unless
TBL 531 charted otherwise.
FIG 534
Holding Pattern Entry Procedures
3. Entry Procedures. Holding protected directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding
airspace is designed based in part on pilot compliance pattern.
with the three recommended holding pattern entry (d) While other entry procedures may enable
procedures discussed below. Deviations from these the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain
recommendations, coupled with excessive airspeed within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and
crossing the holding fix, may in some cases result in direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding
the aircraft exceeding holding protected airspace. recommended by the FAA, and were derived as part
(See FIG 534.) of the development of the size and shape of the
(a) Parallel Procedure. When approaching obstacle protection areas for holding.
the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the (e) Nonstandard Holding Pattern. Fix end
parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading and outbound end turns are made to the left. Entry
to parallel the holding course outbound on the procedures to a nonstandard pattern are oriented in
nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction relation to the 70 degree line on the holding side just
of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, as in the standard pattern.
and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding 4. Timing.
course inbound.
(a) Inbound Leg.
(b) Teardrop Procedure. When approach- (1) At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.
ing the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the
teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, (2) Above 14,000 feet MSL: 11/2 minutes.
turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop NOTE
entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or
period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the 1 1/2 minutes (appropriate to altitude). Timing for
holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as
course. necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may
use any navigational means available; i.e., DME, RNAV,
(c) Direct Entry Procedure. When ap- etc., to ensure the appropriate inbound leg times.
proaching the holding fix from anywhere in (b) Outbound leg timing begins over/abeam
sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to holding based on a conventional navigation aid with
outbound is completed. DME, is a specified course or radial and distances are
5. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)/ from the DME station for both the inbound and
GPS AlongTrack Distance (ATD). DME/GPS outbound ends of the holding pattern. When flying
holding is subject to the same entry and holding published GPS overlay or stand alone procedures
procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are with distance specified, the holding fix will be a
used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of waypoint in the database and the end of the outbound
the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound leg will be determined by the ATD. Some GPS
leg of the pattern. The controller or the instrument overlay and early stand alone procedures may have
approach procedure chart will specify the length of timing specified. (See FIG 535, FIG 536 and
the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is FIG 537.) See Paragraph 1117, Global Position-
determined by the DME or ATD readout. The holding ing System (GPS), for requirements and restriction
fix on conventional procedures, or controller defined on using GPS for IFR operations.
FIG 535
Inbound Toward NAVAID
NOTE
When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID, the fix distance is 10 NM, and the leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the
outbound leg will be reached when the DME reads 15 NM.
FIG 536
Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID
NOTE
When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end
of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME reads 20 NM.
6. Use of RNAV Distance in lieu of DME readout, especially at higher altitudes. When used
Distance. Substitution of RNAV computed distance solely for DME substitution, the difference between
to or from a NAVAID in place of DME distance is RNAV distance to/from a fix and DME slant range
permitted when holding. However, the actual holding distance can be considered negligible and no pilot
location and pattern flown will be further from the action is required.
NAVAID than designed due to the lack of slant range REFERENCE
in the position solution (see FIG 537). This may AIM Paragraph 123, Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems
on Conventional Procedures and Routes
result in a slight difference between RNAV distance
readout in reference to the NAVAID and the DME
FIG 537
Difference Between DME Distance From NAVAID & RNAV Computed Distance From NAVAID
7. Use of RNAV Guidance and Holding. latively, they can result in deviations sufficient to
RNAV systems, including multisensor Flight result in excursions up to limits of the holding pattern
Management Systems (FMS) and standalone GPS protected airspace, and in some circumstances
receivers, may be used to furnish lateral guidance beyond protected airspace. The following difference
when executing a hold. The manner in which holding and considerations apply when an RNAV system
is implemented in an RNAV system varies widely furnishes the lateral guidance used to fly a holding
between aircraft and RNAV system manufacturers. pattern:
Holding pattern data may be extracted from the (1) Many systems use ground track angle
RNAV database for published holds or may be instead of heading to select the entry method. While
manually entered for adhoc ATCassigned holds. the holding pattern design allows a 5 degree
Pilots are expected to be familiar with the capabilities tolerance, this may result in an unexpected entry
and limitations of the specific RNAV system used for when the winds induce a large drift angle.
holding.
(2) The holding protected airspace is based
(a) All holding, including holding defined on on the assumption that the aircraft will flyover the
an RNAV or RNP procedure, is based on the holding fix upon initial entry. RNAV systems may
conventional NAVAID holding design criteria, execute a flyby turn when approaching the
including the holding protected airspace construc- holding fix prior to entry. A flyby turn during a
tion. There are differences between the holding entry direct entry from the holding pattern side of holding
and flight track assumed in conventional holding course may result in excursions beyond protected
pattern design and the entry and track that may be airspace, especially as the intercept angle and ground
flown when RNAV guidance is used to execute speed increase.
holding. Individually, these differences may not (3) During holding, RNAV systems furnish
affect the ability of the aircraft to remain within lateral steering guidance using either a constant bank
holding pattern protected airspace. However, cumu- or constant radius to achieve the desired inbound and
outbound turns. An aircrafts flight guidance system design turn point required to remain within protected
may use reduced bank angles for all turns including airspace. RNAV systems apply a database coded or
turns in holding, especially at higher altitudes, that pilotentered leg distance as a maximum length of the
may result in exceeding holding protected airspace. inbound leg to the holding fix. The RNAV system
Use of a shallower bank angle will expand both the then calculates a turn point from the outbound leg
width and length of the aircraft track, especially as required to achieve this inbound leg length. This often
wind speed increases. If the flight guidance systems results in an RNAVcalculated turn point on the
bank angle limit feature is pilotselectable, a outbound leg beyond the design turn point. (See
minimum 25 degree bank angle should be selected FIG 538). With a strong headwind against the
regardless of altitude unless aircraft operating outbound leg, RNAV systems may fly up to and
limitations specify otherwise and the pilot advises possibly beyond the limits of protected airspace
ATC. before turning inbound. (See FIG 539.) This is
(4) Where a holding distance is published, especially true at higher altitudes where wind speeds
the turn from the outbound leg begins at the published are greater and ground speed results in a wider
distance from the holding fix, thus establishing the holding pattern.
FIG 538
RNAV Lateral Guidance and Holding No Wind
FIG 539
RNAV Lateral Guidance and Holding Effect of Wind
(5) Some RNAV systems compute the (1) Pilots are cautioned that multiple
holding pattern based on the aircrafts altitude and holding patterns may be established at the same fix.
speed at a point prior to entering the hold. If the These holding patterns may differ in respect to turn
indicated airspeed is not reduced to comply with the directions and leg lengths depending on their
maximum holding speed before this point, the application as an en route holding pattern, a holding
computed pattern may exceed the protected airspace. pattern charted on a SID or STAR, or when used on
Loading or executing a holding pattern may result in an instrument approach procedure. Many RNAV
the speed and time limits applicable to the aircrafts systems limit the database coding at a particular fix to
current altitude being used to define the holding a single holding pattern definition. Pilots extracting
pattern for RNAV lateral guidance. This may result in the holding pattern from the navigation database are
an incorrect hold being flown by the RNAV system. responsible for confirming that the holding pattern
For example, entering or executing the holding conforms to the assigned charted holding pattern in
pattern above 14,000 feet when intending to hold terms of turn direction, speed limit, timing, and
below 14,000 feet may result in applying 1 minute distance.
timing below 14,000 feet.
(2) If ATC assigns holding that is not
NOTE charted, then the pilot is responsible for programming
Some systems permit the pilot to modify leg time of holding the RNAV system with the assigned holding course,
patterns defined in the navigation database; for example, turn direction, speed limit, leg length, or leg time.
a holdinlieu of procedure turn. In most RNAV systems,
the holding pattern time remains at the pilotmodified time
(3) Changes made after the initial execu-
and will not revert back to the coded time if the aircraft tion may not apply until the next circuit of the holding
descends to a lower altitude where a shorter time interval pattern if the aircraft is in close proximity to the
applies. holding fix.
8. Pilot Action. The following actions are
(b) RNAV systems are not able to alert the
recommended to ensure that the aircraft remains
pilot for excursions outside of holding pattern
within holding protected airspace when holding is
protected airspace since the dimensions of this
performed using either conventional NAVAID
airspace are not included in the navigation database.
guidance or when using RNAV lateral guidance.
In addition, the dimensions of holding pattern
protected airspace vary with altitude for a charted (a) Speed. When ATC furnishes advance
holding pattern, even when the hold is used for the notice of holding, start speed reduction to be at or
same application. Close adherence to the pilot actions below the maximum holding speed allowed at least 3
described in this section reduce the likelihood of minutes prior to crossing the holding fix. If advance
exceeding the boundary of holding pattern protected notice by ATC is not provided, begin speed reduction
airspace when using RNAV lateral guidance to as expeditiously as practical. It is acceptable to allow
conduct holding. RNAV systems to determine an appropriate decelera-
tion point prior to the holding fix and to manage the
(c) Holding patterns may be stored in the speed reduction to the RNAV computed holding
RNAV systems navigation database and include speed. If the pilot does not permit the RNAV system
coding with parameters defining how the RNAV to manage the deceleration from the computed point,
system will conduct the hold. For example, coding the actual hold pattern size at holding entry may differ
will determine whether holding is conducted to from the holding pattern size computed by the RNAV
manual termination (HM), continued holding until system.
the aircraft reaches a specified altitude (HA), or
(1) Aircraft are expected to enter holding at
holding is conducted until the holding fix is crossed
or below the maximum holding speed established in
the first time after entry (HF). Some systems do not
paragraph 538 j 2(a) or the charted maximum
store all holding patterns, and may only store patterns
holding speed.
associated with missed approaches and holdinlieu
of procedure turn (HILPT). Some store all holding as [a] All fixed wing aircraft conducting
standard patterns and require pilot action to conduct holding should fly at speeds at or above 90 KIAS to
nonstandard holding (left turns). minimize the influence of wind drift.
[b] When RNAV lateral guidance is used maneuvering speed margins. If the bank angle must
in fixed wing airplanes, it is desirable to enter and be limited to less than 25 degrees, advise ATC that
conduct holding at the lowest practical airspeed additional area for holding is required.
consistent with the airplanes recommended holding
speed to address the cumulative errors associated (c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by
with RNAV holding and increase the probability of drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs.
remaining within protected airspace. It is acceptable When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to
to allow RNAV systems to determine a recommended avoid major turning adjustments; for example, if
holding speed that is at or below the maximum correcting left by 8 degrees when inbound, correct
holding speed. right by 24 degrees when outbound.
[c] Helicopter holding is based on a (d) Determine entry turn from aircraft
minimum airspeed of 90 KIAS. heading upon arrival at the holding fix; +/ 5 degrees
in heading is considered to be within allowable good
(2) Advise ATC immediately if unable to operating limits for determining entry. When using
comply with the maximum holding airspeed and RNAV lateral guidance for holding, it is permissible
request an alternate clearance. to allow the system to compute the holding entry.
NOTE
(e) RNAV lateral guidance may execute a
Speeds above the maximum or published holding speed
may be necessary due to turbulence, icing, etc. Exceeding
flyby turn beginning at an excessively large distance
maximum holding airspeed may result in aircraft from the holding fix. Reducing speed to the
excursions beyond the holding pattern protected airspace. maximum holding speed at least 3 minutes prior to
In a nonradar environment, the pilot should advise ATC reaching the holding fix and using the recommended
that they cannot accept the assigned hold. 25 degree bank angle will reduce potential excursions
beyond protected airspace.
(3) Ensure the RNAV system applies the
proper time and speed restrictions to a holding (f) When RNAV guidance is used for holding,
pattern. This is especially critical when climbing or pilots should be prepared to intervene if the turn from
descending to a holding pattern altitude where time outbound leg to the inbound leg does not begin within
and speed restrictions are different than at the present a reasonable distance of the charted leg length,
aircraft altitude. especially when holding is used as a course reversal
HILPT. Pilot intervention is not required when
(b) Bank Angle. For holding not involving
holding in an ATCassigned holding pattern that is
the use of RNAV lateral guidance, make all turns
not charted. However, notify ATC when the outbound
during entry and while holding at:
leg length becomes excessive when RNAV guidance
(1) 3 degrees per second, or is used for holding.
(2) 30 degree bank angle, or k. When holding at a fix and instructions are
received specifying the time of departure from the fix,
(3) 25 degree bank angle, provided a flight the pilot should adjust the aircrafts flight path within
director system is used. the limits of the established holding pattern in order
to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After
NOTE
Use whichever requires the least bank angle.
departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be
resumed with respect to other governing speed
(4) When using RNAV lateral guidance to requirements, such as terminal area speed limits,
conduct holding, it is acceptable to permit the RNAV specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated
system to calculate the appropriate bank angle for the with an instrument approach and timed approaches
outbound and inbound turns. Do not use flight are in effect, a procedure turn must not be executed
guidance system bank angle limiting functions of less unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding
than 25 degrees unless the feature is not pilotse- are expected to proceed inbound on final approach
lectable, required by the aircraft limitations, or its use directly from the holding pattern when approach
is necessary to comply with the aircrafts minimum clearance is received.
l. Radar surveillance of holding pattern airspace not associated with a published (charted) holding
areas. pattern. Altitudes assigned will be at or above the
minimum vectoring or minimum IFR altitude.
1. Whenever aircraft are holding, ATC will
usually provide radar surveillance of the holding 4. If an aircraft is established in a published
airspace on the controllers radar display. holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
2. The controller will attempt to detect any published minimum holding altitude and subsequent-
holding aircraft that stray outside the holding airspace ly cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to
and will assist any detected aircraft to return to the the published minimum holding altitude. The holding
assigned airspace. pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is
NOTE published on the instrument procedure chart and is
Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this used in lieu of a procedure turn.
additional service, such as workload, number of targets,
precipitation, ground clutter, and radar system capability. m. For those holding patterns where there are no
These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon
radar identification of aircraft to detect aircraft straying receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the
from the holding pattern. The provision of this service last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern
depends entirely upon whether controllers believe they are and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the
in a position to provide it and does not relieve a pilot of their published minimum altitude of the route segment
responsibility to adhere to an accepted ATC clearance. being flown will apply. It is expected that the pilot
3. ATC is responsible for traffic and obstruction will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a
separation when they have assigned holding that is normal descent on the inbound course.
541. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) (1) Descend at pilots discretion to meet
Procedures published restrictions and laterally navigate on a
STAR.
a. A STAR is an ATC coded IFR arrival route
(2) When cleared to a waypoint depicted on
established for application to arriving IFR aircraft
a STAR, to descend from a previously assigned alti-
destined for certain airports. STARs simplify clear-
tude at pilots discretion to the altitude depicted at that
ance delivery procedures, and also facilitate
waypoint.
transition between en route and instrument approach
procedures. (3) Once established on the depicted ar-
rival, to descend and to meet all published or assigned
1. STAR procedures may have mandatory altitude and/or speed restrictions.
speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other NOTE
STARs may have planning information depicted to 1. When otherwise cleared along a route or procedure that
inform pilots what clearances or restrictions to contains published speed restrictions, the pilot must com-
expect. Expect altitudes/speeds are not consid- ply with those speed restrictions independent of any
ered STAR procedures crossing restrictions unless descend via clearance.
verbally issued by ATC. Published speed restrictions 2. ATC anticipates pilots will begin adjusting speed the
are independent of altitude restrictions and are minimum distance necessary prior to a published speed re-
mandatory unless modified by ATC. Pilots should striction so as to cross the waypoint/fix at the published
plan to cross waypoints with a published speed speed. Once at the published speed, ATC expects pilots will
restriction, at the published speed, and should not maintain the published speed until additional adjustment
exceed this speed past the associated waypoint unless is required to comply with further published or ATC as-
authorized by ATC or a published note to do so. signed speed restrictions or as required to ensure
compliance with 14 CFR Section 91.117.
NOTE 3. The descend via is used in conjunction with STARs to
The expect altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots reduce phraseology by not requiring the controller to re-
may have the information for planning purposes. These state the altitude at the next waypoint/fix to which the pilot
altitudes/speeds must not be used in the event of lost has been cleared.
communications unless ATC has specifically advised the
pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further 4. Air traffic will assign an altitude to cross the waypoint/
clearance. fix, if no altitude is depicted at the waypoint/fix, for aircraft
on a direct routing to a STAR. Air traffic must ensure
REFERENCE obstacle clearance when issuing a descend via instruc-
14 CFR Section 91.185(c)(2)(iii).
tion to the pilot.
2. Pilots navigating on STAR procedures must 5. Minimum en route altitudes (MEA) are not considered
maintain last assigned altitude until receiving restrictions; however, pilots must remain above all MEAs,
authorization to descend so as to comply with all unless receiving an ATC instruction to descend below the
published/issued restrictions. This authorization may MEA.
contain the phraseology DESCEND VIA. If EXAMPLE
vectored or cleared to deviate off of a STAR, pilots 1. Lateral/routing clearance only.
must consider the STAR canceled, unless the Cleared Tyler One arrival.
controller adds expect to resume STAR; pilots NOTE
should then be prepared to rejoin the STAR at a In Example 1, pilots are cleared to fly the lateral path of the
subsequent fix or procedure leg. If a descent procedure. Compliance with any published speed restric-
clearance has been received that included a crossing tions is required. No descent is authorized.
restriction, pilots should expect the controller to issue 2. Routing with assigned altitude.
an altitude to maintain. Cleared Tyler One arrival, descend and maintain
flight level two four zero.
(a) Clearance to descend via authorizes Cleared Tyler One arrival, descend at pilots discre-
pilots to: tion, maintain flight level two four zero.
Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Descent) clearance requires the pilot to adhere to the
Operations. RNAV1 procedures must maintain a total altitudes, speeds, and headings depicted on the charts
system error of not more than 1 NM for 95% of the unless otherwise instructed by ATC. PILOTS
total flight time. RECEIVING A CLEARANCE FOR A FUEL
EFFICIENT DESCENT ARE EXPECTED TO
2. For procedures requiring GPS, if the
ADVISE ATC IF THEY DO NOT HAVE RUNWAY
navigation system does not automatically alert the
PROFILE DESCENT CHARTS PUBLISHED FOR
flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must
THAT AIRPORT OR ARE UNABLE TO COMPLY
develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation.
WITH THE CLEARANCE.
REFERENCE
AIM, Global Positioning System (GPS)
Paragraph 1117 k, Impact of Magnetic Variation on PBN Systems 543. Approach Control
a. Approach control is responsible for controlling
542. Local Flow Traffic Management Pro- all instrument flight operating within its area of
gram responsibility. Approach control may serve one or
more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by
a. This program is a continuing effort by the FAA
direct pilot and controller communications. Prior to
to enhance safety, minimize the impact of aircraft
arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions
noise and conserve aviation fuel. The enhancement of
will be received from ARTCC to contact approach
safety and reduction of noise is achieved in this
control on a specified frequency.
program by minimizing low altitude maneuvering of
arriving turbojet and turboprop aircraft weighing b. Radar Approach Control.
more than 12,500 pounds and, by permitting 1. Where radar is approved for approach control
departure aircraft to climb to higher altitudes sooner, service, it is used not only for radar approaches
as arrivals are operating at higher altitudes at the (Airport Surveillance Radar [ASR] and Precision
points where their flight paths cross. The application Approach Radar [PAR]) but is also used to provide
of these procedures also reduces exposure time vectors in conjunction with published nonradar
between controlled aircraft and uncontrolled aircraft approaches based on radio NAVAIDs (ILS, VOR,
at the lower altitudes in and around the terminal NDB, TACAN). Radar vectors can provide course
environment. Fuel conservation is accomplished by guidance and expedite traffic to the final approach
absorbing any necessary arrival delays for aircraft course of any established IAP or to the traffic pattern
included in this program operating at the higher and for a visual approach. Approach control facilities that
more fuel efficient altitudes. provide this radar service will operate in the
b. A fuel efficient descent is basically an following manner:
uninterrupted descent (except where level flight is (a) Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an
required for speed adjustment) from cruising altitude outer fix most appropriate to the route being flown
to the point when level flight is necessary for the pilot with vertical separation and, if required, given
to stabilize the aircraft on final approach. The holding information or, when radar handoffs are
procedure for a fuel efficient descent is based on an effected between the ARTCC and approach control,
altitude loss which is most efficient for the majority or between two approach control facilities, aircraft
of aircraft being served. This will generally result in are cleared to the airport or to a fix so located that the
a descent gradient window of 250350 feet per handoff will be completed prior to the time the
nautical mile. aircraft reaches the fix. When radar handoffs are
c. When crossing altitudes and speed restrictions utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed
are issued verbally or are depicted on a chart, ATC off to approach control with radar separation in lieu
will expect the pilot to descend first to the crossing of vertical separation.
altitude and then reduce speed. Verbal clearances for (b) After release to approach control, aircraft
descent will normally permit an uninterrupted are vectored to the final approach course (ILS, RNAV,
descent in accordance with the procedure as GLS, VOR, ADF, etc.). Radar vectors and altitude or
described in paragraph b above. Acceptance of a flight levels will be issued as required for spacing and
charted fuel efficient descent (Runway Profile separating aircraft. Therefore, pilots must not deviate
from the headings issued by approach control. 544. Advance Information on Instrument
Aircraft will normally be informed when it is Approach
necessary to vector across the final approach course
a. When landing at airports with approach control
for spacing or other reasons. If approach course services and where two or more IAPs are published,
crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been
pilots will be provided in advance of their arrival with
informed that the aircraft will be vectored across the
the type of approach to expect or that they may be
final approach course, the pilot should query the
vectored for a visual approach. This information will
controller.
be broadcast either by a controller or on ATIS. It will
(c) The pilot is not expected to turn inbound not be furnished when the visibility is three miles or
on the final approach course unless an approach better and the ceiling is at or above the highest initial
clearance has been issued. This clearance will approach altitude established for any low altitude IAP
normally be issued with the final vector for for the airport.
interception of the final approach course, and the b. The purpose of this information is to aid the
vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish pilot in planning arrival actions; however, it is not an
the aircraft on the final approach course prior to ATC clearance or commitment and is subject to
reaching the final approach fix. change. Pilots should bear in mind that fluctuating
weather, shifting winds, blocked runway, etc., are
(d) In the case of aircraft already inbound on conditions which may result in changes to approach
the final approach course, approach clearance will be information previously received. It is important that
issued prior to the aircraft reaching the final approach pilots advise ATC immediately they are unable to
fix. When established inbound on the final approach execute the approach ATC advised will be used, or if
course, radar separation will be maintained and the they prefer another type of approach.
pilot will be expected to complete the approach
utilizing the approach aid designated in the clearance c. Aircraft destined to uncontrolled airports,
(ILS, RNAV, GLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the which have automated weather data with broadcast
primary means of navigation. Therefore, once estab- capability, should monitor the ASOS/AWSS/AWOS
lished on the final approach course, pilots must not frequency to ascertain the current weather for the air-
deviate from it unless a clearance to do so is received port. The pilot must advise ATC when he/she has
from ATC. received the broadcast weather and state his/her
intentions.
(e) After passing the final approach fix on NOTE
final approach, aircraft are expected to continue 1. ASOS/AWSS/AWOS should be set to provide one
inbound on the final approach course and complete minute broadcast weather updates at uncontrolled airports
the approach or effect the missed approach procedure that are without weather broadcast capability by a human
published for that airport. observer.
2. Controllers will consider the long line disseminated
2. ARTCCs are approved for and may provide weather from an automated weather system at an
approach control services to specific airports. The uncontrolled airport as trend and planning information
radar systems used by these centers do not provide the only and will rely on the pilot for current weather
same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach information for the airport. If the pilot is unable to receive
control facilities and towers, and the update rate is not the current broadcast weather, the last long line
as fast. Therefore, pilots may be requested to report disseminated weather will be issued to the pilot. When
established on the final approach course. receiving IFR services, the pilot/aircraft operator is
responsible for determining if weather/visibility is
3. Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropri- adequate for approach/landing.
ate final approach course or provide their own d. When making an IFR approach to an airport not
navigation on published routes to it, radar service is served by a tower or FSS, after ATC advises
automatically terminated when the landing is CHANGE TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY AP-
completed or when instructed to change to advisory PROVED you should broadcast your intentions,
frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs including the type of approach being executed, your
first. position, and when over the final approach fix
inbound (nonprecision approach) or when over the appropriate U.S. Government Flight Information
outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker Publications.
inbound (precision approach). Continue to monitor
3. The navigation equipment required to join
the appropriate frequency (UNICOM, etc.) for
and fly an instrument approach procedure is indicated
reports from other pilots.
by the title of the procedure and notes on the chart.
(a) Straightin IAPs are identified by the
545. Instrument Approach Procedure
navigational system providing the final approach
(IAP) Charts
guidance and the runway to which the approach is
a. 14 CFR Section 91.175(a), Instrument ap- aligned (e.g., VOR RWY 13). Circling only
proaches to civil airports, requires the use of SIAPs approaches are identified by the navigational system
prescribed for the airport in 14 CFR Part 97 unless providing final approach guidance and a letter
otherwise authorized by the Administrator (including (e.g., VOR A). More than one navigational system
ATC). If there are military procedures published at a separated by a slash indicates that more than one type
civil airport, aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 of equipment must be used to execute the final
must use the civil procedure(s). Civil procedures are approach (e.g., VOR/DME RWY 31). More than one
defined with FAA in parenthesis; e.g., (FAA), at the navigational system separated by the word or indi-
top, center of the procedure chart. DOD procedures cates either type of equipment may be used to execute
are defined using the abbreviation of the applicable the final approach (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 15).
military service in parenthesis; e.g., (USAF), (USN), (b) In some cases, other types of navigation
(USA). 14 CFR Section 91.175(g), Military airports, systems including radar may be required to execute
requires civil pilots flying into or out of military other portions of the approach or to navigate to the
airports to comply with the IAPs and takeoff and IAF (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS, an NDB
landing minimums prescribed by the authority in the missed approach, or radar required to join the
having jurisdiction at those airports. Unless an procedure or identify a fix). When radar or other
emergency exists, civil aircraft operating at military equipment is required for procedure entry from the
airports normally require advance authorization, en route environment, a note will be charted in the
commonly referred to as Prior Permission planview of the approach procedure chart
Required or PPR. Information on obtaining a PPR (e.g., RADAR REQUIRED or ADF REQUIRED).
for a particular military airport can be found in the When radar or other equipment is required on
Chart Supplement U.S. portions of the procedure outside the final approach
NOTE segment, including the missed approach, a note will
Civil aircraft may conduct practice VFR approaches using be charted in the notes box of the pilot briefing
DOD instrument approach procedures when approved by portion of the approach chart (e.g., RADAR
the air traffic controller. REQUIRED or DME REQUIRED). Notes are not
1. IAPs (standard and special, civil and military) charted when VOR is required outside the final
are based on joint civil and military criteria contained approach segment. Pilots should ensure that the
in the U.S. Standard for TERPS. The design of IAPs aircraft is equipped with the required NAVAID(s) in
based on criteria contained in TERPS, takes into order to execute the approach, including the missed
account the interrelationship between airports, approach.
facilities, and the surrounding environment, terrain, NOTE
obstacles, noise sensitivity, etc. Appropriate Some military (i.e., U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy)
altitudes, courses, headings, distances, and other IAPs have these additional equipment required
limitations are specified and, once approved, the notes charted only in the planview of the approach
procedures are published and distributed by procedure and do not conform to the same application
government and commercial cartographers as standards used by the FAA.
instrument approach charts.
(c) The FAA has initiated a program to
2. Not all IAPs are published in chart form. provide a new notation for LOC approaches when
Radar IAPs are established where requirements and charted on an ILS approach requiring other
facilities exist but they are printed in tabular form in navigational aids to fly the final approach course. The
LOC minimums will be annotated with the NAVAID 4. Approach minimums are based on the local
required (e.g., DME Required or RADAR altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated
Required). During the transition period, ILS otherwise; e.g., Oklahoma City/Will Rogers World
approaches will still exist without the annotation. approaches are based on having a Will Rogers World
altimeter setting. When a different altimeter source is
(d) Many ILS approaches having minima required, or more than one source is authorized, it will
based on RVR are eligible for a landing minimum of be annotated on the approach chart; e.g., use Sidney
RVR 1800. Some of these approaches are to runways altimeter setting, if not received, use Scottsbluff
that have touchdown zone and centerline lights. For altimeter setting. Approach minimums may be raised
many runways that do not have touchdown and when a nonlocal altimeter source is authorized. When
centerline lights, it is still possible to allow a landing more than one altimeter source is authorized, and the
minimum of RVR 1800. For these runways, the minima are different, they will be shown by separate
normal ILS minimum of RVR 2400 can be annotated lines in the approach minima box or a note; e.g., use
with a single or double asterisk or the dagger symbol Manhattan altimeter setting; when not available use
; for example ** 696/24 200 (200/1/2). A note Salina altimeter setting and increase all MDAs
is included on the chart stating **RVR 1800 40 feet. When the altimeter must be obtained from a
authorized with use of FD or AP or HUD to DA. The source other than air traffic a note will indicate the
pilot must use the flight director, or autopilot with an source; e.g., Obtain local altimeter setting on CTAF.
approved approach coupler, or head up display to When the altimeter setting(s) on which the approach
decision altitude or to the initiation of a missed is based is not available, the approach is not
approach. In the interest of safety, single pilot authorized. BaroVNAV must be flown using the
operators should not fly approaches to 1800 RVR local altimeter setting only. Where no local altimeter
minimums on runways without touchdown and is available, the LNAV/VNAV line will still be
centerline lights using only a flight director, unless published for use by WAAS receivers with a note that
accompanied by the use of an autopilot with an BaroVNAV is not authorized. When a local and at
approach coupler. least one other altimeter setting source is authorized
and the local altimeter is not available BaroVNAV
(e) The naming of multiple approaches of the is not authorized; however, the LNAV/VNAV
same type to the same runway is also changing. minima can still be used by WAAS receivers using the
Multiple approaches with the same guidance will be alternate altimeter setting source.
annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the NOTE
end of the alphabet and working backwards for Barometric Vertical Navigation (baroVNAV). An RNAV
subsequent procedures (e.g., ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y system function which uses barometric altitude informa-
RWY 28, etc.). The existing annotations such as tion from the aircrafts altimeter to compute and present
ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased a vertical guidance path to the pilot. The specified vertical
out and replaced with the new designation. The Cat II path is computed as a geometric path, typically computed
and Cat III designations are used to differentiate between two waypoints or an angle based computation
from a single waypoint. Further guidance may be found in
between multiple ILSs to the same runway unless
Advisory Circular 90105.
there are multiples of the same type.
5. A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flight paths,
(f) RNAV (GPS) approaches to LNAV, LP, and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart or
LNAV/VNAV and LPV lines of minima using WAAS vectors and altitudes issued by the radar controller, is
and RNAV (GPS) approaches to LNAV and assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and
LNAV/VNAV lines of minima using GPS are charted runway or airport alignment during approach for
as RNAV (GPS) RWY (Number) (e.g., RNAV (GPS) landing.
RWY 21). VOR/DME RNAV approaches will 6. IAPs are designed to provide an IFR descent
continue to be identified as VOR/DME RNAV RWY from the en route environment to a point where a safe
(Number) (e.g., VOR/DME RNAV RWY 21). landing can be made. They are prescribed and
VOR/DME RNAV procedures which can be flown by approved by appropriate civil or military authority to
GPS will be annotated with or GPS ensure a safe descent during instrument flight
(e.g., VOR/DME RNAV or GPS RWY 31). conditions at a specific airport. It is important that
pilots understand these procedures and their use prior maintain altitude at or below the depicted value,
to attempting to fly instrument approaches. e.g., 4000.
7. TERPS criteria are provided for the following 3. Mandatory altitude will be depicted with the
types of instrument approach procedures: altitude value both underscored and overscored.
Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the
(a) Precision Approach (PA). An instrument depicted value, e.g., 5000.
approach based on a navigation system that provides 4. Recommended altitude will be depicted with
course and glidepath deviation information meeting no overscore or underscore. These altitudes are
the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10. For depicted for descent planning, e.g., 6000.
example, PAR, ILS, and GLS are precision
NOTE
approaches.
1. Pilots are cautioned to adhere to altitudes as prescribed
(b) Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV). because, in certain instances, they may be used as the basis
for vertical separation of aircraft by ATC. When a depicted
An instrument approach based on a navigation
altitude is specified in the ATC clearance, that altitude be-
system that is not required to meet the precision comes mandatory as defined above.
approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides
2. The ILS glide slope is intended to be intercepted at the
course and glidepath deviation information. For
published glide slope intercept altitude. This point marks
example, BaroVNAV, LDA with glidepath, the PFAF and is depicted by the lightning bolt symbol
LNAV/VNAV and LPV are APV approaches. on U.S. Government charts. Intercepting the glide slope
at this altitude marks the beginning of the final
(c) Nonprecision Approach (NPA). An in-
approach segment and ensures required obstacle
strument approach based on a navigation system
clearance during descent from the glide slope intercept
which provides course deviation information, but no altitude to the lowest published decision altitude for
glidepath deviation information. For example, VOR, the approach. Interception and tracking of the glide slope
NDB and LNAV. As noted in subparagraph k, Vertical prior to the published glide slope interception altitude
Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches, does not necessarily ensure that minimum, maximum,
some approach procedures may provide a Vertical and/or mandatory altitudes published for any preceding
Descent Angle as an aid in flying a stabilized fixes will be complied with during the descent. If the pilot
approach, without requiring its use in order to fly the chooses to track the glide slope prior to the glide slope
procedure. This does not make the approach an APV interception altitude, they remain responsible for
procedure, since it must still be flown to an MDA and complying with published altitudes for any preceding
has not been evaluated with a glidepath. stepdown fixes encountered during the subsequent
descent.
b. The method used to depict prescribed altitudes 3. Approaches used for simultaneous (parallel)
on instrument approach charts differs according to independent and simultaneous close parallel operations
techniques employed by different chart publishers. procedurally require descending on the glideslope from the
Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in four different altitude at which the approach clearance is issued (refer to
configurations: minimum, maximum, mandatory, 5-4-15 and 5-4-16). For simultaneous close parallel
and recommended. The U.S. Government distributes (PRM) approaches, the Attention All Users Page (AAUP)
charts produced by National GeospatialIntelligence may publish a note which indicates that descending on the
Agency (NGA) and FAA. Altitudes are depicted on glideslope/glidepath meets all crossing restrictions.
these charts in the profile view with underscore, However, if no such note is published, and for simultaneous
overscore, both or none to identify them as minimum, independent approaches (4300 and greater runway
maximum, mandatory or recommended. separation) where an AAUP is not published, pilots are
cautioned to monitor their descent on the glideslope/path
1. Minimum altitude will be depicted with the outside of the PFAF to ensure compliance with published
altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to crossing restrictions during simultaneous operations.
maintain altitude at or above the depicted value, 4. When parallel approach courses are less than 2500 feet
e.g., 3000. apart and reduced in-trail spacing is authorized for
simultaneous dependent operations, a chart note will
2. Maximum altitude will be depicted with the indicate that simultaneous operations require use of
altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to vertical guidance and that the pilot should maintain last
assigned altitude until established on glide slope. These route structure to the terminal environment with little
approaches procedurally require utilization of the ILS required pilot/air traffic control interface for aircraft
glide slope for wake turbulence mitigation. Pilots should equipped with Area Navigation (RNAV) systems. A
not confuse these simultaneous dependent operations with TAA provides minimum altitudes with standard
(SOIA) simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches, obstacle clearance when operating within the TAA
where PRM appears in the approach title. boundaries. TAAs are primarily used on RNAV
c. Minimum Safe Altitudes (MSA) are published approaches but may be used on an ILS approach when
for emergency use on IAP charts. MSAs provide RNAV is the sole means for navigation to the IF;
1,000 feet of clearance over all obstacles, but do not however, they are not normally used in areas of heavy
necessarily assure acceptable navigation signal concentration of air traffic.
coverage. The MSA depiction on the plan view of an 2. The basic design of the RNAV procedure
approach chart contains the identifier of the center underlying the TAA is normally the T design (also
point of the MSA, the applicable radius of the MSA, called the Basic T). The T design incorporates
a depiction of the sector(s), and the minimum two IAFs plus a dual purpose IF/IAF that functions as
altitudes above mean sea level which provide both an intermediate fix and an initial approach fix.
obstacle clearance. For conventional navigation The T configuration continues from the IF/IAF to the
systems, the MSA is normally based on the primary final approach fix (FAF) and then to the missed
omnidirectional facility on which the IAP is approach point (MAP). The two base leg IAFs are
predicated, but may be based on the airport reference typically aligned in a straight-line perpendicular to
point (ARP) if no suitable facility is available. For the intermediate course connecting at the IF/IAF. A
RNAV approaches, the MSA is based on an RNAV Hold-in-Lieu-of Procedure Turn (HILPT) is
waypoint. MSAs normally have a 25 NM radius; anchored at the IF/IAF and depicted on U.S.
however, for conventional navigation systems, this Government publications using the holdinlieu
radius may be expanded to 30 NM if necessary to ofPT holding pattern symbol. When the HILPT is
encompass the airport landing surfaces. A single necessary for course alignment and/or descent, the
sector altitude is normally established, however when dual purpose IF/IAF serves as an IAF during the entry
the MSA is based on a facility and it is necessary to into the pattern. Following entry into the HILPT
obtain relief from obstacles, an MSA with up to four pattern and when flying a route or sector labeled
sectors may be established. NoPT, the dual-purpose fix serves as an IF, marking
d. Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) the beginning of the Intermediate Segment. See
FIG 541 and FIG 542 for the Basic T TAA
1. The TAA provides a transition from the en configuration.
FIG 541
Basic T Design
FIG 542
Basic T Design
3. The standard TAA based on the T design pieshaped sectors with the boundaries identified by
consists of three areas defined by the Initial Approach magnetic courses TO the (IF/ IAF), and may contain
Fix (IAF) legs and the intermediate segment course stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNAV
beginning at the IF/IAF. These areas are called the distances from the IF/IAF. (See FIG 544). The
straightin, leftbase, and rightbase areas. (See right/leftbase areas can only be subdivided using
FIG 543). TAA area lateral boundaries are arcs based on RNAV distances from the IAFs for
identified by magnetic courses TO the IF/IAF. The those areas.
straightin area can be further divided into
FIG 543
TAA Area
4. Entry from the terminal area onto the (b) ATC may clear aircraft direct to the fix
procedure is normally accomplished via a no labeled IF/IAF if the course to the IF/IAF is within the
procedure turn (NoPT) routing or via a course straight-in sector labeled NoPT and the intercept
reversal maneuver. The published procedure will be angle does not exceed 90 degrees. Pilots are expected
annotated NoPT to indicate when the course to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and accomplish a
reversal is not authorized when flying within a straight-in approach. Do not execute HILPT course
particular TAA sector. Otherwise, the pilot is reversal. Pilots are also expected to fly the straightin
expected to execute the course reversal under the approach when ATC provides radar vectors and mon-
provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.175. The pilot may itoring to the IF/IAF and issues a straight-in
elect to use the course reversal pattern when it is not approach clearance; otherwise, the pilot is expected to
required by the procedure, but must receive clearance execute the HILPT course reversal.
from air traffic control before beginning the REFERENCE
procedure. AIM, Paragraph 546 , Approach Clearance
(c) On rare occasions, ATC may clear the air-
(a) ATC should not clear an aircraft to the left craft for an approach at the airport without specifying
base leg or right base leg IAF within a TAA at an inter- the approach procedure by name or by a specific ap-
cept angle exceeding 90 degrees. Pilots must not proach (for example, cleared RNAV Runway 34
execute the HILPT course reversal when the sector or approach) without specifying a particular IAF. In
procedure segment is labeled NoPT. either case, the pilot should proceed direct to the IAF
or to the IF/IAF associated with the sector that the authorize a pilot to descend to a lower TAA altitude.
aircraft will enter the TAA and join the approach If a pilot desires a lower altitude without an approach
course from that point and if required by that sector clearance, request the lower TAA altitude from ATC.
(i.e., sector is not labeled NoPT), complete the Pilots not sure of the clearance should confirm their
HILPT course reversal. clearance with ATC or request a specific clearance.
Pilots entering the TAA with twoway radio commu-
NOTE
If approaching with a TO bearing that is on a sector bound-
nications failure (14 CFR Section 91.185, IFR
ary, the pilot is expected to proceed in accordance with a Operations: Twoway Radio Communications Fail-
NoPT routing unless otherwise instructed by ATC. ure), must maintain the highest altitude prescribed by
Section 91.185(c)(2) until arriving at the appropriate
5. Altitudes published within the TAA replace IAF.
the MSA altitude. However, unlike MSA altitudes the
TAA altitudes are operationally usable altitudes. (b) Once cleared for the approach, pilots may
These altitudes provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle descend in the TAA sector to the minimum altitude
clearance, more in mountainous areas. It is important depicted within the defined area/subdivision, unless
that the pilot knows which area of the TAA the aircraft instructed otherwise by air traffic control. Pilots
will enter in order to comply with the minimum should plan their descent within the TAA to permit a
altitude requirements. The pilot can determine which normal descent from the IF/IAF to the FAF. In
area of the TAA the aircraft will enter by determining FIG 544, pilots within the left or rightbase areas
the magnetic bearing of the aircraft TO the fix labeled are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000
IF/IAF. The bearing should then be compared to the feet until within 17 NM of the associated IAF. After
published lateral boundary bearings that define the crossing the 17 NM arc, descent is authorized to the
TAA areas. Do not use magnetic bearing to the lower charted altitudes. Pilots approaching from the
right-base or left-base IAFs to determine position. northwest are expected to maintain a minimum alti-
tude of 6,000 feet, and when within 22 NM of the
(a) An ATC clearance direct to an IAF or to IF/IAF, descend to a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet
the IF/IAF without an approach clearance does not MSL until crossing the IF/IAF.
FIG 544
Sectored TAA Areas
6. U.S. Government charts depict TAAs using the actual approach procedure. (See FIG 545). Use
icons located in the plan view outside the depiction of
of icons is necessary to avoid obscuring any portion sector/radius subdivisions. The IAF for each area of
of the T procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum the TAA is included on the icon where it appears on
altitudes, etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be the approach to help the pilot orient the icon to the
located and oriented on the plan view with respect to approach procedure. The IAF name and the distance
the direction of arrival to the approach procedure, and of the TAA area boundary from the IAF are included
will show all TAA minimum altitudes and on the outside arc of the TAA area icon.
FIG 545
RNAV (GPS) Approach Chart
7. TAAs may be modified from the standard size requirements. Some areas may be eliminated, while
and shape to accommodate operational or ATC the other areas are expanded. The T design may be
modified by the procedure designers where required ample, pilots approaching on a bearing TO the IF/IAF
by terrain or ATC considerations. For instance, the from 271 clockwise to 089 are expected to execute a
T design may appear more like a regularly or course reversal because the amount of turn required
irregularly shaped Y, upside down L, or an I. at the IF/IAF exceeds 90 degrees. The term NoPT
(a) FIG 5-4-6 depicts a TAA without a left will be annotated on the boundary of the TAA icon for
base leg and right base leg. In this generalized ex- the other portion of the TAA.
FIG 546
TAA with Left and Right Base Areas Eliminated
(b) FIG 547 depicts another TAA modific- bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct
ation that pilots may encounter. In this generalized to the right base IAF and not execute course reversal
example, the left base area and part of the straight-in maneuver. Aircraft cleared direct the IF/IAF by ATC
area have been eliminated. Pilots operating within the in this sector will be expected to accomplish HILTP.
TAA between 210 clockwise to 360 bearing TO the Aircraft operating in areas 091 clockwise to 209 bear-
IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF ing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to
and then execute the course reversal in order to prop- the IF/IAF and not execute the course reversal. These
erly align the aircraft for entry onto the intermediate two areas are annotated NoPT at the TAA boundary
segment or to avoid an excessive descent rate. Air- of the icon in these areas when displayed on the ap-
craft operating in areas from 001 clockwise to 090 proach charts plan view.
FIG 547
TAA with Left Base and Part of StraightIn Area Eliminated
(c) FIG 548 depicts a TAA with right base leg and part of the straight-in area eliminated.
FIG 548
TAA with Right Base Eliminated
8. When an airway does not cross the lateral at the TAA boundary and will be aligned along a path
TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend
from an airway fix or NAVAID to the TAA boundary to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary
to provide a transition from the en route structure to and cleared for the approach by ATC.
the appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate (See FIG 549).
FIG 549
Examples of a TAA with Feeders from an Airway
9. Each waypoint on the T is assigned a navigation products. The missed approach waypoint
pronounceable 5letter name, except the missed is assigned a pronounceable name when it is not
approach waypoint. These names are used for ATC located at the runway threshold.
communications, RNAV databases, and aeronautical
FIG 5410
Minimum Vectoring Altitude Charts
N
013
348
5500
057
2500
5000
289 3000
277
1500 3000
3500
5
2000 102
250 10
3000
15
20
25
30 160
f. Circling. Circling minimums charted on an lots may safely perform the circling maneuver at the
RNAV (GPS) approach chart may be lower than the circling published line of minima if the approach and
LNAV/VNAV line of minima, but never lower than circling maneuver is properly performed according to
the LNAV line of minima (straight-in approach). Pi- aircraft category and operational limitations.
FIG 5411
Example of LNAV and Circling Minima Lower Than LNAV/VNAV DA.
Harrisburgh International RNAV (GPS) RWY 13
CATEGORY A B C D
LPV DA 558/24 250 (300 )
LNAV/
1572 5 1264 (1300 5)
VNAV DA
1180 / 24 1180 / 40 1180 / 2 1180 / 2
LNAV MDA
872 (900 ) 872 (900 ) 872 (900 2) 872 (900 2 )
1180 1 1180 1 1180 2 1180 2
CIRCLING
870 (900 1) 870 (900 1 ) 870 (900 2 ) 870 (900 2 )
FIG 5412
Explanation of LNAV and/or Circling Minima Lower than LNAV/VNAV DA
g. FIG 5412 provides a visual representation of can be different than the controlling obstacle used in
an obstacle evaluation and calculation of LNAV determining ROC for circling MDA. Other factors
MDA, Circling MDA, LNAV/VNAV DA. may force a number larger than 250 ft to be added to
the LNAV OCS. The number is rounded up to the next
1. No vertical guidance (LNAV). A line is
higher 20 foot increment.
drawn horizontal at obstacle height and 250 feet
added for Required Obstacle Clearance (ROC). The 2. Circling MDA. The circling MDA will
controlling obstacle used to determine LNAV MDA provide 300 foot obstacle clearance within the area
considered for obstacle clearance and may be lower 3. On a straight-in nonprecision IAP, descent
than the LNAV/VNAV DA, but never lower than the below the MDA between the VDP and the MAP may
straight in LNAV MDA. This may occur when be inadvisable or impossible. Aircraft speed, height
different controlling obstacles are used or when other above the runway, descent rate, amount of turn, and
controlling factors force the LNAV MDA to be higher runway length are some of the factors which must be
than 250 feet above the LNAV OCS. In FIG 5411, considered by the pilot to determine if a safe descent
the required obstacle clearance for both the LNAV and landing can be accomplished.
and Circle resulted in the same MDA, but lower than i. A visual segment obstruction evaluation is ac-
the LNAV/VNAV DA. FIG 5412 provides an complished during procedure design on all IAPs.
illustration of this type of situation. Obstacles (both lighted and unlighted) are allowed to
3. Vertical guidance (LNAV/VNAV). A line is penetrate the visual segment obstacle identification
drawn horizontal at obstacle height until reaching the surfaces. Identified obstacle penetrations may cause
obstacle clearance surface (OCS). At the OCS, a restrictions to instrument approach operations which
vertical line is drawn until reaching the glide path. may include an increased approach visibility require-
This is the DA for the approach. This method places ment, not publishing a VDP, and/or prohibiting night
the offending obstacle in front of the LNAV/VNAV instrument operations to the runway. There is no im-
DA so it can be seen and avoided. In some situations, plicit obstacle protection from the MDA/DA to the
this may result in the LNAV/VNAV DA being higher touchdown point. Accordingly, it is the responsibility
than the LNAV and/or Circling MDA. of the pilot to visually acquire and avoid obstacles be-
low the MDA/DA during transition to landing.
h. The Visual Descent Point (VDP), identified by 1. Unlighted obstacle penetrations may result in
the symbol (V), is a defined point on the final prohibiting night instrument operations to the
approach course of a nonprecision straightin runway. A chart note will be published in the pilot
approach procedure from which a stabilized visual briefing strip Procedure NA at Night.
descent from the MDA to the runway touchdown
2. Use of a VGSI may be approved in lieu of
point may be commenced. The pilot should not
obstruction lighting to restore night instrument
descend below the MDA prior to reaching the VDP.
operations to the runway. A chart note will be
The VDP will be identified by DME or RNAV
published in the pilot briefing strip Straight-in Rwy
alongtrack distance to the MAP. The VDP distance
XX at Night, operational VGSI required, remain on
is based on the lowest MDA published on the IAP and
or above VGSI glidepath until threshold.
harmonized with the angle of the visual glide slope
indicator (VGSI) (if installed) or the procedure VDA j. The highest obstacle (man-made, terrain, or ve-
(if no VGSI is installed). A VDP may not be getation) will be charted on the planview of an IAP.
published under certain circumstances which may Other obstacles may be charted in either the planview
result in a destabilized descent between the MDA and or the airport sketch based on distance from the run-
the runway touchdown point. Such circumstances way and available chart space. The elevation of the
include an obstacle penetrating the visual surface charted obstacle will be shown to the nearest foot
between the MDA and runway threshold, lack of above mean sea level. Obstacles without a verified
distance measuring capability, or the procedure accuracy are indicated by a symbol following the
design prevents a VDP to be identified. elevation value.
k. Vertical Descent Angle (VDA). FAA policy is
1. VGSI systems may be used as a visual aid to to publish VDAs on all nonprecision approaches ex-
the pilot to determine if the aircraft is in a position to cept those published in conjunction with vertically
make a stabilized descent from the MDA. When the guided minimums or no-FAF procedures without
visibility is close to minimums, the VGSI may not be step-down fixes. A VDA does not guarantee obstacle
visible at the VDP due to its location beyond the protection below the MDA in the visual segment. The
MAP. presence of a VDA does not change any nonprecision
2. Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should approach requirements.
fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had 1. Obstacles may penetrate the visual segment
been provided. of an IAP that has a published VDA. When the VDA
is not authorized due to an obstacle penetration that VDA. The VDA and TCH information are charted on
would require a pilot to deviate from the VDA the profile view of the IAP following the fix
between MDA and touchdown, the VDA/TCH will (FAF/stepdown) used to compute the VDA. If no
be replaced with the note Visual Segment- PA/APV IAP is established to the same runway, the
Obstacles in the profile view of the IAP (See VDA will be equal to or higher than the glide path
FIG 5413). Accordingly, pilots are advised to angle of the VGSI installed on the same runway
carefully review approach procedures to identify provided it is within instrument procedure criteria. A
where the optimum stabilized descent to landing can chart note will indicate if the VGSI is not coincident
be initiated. Pilots that follow the previously with the VDA. Pilots must be aware that the
published descent angle below the MDA on published VDA is for advisory information only and
procedures with this note may encounter obstacles in not to be considered instrument procedure derived
the visual segment. vertical guidance. The VDA solely offers an aid to
2. The threshold crossing height (TCH) used to help pilots establish a continuous, stabilized descent
compute the descent angle is published with the during final approach.
FIG 5413
Example of a Chart Note
3. Pilots may use the published angle and rate based on the VDA may exceed the capabilities of
estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of the aircraft and the pilot must determine how to best
descent from the rate of descent table published in the maneuver the aircraft within the circling area in order
back of the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication. to land safely.
This rate of descent can be flown with the Vertical
l. In isolated cases, an IAP may contain a pub-
Velocity Indicator (VVI) in order to use the VDA as
lished visual flight path. These procedures are
an aid to flying a stabilized descent. No special
annotated Fly Visual to Airport or Fly Visual. A
equipment is required.
dashed arrow indicating the visual flight path will be
included in the profile and plan views with an approx-
4. A straightin aligned procedure may be
imate heading and distance to the end of the runway.
restricted to circling only minimums when an
excessive descent gradient necessitates. The descent 1. The depicted ground track associated with the
angle between the FAF/stepdown fix and the Circling Fly Visual to Airport segment should be flown as
MDA must not exceed the maximum descent angle a Dead Reckoning course. When executing the
allowed by TERPS criteria. A published VDA on Fly Visual to Airport segment, the flight visibility
these procedures does not imply that landing straight must not be less than that prescribed in the IAP; the
ahead is recommended or even possible. The descent pilot must remain clear of clouds and proceed to the
airport maintaining visual contact with the ground. LPV and LNAV/VNAV are both APV procedures as
Altitude on the visual flight path is at the discretion described in paragraph 545a7. The original GPS
of the pilot, and it is the responsibility of the pilot to minima, titled SXX, for straight in runway XX, is
visually acquire and avoid obstacles in the Fly retitled LNAV (lateral navigation). Circling minima
Visual to Airport segment. may also be published. A new type of nonprecision
WAAS minima will also be published on this chart
2. Missed approach obstacle clearance is and titled LP (localizer performance). LP will be
assured only if the missed approach is commenced at published in locations where vertically guided
the published MAP. Before initiating an IAP that minima cannot be provided due to terrain and
contains a Fly Visual to Airport segment, the pilot obstacles and therefore, no LPV or LNAV/VNAV
should have preplanned climb out options based on minima will be published. GBAS procedures are pub-
aircraft performance and terrain features. Obstacle lished on a separate chart and the GLS minima line is
clearance is the responsibility of the pilot when the to be used only for GBAS. ATC clearance for the
approach is continued beyond the MAP. RNAV procedure authorizes a properly certified pilot
NOTE to utilize any minimums for which the aircraft is certi-
The FAA Administrator retains the authority to approve fied (for example, a WAAS equipped aircraft utilizes
instrument approach procedures where the pilot may not the LPV or LP minima but a GPS only aircraft may
necessarily have one of the visual references specified in not). The RNAV chart includes information format-
14 CFR 91.175 and related rules. It is not a function of ted for quick reference by the pilot or flight crew at the
procedure design to ensure compliance with 91.175. The top of the chart. This portion of the chart, developed
annotation Fly Visual to Airport provides relief from based on a study by the Department of Transporta-
91.175 requirements that the pilot have distinctly visible tion, Volpe National Transportation System Center, is
and identifiable visual references prior to descent below commonly referred to as the pilot briefing.
MDA/DA.
1. The minima lines are:
m. Area Navigation (RNAV) Instrument
Approach Charts. Reliance on RNAV systems for (a) GLS. GLS is the acronym for GBAS
instrument operations is becoming more common- Landing System. The U.S. version of GBAS has
place as new systems such as GPS and augmented traditionally been referred to as LAAS. The
GPS such as the Wide Area Augmentation System worldwide community has adopted GBAS as the
(WAAS) are developed and deployed. In order to official term for this type of navigation system. To
support full integration of RNAV procedures into the coincide with international terminology, the FAA is
National Airspace System (NAS), the FAA also adopting the term GBAS to be consistent with the
developed a new charting format for IAPs (See international community. This line was originally
FIG 545). This format avoids unnecessary published as a placeholder for both WAAS and LAAS
duplication and proliferation of instrument approach minima and marked as N/A since no minima was
charts. The original stand alone GPS charts, titled published. As the concepts for GBAS and WAAS
simply GPS, are being converted to the newer procedure publication have evolved, GLS will now
format as the procedures are revised. One reason for be used only for GBAS minima, which will be on a
the revision is the addition of WAAS based minima separate approach chart. Most RNAV(GPS) approach
to the approach chart. The reformatted approach chart charts have had the GLS minima line replaced by a
is titled RNAV (GPS) RWY XX. Up to four lines WAAS LPV line of minima.
of minima are included on these charts. Ground (b) LPV. LPV is the acronym for localizer
Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing Sys- performance with vertical guidance. RNAV (GPS)
tem (GLS) was a placeholder for future WAAS and approaches to LPV lines of minima take advantage of
LAAS minima, and the minima was always listed as the improved accuracy of WAAS lateral and vertical
N/A. The GLS minima line has now been replaced by guidance to provide an approach that is very similar
the WAAS LPV (Localizer Performance with to a Category I Instrument Landing System (ILS).
Vertical Guidance) minima on most RNAV (GPS) The approach to LPV line of minima is designed for
charts. LNAV/VNAV (lateral navigation/vertical angular guidance with increasing sensitivity as the
navigation) was added to support both WAAS aircraft gets closer to the runway. The sensitivities are
electronic vertical guidance and Barometric VNAV. nearly identical to those of the ILS at similar
distances. This was done intentionally to allow the a vertically guided procedure. WAAS avionics may
skills required to proficiently fly an ILS to readily provide GNSSbased advisory vertical guidance
transfer to flying RNAV (GPS) approaches to the during an approach to an LP line of minima.
LPV line of minima. Just as with an ILS, the LPV has Barometric altimeter information remains the
vertical guidance and is flown to a DA. Aircraft can primary altitude reference for complying with any
fly this minima line with a statement in the Aircraft altitude restrictions. WAAS equipment may not
Flight Manual that the installed equipment supports support LP, even if it supports LPV, if it was approved
LPV approaches. This includes Class 3 and 4 before TSOC145b and TSOC146b. Receivers
TSOC146 GPS/WAAS equipment. approved under previous TSOs may require an
upgrade by the manufacturer in order to be used to fly
(c) LNAV/VNAV. LNAV/VNAV identifies
to LP minima. Receivers approved for LP must have
APV minimums developed to accommodate an
a statement in the approved Flight Manual or
RNAV IAP with vertical guidance, usually provided
Supplemental Flight Manual including LP as one of
by approach certified BaroVNAV, but with lateral
the approved approach types.
and vertical integrity limits larger than a precision
approach or LPV. LNAV stands for Lateral (e) LNAV. This minima is for lateral
Navigation; VNAV stands for Vertical Navigation. navigation only, and the approach minimum altitude
This minima line can be flown by aircraft with a will be published as a minimum descent altitude
statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual that the (MDA). LNAV provides the same level of service as
installed equipment supports GPS approaches and the present GPS stand alone approaches. LNAV
has an approachapproved barometric VNAV, or if minimums support the following navigation systems:
the aircraft has been demonstrated to support WAAS, when the navigation solution will not support
LNAV/VNAV approaches. This includes Class 2, 3 vertical navigation; and, GPS navigation systems
and 4 TSOC146 GPS/WAAS equipment. Aircraft which are presently authorized to conduct GPS
using LNAV/VNAV minimums will descend to approaches.
landing via an internally generated descent path
based on satellite or other approach approved VNAV NOTE
GPS receivers approved for approach operations in
systems. Since electronic vertical guidance is
accordance with: AC 20138, Airworthiness Approval of
provided, the minima will be published as a DA. Positioning and Navigation Systems, qualify for this min-
Other navigation systems may be specifically ima. WAAS navigation equipment must be approved in
authorized to use this line of minima. (See Section A, accordance with the requirements specified in
Terms/Landing Minima Data, of the U.S. Terminal TSOC145() or TSOC146() and installed in accordance
Procedures books.) with Advisory Circular AC 20138.
(d) LP. LP is the acronym for localizer 2. Other systems may be authorized to utilize
performance. Approaches to LP lines of minima take these approaches. See the description in Section A of
advantage of the improved accuracy of WAAS to the U.S. Terminal Procedures books for details.
provide approaches, with lateral guidance and Operational approval must also be obtained for
angular guidance. Angular guidance does not refer to BaroVNAV systems to operate to the LNAV/VNAV
a glideslope angle but rather to the increased lateral minimums. BaroVNAV may not be authorized on
sensitivity as the aircraft gets closer to the runway, some approaches due to other factors, such as no local
similar to localizer approaches. However, the LP line altimeter source being available. BaroVNAV is not
of minima is a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) authorized on LPV procedures. Pilots are directed to
rather than a DA (H). Procedures with LP lines of their local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)
minima will not be published with another approach for additional information.
that contains approved vertical guidance
NOTE
(LNAV/VNAV or LPV). It is possible to have LP and
RNAV and BaroVNAV systems must have a manufacturer
LNAV published on the same approach chart but LP supplied electronic database which must include the
will only be published if it provides lower minima waypoints, altitudes, and vertical data for the procedure to
than an LNAV line of minima. LP is not a faildown be flown. The system must be able to retrieve the procedure
mode for LPV. LP will only be published if terrain, by name from the aircraft navigation database, not just as
obstructions, or some other reason prevent publishing a manually entered series of waypoints.
3. ILS or RNAV (GPS) charts. For those locations having an RNAV chart published
with LNAV/VNAV minimums, a procedure note may
(a) Some RNAV (GPS) charts will also con-
be provided such as DME/DME RNP0.3 NA.
tain an ILS line of minima to make use of the ILS
This means that RNP aircraft dependent on
precision final in conjunction with the RNAV GPS
DME/DME to achieve RNP0.3 are not authorized to
capabilities for the portions of the procedure prior to
conduct this approach. Where DME facility
the final approach segment and for the missed ap-
availability is a factor, the note may read DME/DME
proach. Obstacle clearance for the portions of the
RNP0.3 Authorized; ABC and XYZ Required.
procedure other than the final approach segment is
This means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been
still based on GPS criteria.
determined by flight inspection to be required in the
NOTE navigation solution to assure RNP0.3. VOR/DME
Some GPS receiver installations inhibit GPS navigation updating must not be used for approach procedures.
whenever ANY ILS frequency is tuned. Pilots flying
aircraft with receivers installed in this manner must wait 5. Chart Terminology.
until they are on the intermediate segment of the procedure
prior to the PFAF (PFAF is the active waypoint) to tune the (a) Decision Altitude (DA) replaces the
ILS frequency and must tune the ILS back to a VOR fre- familiar term Decision Height (DH). DA conforms to
quency in order to fly the GPS based missed approach. the international convention where altitudes relate to
MSL and heights relate to AGL. DA will eventually
(b) Charting. There are charting differences be published for other types of instrument approach
between ILS, RNAV (GPS), and GLS approaches. procedures with vertical guidance, as well. DA
(1) The LAAS procedure is titled GLS indicates to the pilot that the published descent profile
RWY XX on the approach chart. is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed approach
will be initiated if visual references for landing are not
(2) The VDB provides information to the established. Obstacle clearance is provided to allow
airborne receiver where the guidance is synthesized. a momentary descent below DA while transitioning
(3) The LAAS procedure is identified by a from the final approach to the missed approach. The
four alphanumeric character field referred to as the aircraft is expected to follow the missed instructions
RPI or approach ID and is similar to the IDENT fea- while continuing along the published final approach
ture of the ILS. course to at least the published runway threshold
waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before
(4) The RPI is charted. executing any turns.
(5) Most RNAV(GPS) approach charts
(b) Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) has
have had the GLS (NA) minima line replaced by an
been in use for many years, and will continue to be
LPV line of minima.
used for the LNAV only and circling procedures.
(6) Since the concepts for LAAS and
(c) Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) has
WAAS procedure publication have evolved, GLS
been traditionally used in precision approaches as
will now be used only for LAAS minima, which will
the height of the glide slope above threshold. With
be on a separate approach chart.
publication of LNAV/VNAV minimums and RNAV
4. Required Navigation Performance (RNP). descent angles, including graphically depicted
descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the
(a) Pilots are advised to refer to the
descent angle, or glidepath, at the threshold. Unless
TERMS/LANDING MINIMUMS DATA
otherwise required for larger type aircraft which may
(Section A) of the U.S. Government Terminal
be using the IAP, the typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet.
Procedures books for aircraft approach eligibility
requirements by specific RNP level requirements. 6. The MINIMA FORMAT will also change
slightly.
(b) Some aircraft have RNP approval in their
AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of (a) Each line of minima on the RNAV IAP is
sensors that the FAA will support for RNP service is titled to reflect the level of service available; e.g.,
DME/DME. However, necessary DME signal may GLS, LPV, LNAV/VNAV, LP, and LNAV.
not be available at the airport of intended operations. CIRCLING minima will also be provided.
(b) The minima title box indicates the nature back hard cover for use in planning and executing
of the minimum altitude for the IAP. For example: precision descents under known or approximate
groundspeed conditions.
(1) DA will be published next to the
minima line title for minimums supporting vertical (b) Visual Descent Point (VDP). A VDP
guidance such as for GLS, LPV or LNAV/VNAV. will be published on most RNAV IAPs. VDPs apply
only to aircraft utilizing LP or LNAV minima, not
(2) MDA will be published as the minima LPV or LNAV/VNAV minimums.
line on approaches with lateral guidance only, LNAV,
or LP. Descent below the MDA must meet the (c) Missed Approach Symbology. In order
conditions stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175. to make missed approach guidance more readily
understood, a method has been developed to display
(3) Where two or more systems, such as missed approach guidance in the profile view through
LPV and LNAV/VNAV, share the same minima, each the use of quick reference icons. Due to limited space
line of minima will be displayed separately. in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be
shown. However, the icons may not provide
7. Chart Symbology changed slightly to representation of the entire missed approach
include: procedure. The entire set of textual missed approach
instructions are provided at the top of the approach
(a) Descent Profile. The published descent chart in the pilot briefing. (See FIG 545).
profile and a graphical depiction of the vertical path
to the runway will be shown. Graphical depiction of (d) Waypoints. All RNAV or GPS
the RNAV vertical guidance will differ from the standalone IAPs are flown using data pertaining to
traditional depiction of an ILS glide slope (feather) the particular IAP obtained from an onboard
through the use of a shorter vertical track beginning database, including the sequence of all WPs used for
at the decision altitude. the approach and missed approach, except that step
down waypoints may not be included in some
(1) It is FAA policy to design IAPs with TSOC129 receiver databases. Included in the
minimum altitudes established at fixes/waypoints to database, in most receivers, is coding that informs the
achieve optimum stabilized (constant rate) descents navigation system of which WPs are flyover (FO) or
within each procedure segment. This design can flyby (FB). The navigation system may provide
enhance the safety of the operations and contribute guidance appropriately including leading the turn
toward reduction in the occurrence of controlled prior to a flyby WP; or causing overflight of a
flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents. Additionally, the flyover WP. Where the navigation system does not
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) provide such guidance, the pilot must accomplish the
recently emphasized that pilots could benefit from turn lead or waypoint overflight manually. Chart
publication of the appropriate IAP descent angle for symbology for the FB WP provides pilot awareness
a stabilized descent on final approach. The RNAV of expected actions. Refer to the legend of the U.S.
IAP format includes the descent angle to the Terminal Procedures books.
hundredth of a degree; e.g., 3.00 degrees. The angle
will be provided in the graphically depicted descent (e) TAAs are described in paragraph 545d,
profile. Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). When published, the
RNAV chart depicts the TAA areas through the use of
(2) The stabilized approach may be icons representing each TAA area associated with
performed by reference to vertical navigation the RNAV procedure (See FIG 545). These icons
information provided by WAAS or LNAV/VNAV are depicted in the plan view of the approach chart,
systems; or for LNAVonly systems, by the pilot generally arranged on the chart in accordance with
determining the appropriate aircraft their position relative to the aircrafts arrival from the
attitude/groundspeed combination to attain a en route structure. The WP, to which navigation is
constant rate descent which best emulates the appropriate and expected within each specific TAA
published angle. To aid the pilot, U.S. Government area, will be named and depicted on the associated
Terminal Procedures Publication charts publish an TAA icon. Each depicted named WP is the IAF for
expanded Rate of Descent Table on the inside of the arrivals from within that area. TAAs may not be used
on all RNAV procedures because of airspace database. It is similar to the ILS ident, but displayed
congestion or other reasons. visually rather than aurally. The Approach ID
consists of the letter W for WAAS, the runway
(f) Hot and Cold Temperature Limitations.
number, and a letter other than L, C or R, which could
A minimum and maximum temperature limitation
be confused with Left, Center and Right, e.g., W35A.
is published on procedures which authorize
Approach IDs are assigned in the order that WAAS
BaroVNAV operation. These temperatures
approaches are built to that runway number at that
represent the airport temperature above or below
airport. The WAAS Channel Number and Approach
which BaroVNAV is not authorized to
ID are displayed in the upper left corner of the
LNAV/VNAV minimums. As an example, the
approach procedure pilot briefing.
limitation will read: Uncompensated BaroVNAV
NA below 8C (+18F) or above 47C (117F). (h) At locations where outages of WAAS
This information will be found in the upper left hand vertical guidance may occur daily due to initial
box of the pilot briefing. When the temperature is system limitations, a negative W symbol ( ) will be
above the high temperature or below the low placed on RNAV (GPS) approach charts. Many of
temperature limit, BaroVNAV may be used to these outages will be very short in duration, but may
provide a stabilized descent to the LNAV MDA; result in the disruption of the vertical portion of the
however, extra caution should be used in the visual approach. The symbol indicates that NOTAMs or
segment to ensure a vertical correction is not Air Traffic advisories are not provided for outages
required. If the VGSI is aligned with the published which occur in the WAAS LNAV/VNAV or LPV
glidepath, and the aircraft instruments indicate on vertical service. Use LNAV or circling minima for
glidepath, an above or below glidepath indication on flight planning at these locations, whether as a
the VGSI may indicate that temperature error is destination or alternate. For flight operations at these
causing deviations to the glidepath. These deviations locations, when the WAAS avionics indicate that
should be considered if the approach is continued LNAV/VNAV or LPV service is available, then
below the MDA. vertical guidance may be used to complete the
NOTE
approach using the displayed level of service. Should
Many systems which apply BaroVNAV temperature an outage occur during the procedure, reversion to
compensation only correct for cold temperature. In this LNAV minima may be required. As the WAAS
case, the high temperature limitation still applies. Also, coverage is expanded, the will be removed.
temperature compensation may require activation by NOTE
maintenance personnel during installation in order to be Properly trained and approved, as required, TSO-C145()
functional, even though the system has the feature. Some and TSO-C146() equipped users (WAAS users) with and
systems may have a temperature correction capability, but using approved baro-VNAV equipment may plan for
correct the Baroaltimeter all the time, rather than just on LNAV/VNAV DA at an alternate airport. Specifically au-
the final, which would create conflicts with other aircraft thorized WAAS users with and using approved baro-VNAV
if the feature were activated. Pilots should be aware of equipment may also plan for RNP 0.3 DA at the alternate
compensation capabilities of the system prior to airport as long as the pilot has verified RNP availability
disregarding the temperature limitations. through an approved prediction program.
NOTE
Temperature limitations do not apply to flying the LNAV/ 546. Approach Clearance
VNAV line of minima using approach certified WAAS a. An aircraft which has been cleared to a holding
receivers when LPV or LNAV/VNAV are annunciated to be fix and subsequently cleared . . . approach has not
available. received new routing. Even though clearance for the
(g) WAAS Channel Number/Approach ID. approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft
The WAAS Channel Number is an optional reaching the holding fix, ATC would expect the pilot
equipment capability that allows the use of a 5digit to proceed via the holding fix (his/her last assigned
number to select a specific final approach segment route), and the feeder route associated with that fix (if
without using the menu method. The Approach ID is a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to
an airport unique 4character combination for the initial approach fix (IAF) to commence the
verifying the selection and extraction of the correct approach. WHEN CLEARED FOR THE
final approach segment information from the aircraft APPROACH, THE PUBLISHED OFF AIRWAY
(FEEDER) ROUTES THAT LEAD FROM THE 4. If proceeding to an IAF with a published
EN ROUTE STRUCTURE TO THE IAF ARE PART course reversal (procedure turn or hold-in-lieu of PT
OF THE APPROACH CLEARANCE. pattern), except when cleared for a straight in
approach by ATC, the pilot must execute the
b. If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a fix located procedure turn/hold-in-lieu of PT, and complete the
along the route of flight prior to reaching the holding approach.
fix, and clearance for an approach is issued, a pilot
should commence the approach via the published 5. If cleared to an IAF/IF via a NoPT route, or
feeder route; i.e., the aircraft would not be expected no procedure turn/hold-in-lieu of PT is published,
to overfly the feeder route and return to it. The pilot continue with the published approach.
is expected to commence the approach in a similar
manner at the IAF, if the IAF for the procedure is 6. In addition to the above, RNAV aircraft may
located along the route of flight to the holding fix. be issued a clearance direct to the IAF/IF at intercept
angles not greater than 90 degrees for both
c. If a route of flight directly to the initial approach conventional and RNAV instrument approaches.
fix is desired, it should be so stated by the controller Controllers may issue a heading or a course direct to
with phraseology to include the words direct . . . , a fix between the IF and FAF at intercept angles not
proceed direct or a similar phrase which the pilot greater than 30 degrees for both conventional and
can interpret without question. When uncertain of the RNAV instrument approaches. In all cases, control-
clearance, immediately query ATC as to what route of lers will assign altitudes that ensure obstacle
flight is desired. clearance and will permit a normal descent to the
FAF. When clearing aircraft direct to the IF, ATC will
d. The name of an instrument approach, as
radar monitor the aircraft until the IF and will advise
published, is used to identify the approach, even
the pilot to expect clearance direct to the IF at least 5
though a component of the approach aid, such as the
miles from the fix. ATC must issue a straight-in
glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is
approach clearance when clearing an aircraft direct to
inoperative or unreliable. The controller will use the
an IAF/IF with a procedure turn or holdinlieu of a
name of the approach as published, but must advise
procedure turn, and ATC does not want the aircraft to
the aircraft at the time an approach clearance is issued
execute the course reversal.
that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid
component is unusable, except when the title of the NOTE
published approach procedures otherwise allows; for Refer to 14 CFR 91.175 (i).
example, ILS Rwy 05 or LOC Rwy 05. 7. RNAV aircraft may be issued a clearance
e. The following applies to aircraft on radar direct to the FAF that is also charted as an IAF, in
vectors and/or cleared direct to in conjunction with which case the pilot is expected to execute the
an approach clearance: depicted procedure turn or hold-in-lieu of procedure
turn. ATC will not issue a straight-in approach
1. Maintain the last altitude assigned by ATC clearance. If the pilot desires a straight-in approach,
until the aircraft is established on a published they must request vectors to the final approach course
segment of a transition route, or approach procedure outside of the FAF or fly a published NoPT route.
segment, or other published route, for which a lower When visual approaches are in use, ATC may clear an
altitude is published on the chart. If already on an aircraft direct to the FAF.
established route, or approach or arrival segment, you
NOTE
may descend to whatever minimum altitude is listed 1. In anticipation of a clearance by ATC to any fix pub-
for that route or segment. lished on an instrument approach procedure, pilots of
2. Continue on the vector heading until RNAV aircraft are advised to select an appropriate IAF or
feeder fix when loading an instrument approach procedure
intercepting the next published ground track
into the RNAV system.
applicable to the approach clearance.
2. Selection of Vectors-to-Final or Vectors option for
3. Once reaching the final approach fix via the an instrument approach may prevent approach fixes loc-
published segments, the pilot may continue on ated outside of the FAF from being loaded into an RNAV
approach to a landing. system. Therefore, the selection of these options is discour-
aged due to increased workload for pilots to reprogram the Category D minimums. As an additional example, a
navigation system. Category A airplane (or helicopter) which is
operating at 130 knots on a straightin approach must
f. An RF leg is defined as a constant radius circular
use the approach Category C minimums. See the
path around a defined turn center that starts and ter-
following category limits:
minates at a fix. An RF leg may be published as part
of a procedure. Since not all aircraft have the capabil- 1. Category A: Speed less than 91 knots.
ity to fly these leg types, pilots are responsible for
knowing if they can conduct an RNAV approach with 2. Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but less
an RF leg. Requirements for RF legs will be indicated than 121 knots.
on the approach chart in the notes section or at the
applicable initial approach fix. Controllers will clear 3. Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but
RNAV-equipped aircraft for instrument approach less than 141 knots.
procedures containing RF legs:
4. Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but
1. Via published transitions, or less than 166 knots.
2. In accordance with paragraph e6 above, and 5. Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.
FIG 5414
Example of an RNAV Approach with RF Leg
FIG 5415
FIG 5416
FIG 5417
3. When the approach procedure involves a 4. A teardrop procedure or penetration turn may
procedure turn, a maximum speed of not greater than be specified in some procedures for a required course
200 knots (IAS) should be observed from first reversal. The teardrop procedure consists of
overheading the course reversal IAF through the departure from an initial approach fix on an outbound
procedure turn maneuver to ensure containment course followed by a turn toward and intercepting the
within the obstruction clearance area. Pilots should inbound course at or prior to the intermediate fix or
begin the outbound turn immediately after passing point. Its purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse
the procedure turn fix. The procedure turn maneuver direction and lose considerable altitude within
must be executed within the distance specified in the reasonably limited airspace. Where no fix is available
profile view. The normal procedure turn distance is to mark the beginning of the intermediate segment, it
10 miles. This may be reduced to a minimum of must be assumed to commence at a point 10 miles
5 miles where only Category A or helicopter aircraft prior to the final approach fix. When the facility is
are to be operated or increased to as much as 15 miles located on the airport, an aircraft is considered to be
to accommodate high performance aircraft. on final approach upon completion of the penetration
turn. However, the final approach segment begins on
the final approach course 10 miles from the facility.
5430 Arrival Procedures
12/10/15 AIM
5. A holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn ATC and a clearance is received to execute a
may be specified for course reversal in some procedure turn.
procedures. In such cases, the holding pattern is 2. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted
established over an intermediate fix or a final and a course reversal is required, this type turn must
approach fix. The holding pattern distance or time be executed.
specified in the profile view must be observed. For a
holdinlieuofPT, the holding pattern direction 3. When a holding pattern replaces a procedure
must be flown as depicted and the specified leg turn, the holding pattern must be followed, except
length/timing must not be exceeded. Maximum when RADAR VECTORING is provided or when
holding airspeed limitations as set forth for all NoPT is shown on the approach course. The
holding patterns apply. The holding pattern maneuver recommended entry procedures will ensure the
is completed when the aircraft is established on the aircraft remains within the holding patterns
inbound course after executing the appropriate entry. protected airspace. As in the procedure turn, the
If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the descent from the minimum holding pattern altitude to
holding fix, and the aircraft is at the prescribed the final approach fix altitude (when lower) may not
altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are commence until the aircraft is established on the
not necessary nor expected by ATC. If pilots elect to inbound course. Where a holding pattern is
make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude or established inlieuof a procedure turn, the maxi-
to become better established on course, it is their mum holding pattern airspeeds apply.
responsibility to so advise ATC upon receipt of their REFERENCE
approach clearance. AIM, Paragraph 538 j2, Holding
4. The absence of the procedure turn barb in the
NOTE
Some approach charts have an arrival holding pattern plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not
depicted at the IAF using a thin line holding symbol. It authorized for that procedure.
is charted where holding is frequently required prior to
starting the approach procedure so that detailed holding 5410. Timed Approaches from a Holding
instructions are not required. The arrival holding pattern Fix
is not authorized unless assigned by Air Traffic Control.
Holding at the same fix may also be depicted on the enroute a. TIMED APPROACHES may be conducted
chart. A holdinlieu of procedure turn is depicted by a when the following conditions are met:
thick line symbol, and is part of the instrument approach
1. A control tower is in operation at the airport
procedure as described in paragraph 549. (See U. S.
Terminal Procedures booklets page E1 for both examples.) where the approaches are conducted.
6. A procedure turn is not required when an 2. Direct communications are maintained be-
approach can be made directly from a specified tween the pilot and the center or approach controller
intermediate fix to the final approach fix. In such until the pilot is instructed to contact the tower.
cases, the term NoPT is used with the appropriate 3. If more than one missed approach procedure
course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn is available, none require a course reversal.
is not required. If a procedure turn is desired, and
4. If only one missed approach procedure is
when cleared to do so by ATC, descent below the
available, the following conditions are met:
procedure turn altitude should not be made until the
aircraft is established on the inbound course, since (a) Course reversal is not required; and,
some NoPT altitudes may be lower than the (b) Reported ceiling and visibility are equal
procedure turn altitudes. to or greater than the highest prescribed circling
b. Limitations on Procedure Turns minimums for the IAP.
1. In the case of a radar initial approach to a final 5. When cleared for the approach, pilots must
approach fix or position, or a timed approach from a not execute a procedure turn. (14 CFR Sec-
holding fix, or where the procedure specifies NoPT, tion 91.175.)
no pilot may make a procedure turn unless, when final b. Although the controller will not specifically
approach clearance is received, the pilot so advises state that timed approaches are in progress, the
assigning of a time to depart the final approach fix or fix used in lieu of the outer marker and the airport.
inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer marker
c. Each pilot in an approach sequence will be given
or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound
advance notice as to the time they should leave the
(precision approach) is indicative that timed
holding point on approach to the airport. When a time
approach procedures are being utilized, or in lieu of
to leave the holding point has been received, the pilot
holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the
should adjust the flight path to leave the fix as closely
Final Approach Course to establish a mileage interval
as possible to the designated time. (See FIG 5418.)
between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time
sequence between the final approach fix/outer marker
FIG 5418
Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix
LOM LMM
1000 FT.
REPORT LEAVING
PREVIOUS ALTITUDE FOR
NEW ASSIGNED ALTITUDE
1000 FT.
1000 FT.
1000 FT.
EXAMPLE
At 12:03 local time, in the example shown, a pilot holding, receives instructions to leave the fix inbound at 12:07. These
instructions are received just as the pilot has completed turn at the outbound end of the holding pattern and is proceeding
inbound towards the fix. Arriving back over the fix, the pilot notes that the time is 12:04 and that there are 3 minutes to lose
in order to leave the fix at the assigned time. Since the time remaining is more than two minutes, the pilot plans to fly a race
track pattern rather than a 360 degree turn, which would use up 2 minutes. The turns at the ends of the race track pattern
will consume approximately 2 minutes. Three minutes to go, minus 2 minutes required for the turns, leaves 1 minute for level
flight. Since two portions of level flight will be required to get back to the fix inbound, the pilot halves the 1 minute remaining
and plans to fly level for 30 seconds outbound before starting the turn back to the fix on final approach. If the winds were
negligible at flight altitude, this procedure would bring the pilot inbound across the fix precisely at the specified time of
12:07. However, if expecting headwind on final approach, the pilot should shorten the 30 second outbound course somewhat,
knowing that the wind will carry the aircraft away from the fix faster while outbound and decrease the ground speed while
returning to the fix. On the other hand, compensating for a tailwind on final approach, the pilot should lengthen the
calculated 30 second outbound heading somewhat, knowing that the wind would tend to hold the aircraft closer to the fix
while outbound and increase the ground speed while returning to the fix.
5411. Radar Approaches Range from touchdown is given at least once each
mile. If an aircraft is observed by the controller to
a. The only airborne radio equipment required for
proceed outside of specified safety zone limits in
radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter
azimuth and/or elevation and continue to operate
and receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft
outside these prescribed limits, the pilot will be
to align it with the runway centerline. The controller
directed to execute a missed approach or to fly a
continues the vectors to keep the aircraft on course
specified course unless the pilot has the runway
until the pilot can complete the approach and landing
environment (runway, approach lights, etc.) in sight.
by visual reference to the surface. There are two types
Navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation is
of radar approaches: Precision (PAR) and
provided the pilot until the aircraft reaches the
Surveillance (ASR).
published Decision Height (DH). Advisory course
b. A radar approach may be given to any aircraft and glidepath information is furnished by the
upon request and may be offered to pilots of aircraft controller until the aircraft passes over the landing
in distress or to expedite traffic, however, an ASR threshold, at which point the pilot is advised of any
might not be approved unless there is an ATC deviation from the runway centerline. Radar service
operational requirement, or in an unusual or is automatically terminated upon completion of the
emergency situation. Acceptance of a PAR or ASR by approach.
a pilot does not waive the prescribed weather
minimums for the airport or for the particular aircraft 2. A SURVEILLANCE APPROACH (ASR)
operator concerned. The decision to make a radar is one in which a controller provides navigational
approach when the reported weather is below the guidance in azimuth only. The pilot is furnished
established minimums rests with the pilot. headings to fly to align the aircraft with the extended
centerline of the landing runway. Since the radar
c. PAR and ASR minimums are published on
information used for a surveillance approach is
separate pages in the FAA Terminal Procedures
considerably less precise than that used for a
Publication (TPP).
precision approach, the accuracy of the approach will
1. A PRECISION APPROACH (PAR) is one not be as great and higher minimums will apply.
in which a controller provides highly accurate Guidance in elevation is not possible but the pilot will
navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation to a be advised when to commence descent to the
pilot. Pilots are given headings to fly, to direct them Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or, if appropriate,
to, and keep their aircraft aligned with the extended to an intermediate stepdown fix Minimum Crossing
centerline of the landing runway. They are told to Altitude and subsequently to the prescribed MDA. In
anticipate glidepath interception approximately 10 to addition, the pilot will be advised of the location of
30 seconds before it occurs and when to start descent. the Missed Approach Point (MAP) prescribed for the
The published Decision Height will be given only if procedure and the aircrafts position each mile on
the pilot requests it. If the aircraft is observed to final from the runway, airport or heliport or MAP, as
deviate above or below the glidepath, the pilot is appropriate. If requested by the pilot, recommended
given the relative amount of deviation by use of terms altitudes will be issued at each mile, based on the
slightly or well and is expected to adjust the descent gradient established for the procedure, down
aircrafts rate of descent/ascent to return to the to the last mile that is at or above the MDA. Normally,
glidepath. Trend information is also issued with navigational guidance will be provided until the
respect to the elevation of the aircraft and may be aircraft reaches the MAP. Controllers will terminate
modified by the terms rapidly and slowly; guidance and instruct the pilot to execute a missed
e.g., well above glidepath, coming down rapidly. approach unless at the MAP the pilot has the runway,
airport or heliport in sight or, for a helicopter 5412. Radar Monitoring of Instrument
pointinspace approach, the prescribed visual Approaches
reference with the surface is established. Also, if, at
a. PAR facilities operated by the FAA and the
any time during the approach the controller considers
military services at some jointuse (civil and
that safe guidance for the remainder of the approach
military) and military installations monitor aircraft
cannot be provided, the controller will terminate
on instrument approaches and issue radar advisories
guidance and instruct the pilot to execute a missed
to the pilot when weather is below VFR minimums
approach. Similarly, guidance termination and
(1,000 and 3), at night, or when requested by a pilot.
missed approach will be effected upon pilot request
This service is provided only when the PAR Final
and, for civil aircraft only, controllers may terminate
Approach Course coincides with the final approach
guidance when the pilot reports the runway,
of the navigational aid and only during the
airport/heliport or visual surface route (pointin
operational hours of the PAR. The radar advisories
space approach) in sight or otherwise indicates that
serve only as a secondary aid since the pilot has
continued guidance is not required. Radar service is
selected the navigational aid as the primary aid for the
automatically terminated at the completion of a radar
approach.
approach.
b. Prior to starting final approach, the pilot will be
NOTE advised of the frequency on which the advisories will
1. The published MDA for straightin approaches will be be transmitted. If, for any reason, radar advisories
issued to the pilot before beginning descent. When a cannot be furnished, the pilot will be so advised.
surveillance approach will terminate in a circletoland
maneuver, the pilot must furnish the aircraft approach c. Advisory information, derived from radar
category to the controller. The controller will then provide observations, includes information on:
the pilot with the appropriate MDA.
1. Passing the final approach fix inbound
2. ASR APPROACHES ARE NOT AVAILABLE WHEN (nonprecision approach) or passing the outer marker
AN ATC FACILITY IS USING CENRAP. or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound
(precision approach).
3. A NOGYRO APPROACH is available to NOTE
a pilot under radar control who experiences At this point, the pilot may be requested to report sighting
circumstances wherein the directional gyro or other the approach lights or the runway.
stabilized compass is inoperative or inaccurate.
2. Trend advisories with respect to elevation
When this occurs, the pilot should so advise ATC and
and/or azimuth radar position and movement will be
request a NoGyro vector or approach. Pilots of
provided.
aircraft not equipped with a directional gyro or other
stabilized compass who desire radar handling may NOTE
also request a NoGyro vector or approach. The pilot Whenever the aircraft nears the PAR safety limit, the pilot
should make all turns at standard rate and should will be advised that the aircraft is well above or below the
glidepath or well left or right of course. Glidepath
execute the turn immediately upon receipt of
information is given only to those aircraft executing a
instructions. For example, TURN RIGHT, STOP precision approach, such as ILS. Altitude information is
TURN. When a surveillance or precision approach not transmitted to aircraft executing other than precision
is made, the pilot will be advised after the aircraft has approaches because the descent portions of these
been turned onto final approach to make turns at half approaches generally do not coincide with the depicted
standard rate. PAR glidepath.
3. If, after repeated advisories, the aircraft c. The close proximity of adjacent aircraft
proceeds outside the PAR safety limit or if a radical conducting simultaneous (parallel) independent
deviation is observed, the pilot will be advised to approaches and simultaneous close parallel PRM
execute a missed approach unless the prescribed approaches mandates strict pilot compliance with all
visual reference with the surface is established. ATC clearances. ATC assigned airspeeds, altitudes,
and headings must be complied with in a timely
d. Radar service is automatically terminated upon
manner. Autopilot coupled approaches require pilot
completion of the approach.
knowledge of procedures necessary to comply with
ATC instructions. Simultaneous (parallel)
5413. ILS Approaches to Parallel independent approaches and simultaneous close
Runways parallel PRM approaches necessitate precise
a. ATC procedures permit ILS/RNAV/GLS approach course tracking to minimize final monitor
instrument approach operations to dual or triple controller intervention, and unwanted No
parallel runway configurations. ILS/RNAV/GLS Transgression Zone (NTZ) penetration. In the
approaches to parallel runways are grouped into three unlikely event of a breakout, ATC will not assign
classes: Simultaneous Parallel Dependent altitudes lower than the minimum vectoring altitude.
Approaches; Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent Pilots should notify ATC immediately if there is a
Approaches; and Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM degradation of aircraft or navigation systems.
Approaches. (See FIG 5419.) RNAV approach d. Strict radio discipline is mandatory during
procedures that are approved for simultaneous simultaneous (parallel) independent and
operations require GPS as the sensor for position simultaneous close parallel PRM approach
updating. VOR/DME, DME/DME and IRU RNAV operations. This includes an alert listening watch and
updating is not authorized. The classification of a the avoidance of lengthy, unnecessary radio
parallel runway approach procedure is dependent on transmissions. Attention must be given to proper call
adjacent parallel runway centerline separation, ATC sign usage to prevent the inadvertent execution of
procedures, and airport ATC radar monitoring and clearances intended for another aircraft. Use of
communications capabilities. At some airports one or abbreviated call signs must be avoided to preclude
more parallel localizer courses may be offset up to 3 confusion of aircraft with similar sounding call signs.
degrees. ILS approaches with offset localizer Pilots must be alert to unusually long periods of
configurations result in loss of Category II/III silence or any unusual background sounds in their
capabilities and an increase in decision radio receiver. A stuck microphone may block the
altitude/height (50). issuance of ATC instructions on the tower frequency
b. Parallel approach operations demand by the final monitor controller during simultaneous
heightened pilot situational awareness. A thorough (parallel) independent and simultaneous close
Approach Procedure Chart review should be parallel PRM approaches. In the case of PRM
conducted with, as a minimum, emphasis on the approaches, the use of a second frequency by the
following approach chart information: name and monitor controller mitigates the stuck mike or other
number of the approach, localizer frequency, inbound blockage on the tower frequency.
localizer/azimuth course, glide slope intercept REFERENCE
altitude, glideslope crossing altitude at the final AIM, Chapter 4, Section 2, Radio Communications Phraseology and
Techniques, gives additional communications information.
approach fix, decision height, missed approach
instructions, special notes/procedures, and the e. Use of Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems
assigned runway location/proximity to adjacent (TCAS) provides an additional element of safety to
runways. Pilots will be advised that simultaneous parallel approach operations. Pilots should follow
dependent approaches, simultaneous approaches, or recommended TCAS operating procedures presented
simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches are in in approved flight manuals, original equipment
use. This information may be provided through the manufacturer recommendations, professional
ATIS. newsletters, and FAA publications.
FIG 5419
Simultaneous Parallel Approaches
(Parallel Runways and Approach Courses and Offset Approach Courses between 2.5 and 3.0 degrees)
FIG 5420
Simultaneous (Parallel) Dependent Approaches
FIG 5421
Simultaneous (Parallel) Independent ILS/RNAV/GLS Approaches
2. The final monitor controller will have the 5. If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such
capability of overriding the tower controller on the instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the
tower frequency. aircraft on the adjacent final approach course (if
threatened), will be issued a breakout instruction.
3. Pilots will be instructed to contact the tower
frequency prior to the point where NTZ monitoring PHRASEOLOGY
begins. TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right)
4. Aircraft observed to overshoot the turnon or IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend)
AND MAINTAIN (altitude).
to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ
will be instructed to return to the correct final 6. Radar monitoring will automatically be
approach course immediately. The final monitor terminated when visual separation is applied, the
controller may cancel the approach clearance, and aircraft reports the approach lights or runway in sight,
issue missed approach or other instructions to the or the aircraft is 1 mile or less from the runway
deviating aircraft. threshold. Final monitor controllers will not advise
PHRASEOLOGY pilots when radar monitoring is terminated.
(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL
APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) NOTE
IMMEDIATELY AND RETURN TO THE FINAL Simultaneous independent approaches conducted to run-
APPROACH COURSE, ways spaced greater than 9,000 feet (or 9,200 at airports
above 5,000) do not require an NTZ. However, from a pi-
or lots perspective, the same alerts relative to deviating
aircraft will be provided by ATC as are provided when an
(aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO NTZ is being monitored. Pilots may not be aware as to
THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE. whether or not an NTZ is being monitored.
5416. Simultaneous Close Parallel ILS PRM/RNAV PRM/GLS PRM Approaches and
Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)
(See FIG 5422.)
FIG 5422
PRM Approaches
Simultaneous Close Parallel
titled ILS PRM Rwy XXX (Simultaneous Close Par- initial procedure published on the charted IAP. In the
allel). SOIA design of the offset approach, the lateral course
NOTE terminates at the fictitious threshold point (FTP),
ATC does not use the word independent when advert- which is an extension of the final approach course to
ising these operations on the ATIS. a point near the runway threshold. The FTP is
EXAMPLE
designated in the approach coding as the MAP so that
Simultaneous ILS PRM 33L and ILS PRM 33R approaches vertical guidance is available to the pilot to the
in progress. runway threshold, just as vertical guidance is
provided by the LDA glideslope. RNAV and GLS
(a) In the discussion below, RNAV PRM and lateral guidance, in contrast, is discontinued at the
GLS PRM approaches may be substituted for one or charted MAP and replaced by visual maneuvering to
both of the ILS PRM approaches in a simultaneous accomplish runway alignment in the same manner as
close parallel operation, or, in the case of SOIA, may LDA course guidance is discontinued at the MAP.
be substituted for an ILS PRM and/or LDA PRM ap-
proach. RNAV PRM or GLS PRM approaches utilize As a result of this RNAV and GLS approach coding,
the same applicable chart notations and the same when executing a missed approach at and after
fixes, crossing altitudes, and missed approach pro- passing the charted MAP, a heading must initially be
cedures as the ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach it flown, either hand-flown or using autopilot heading
overlays. Vertical guidance for an RNAV PRM or mode, before engaging LNAV. If the pilot engages
GLS PRM approach must be used when substituting LNAV immediately, the aircraft will continue to track
for an ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach. toward the FTP instead of commencing a turn toward
(b) RNAV PRM and GLS PRM approaches the missed approach holding fix. Notes on the charted
may be substituted for: IAP and in the AAUP make specific reference to this
procedure.
(1) one or both of the ILS PRM approaches
in a simultaneous close parallel operation, or Because the SOIA LDA approach is coded in the
(2) the ILS PRM and/or LDA PRM ap- FMS in same manner as the RNAV GPS approach,
proach in a Simultaneous Offset Instrument this same procedure should be utilized when
Approach (SOIA) operation. conducting the LDA PRM missed approach at or
inside of the LDA MAP.
(c) The pilot may request to fly the RNAV
PRM or GLS PRM approach in lieu of either the ILS Some FMSs do not code waypoints inside of the FAF
PRM and LDA PRM approaches. ATIS may advert- as part of the approach. Therefore, the depicted MAP
ise RNAV or GLS PRM approaches to the affected on the charted IAP may not be included in the offset
runway or runways in the event of the loss of ground approach coding. Pilots utilizing those FMSs may
based NAVAIDS. The Attention All Users Page will identify the location of the waypoint by noting its
address ILS PRM, LDA PRM, RNAV PRM, or GLS distance from the FTP as published on the charted
PRM approaches as applicable. In the remainder of IAP. In those same FMSs, the straight-in SOIA
this section: approach will not display a waypoint inside the PFAF.
(1) The RNAV PRM or GLS PRM ap- The same procedures may be utilized to identify the
proaches may be substituted when reference is made uncoded waypoint. In this case, the location is
to an ILS, LOC, or SOIA offset LDA PRM approach. determined by noting its distance from the runway
waypoint as published on the charted IAP.
(2) The RNAV PRM or GLS PRM Missed
Approach Point (MAP) in SOIA operations may be Because the FTP is coded as the MAP, the FMS map
substituted when reference is made to the LDA PRM display will depict the initial missed approach course
MAP. as beginning at the FTP. This depiction does not
2. Flight Management System (FMS) coding of match the charted initial missed approach procedure
the offset RNAV PRM and GLS PRM approaches in on the IAP. Pilots are reminded that charted IAP
a SOIA operation is different than other RNAV and guidance is to be followed, not the map display. Once
GLS approach coding in that it does not match the the aircraft completes the initial turn when
commencing a missed approach, the remainder of the feet above ground level (AGL) on the extended
procedure coding is standard and can be utilized as runway centerline. Aircraft will be paired in SOIA
with any other IAP. operations, with the ILS aircraft ahead of the LDA
aircraft prior to the LDA aircraft reaching the LDA
b. Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach MAP. A cloud ceiling for the approach is established
(SOIA). so that the LDA aircraft has nominally 30 seconds to
1. SOIA is an acronym for Simultaneous Offset acquire the leading ILS aircraft prior to the LDA
Instrument Approach, a procedure used to conduct aircraft reaching the LDA MAP. If visual acquisition
simultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than is not accomplished, a missed approach must be
3,000 feet, but at least 750 feet apart. The SOIA executed at the LDA MAP.
procedure utilizes an ILS PRM approach to one c. Requirements and Procedures.
runway and an offset Localizer Type Directional Aid
(LDA) PRM approach with glide slope to the Besides system requirements and pilot procedures as
adjacent runway. In SOIA operations, aircraft are identified in subparagraph a1 above, all pilots must
paired, with the aircraft conducting the ILS PRM have completed special training before accepting a
approach always positioned slightly ahead of the clearance to conduct ILS PRM or LDA PRM Simul-
aircraft conducting the LDA PRM approach. taneous Close Parallel Approaches.
1. Pilot Training Requirement. Pilots must
2. The ILS PRM approach plates used in SOIA
complete special pilot training, as outlined below,
operations are identical to other ILS PRM approach
before accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close
plates, with an additional note, which provides the
parallel ILS PRM or LDA PRM approach.
separation between the two runways used for
simultaneous approaches. The LDA PRM approach (a) For operations under 14 CFR Parts 121,
plate displays the required notations for closely 129, and 135, pilots must comply with FAAap-
spaced approaches as well as depicting the visual proved company training as identified in their
segment of the approach. Operations Specifications. Training, at a minim-
um, must require pilots to view the FAA video
3. Controllers monitor the SOIA ILS PRM and ILS PRM AND SOIA APPROACHES: INFORM-
LDA PRM approaches in exactly the same manner as ATION FOR AIR CARRIER PILOTS. Refer to
is done for ILS PRM approaches. The procedures and https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/
system requirements for SOIA ILS PRM and LDA prm/ or search key words FAA PRM for
PRM approaches are identical with those used for additional information and to view or download the
simultaneous close parallel ILS PRM approaches video.
until near the LDA PRM approach missed approach
point (MAP) where visual acquisition of the ILS (b) For operations under Part 91:
aircraft by the aircraft conducting the LDA PRM (1) Pilots operating transport category
approach occurs. Since the ILS PRM and LDA PRM aircraft must be familiar with PRM operations as con-
approaches are identical except for the visual segment tained in this section of the AIM. In addition, pilots
in the SOIA concept, an understanding of the operating transport category aircraft must view
procedures for conducting ILS PRM approaches is the FAA video ILS PRM AND SOIA
essential before conducting a SOIA ILS PRM or APPROACHES: INFORMATION FOR AIR
LDA PRM operation. CARRIER PILOTS. Refer to https://www.faa.gov/
training_testing/training/prm/ or search key
4. In SOIA, the approach course separation
words FAA PRM for additional information and to
(instead of the runway separation) meets established
view or download the video.
close parallel approach criteria. Refer to
FIG 5423 for the generic SOIA approach geo- (2) Pilots not operating transport cat-
metry. A visual segment of the LDA PRM approach egory aircraft must be familiar with PRM and SOIA
is established between the LDA MAP and the runway operations as contained in this section of the AIM.
threshold. Aircraft transition in visual conditions The FAA strongly recommends that pilots not in-
from the LDA course, beginning at the LDA MAP, to volved in transport category aircraft operations
align with the runway and can be stabilized by 500 view the FAA video, ILS PRM AND SOIA AP-
FIG 5423
SOIA Approach Geometry
NOTE
SAP The stabilized approach point is a design point along the extended centerline of the intended land-
ing runway on the glide slope/glide path at 500 feet above the runway threshold elevation. It is
used to verify a sufficient distance is provided for the visual maneuver after the offset course ap-
proach DA to permit the pilots to conform to approved, stabilized approach criteria. The SAP is
not published on the IAP.
Offset The point along the LDA, or other offset course, where the course separation with the adjacent
Course DA ILS, or other straight-in course, reaches the minimum distance permitted to conduct closely
spaced approaches. Typically that minimum distance will be 3,000 feet without the use of high
update radar; with high update radar, course separation of less than 3,000 ft may be used when
validated by a safety study. The altitude of the glide slope/glide path at that point determines the
offset course approach decision altitude and is where the NTZ terminates. Maneuvering inside
the DA is done in visual conditions.
Visual Angle, as determined by the SOIA design tool, formed by the extension of the straight segment
Segment of the calculated flight track (between the offset course MAP/DA and the SAP) and the extended
Angle runway centerline. The size of the angle is dependent on the aircraft approach categories (Cat-
egory D or only selected categories/speeds) that are authorized to use the offset course approach
and the spacing between the runways.
Visibility Distance from the offset course approach DA to runway threshold in statute mile.
Procedure The aircraft on the offset course approach must see the runway-landing environment and, if ATC
has advised that traffic on the straight-in approach is a factor, the offset course approach aircraft
must visually acquire the straight-in approach aircraft and report it in sight to ATC prior to reach-
ing the DA for the offset course approach.
CC The Clear of Clouds point is the position on the offset final approach course where aircraft
first operate in visual meteorological conditions below the ceiling, when the actual weather
conditions are at, or near, the minimum ceiling for SOIA operations. Ceiling is defined by the
Aeronautical Information Manual.
d. Attention All Users Page (AAUP). Multiple Simultaneous approach weather minimums are
PRM approach charts at the same airport have a single X,XXX feet (ceiling), x miles (visibility).
AAUP associated with them that must be referred to 2. Dual VHF Communications Required.
in preparation for conducting the approach. To avoid blocked transmissions, each runway will
Bullet points are published which summarize the have two frequencies, a primary and a PRM monitor
PRM procedures which apply to each approach and frequency. The tower controller will transmit on both
must be briefed before conducting a PRM approach. frequencies. The monitor controllers transmissions,
The following information may be summarized in the if needed, will override both frequencies. Pilots will
bullet points or published in more detail in the Expan- ONLY transmit on the tower controllers frequency,
ded Procedures section of the AAUP. Briefing on the but will listen to both frequencies. Select the PRM
Expanded Procedures is optional. monitor frequency audio only when instructed by
ATC to contact the tower. The volume levels should
1. ATIS. When the ATIS broadcast advises ILS be set about the same on both radios so that the pilots
PRM approaches are in progress (or ILS PRM and will be able to hear transmissions on at least one
LDA PRM approaches in the case of SOIA), pilots frequency if the other is blocked. Site specific
should brief to fly the ILS PRM or LDA PRM procedures take precedence over the general
approach. If later advised to expect the ILS or LDA information presented in this paragraph. Refer to the
approach (should one be published), the ILS PRM or AAUP for applicable procedures at specific airports.
LDA PRM chart may be used after completing the NOTE
following briefing items. The pilot may also request At SFO, pilots conducting SOIA operations select the mon-
to fly the RNAV (GPS) PRM in lieu of either the ILS itor frequency audio when communicating with the final
PRM or LDAPRM approach. In the event of the loss radar controller. In this special case, the monitor control-
of ground based NAVAIDS, the ATIS may advertise lers transmissions, if required, override the final
RNAV (GPS) PRM approaches to the affected controllers frequency.
runway or runways. 3. Breakouts. Breakouts differ from other types
of abandoned approaches in that they can happen
(a) Minimums and missed approach proced- anywhere and unexpectedly. Pilots directed by ATC
ures are unchanged. to break off an approach must assume that an aircraft
(b) PRM Monitor frequency no longer re- is blundering toward them and a breakout must be
quired. initiated immediately.
(a) Hand-fly breakouts. All breakouts are
(c) ATC may assign a lower altitude for glide to be hand-flown to ensure the maneuver is accom-
slope intercept. plished in the shortest amount of time.
NOTE (b) ATC Directed Breakouts. ATC dir-
In the case of the LDA PRM approach, this briefing proced- ected breakouts will consist of a turn and a climb or
ure only applies if an LDA-DME approach is also
descent. Pilots must always initiate the breakout in re-
published.
sponse to an air traffic controllers instruction.
In the case of the SOIA ILS PRM and LDA PRM pro- Controllers will give a descending breakout only
cedure, the AAUP describes the weather conditions when there are no other reasonable options available,
in which simultaneous approaches are authorized: but in no case will the descent be below the minimum
vectoring altitude (MVA) which provides at least til passing XXXXX (LDA MAP name) intersection
1,000 feet required obstruction clearance. The prior to maneuvering to align with the centerline of
AAUP may provide the MVA in the final approach Runway XXX.
segment as X,XXX feet at (Name) Airport. (d) SOIA (Name) Airport Visual Segment
NOTE (replaces ILS PRM (4) above). Pilot procedures for
TRAFFIC ALERT. If an aircraft enters the NO TRANS- navigating beyond the LDA MAP are spelled out. If
GRESSION ZONE (NTZ), the controller will breakout the ATC advises that there is traffic on the adjacent ILS,
threatened aircraft on the adjacent approach. The phraseo- pilots are authorized to continue past the LDA MAP
logy for the breakout will be: to align with runway centerline when:
PHRASEOLOGY
TRAFFIC ALERT, (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) (1) the ILS traffic is in sight and is expected
IMMEDIATELY, HEADING (degrees), CLIMB/ DES- to remain in sight,
CEND AND MAINTAIN (altitude). (2) ATC has been advised that traffic is in
4. ILS PRM Glideslope Navigation. The pilot sight. (ATC is not required to acknowledge this
may find crossing altitudes published along the final transmission),
approach course. If the approach geometry warrants (3) the runway environment is in sight.
it, the pilot is advised on the AAUP that descending Otherwise, a missed approach must be executed.
on the ILS or LDA glideslope ensures complying Between the LDA MAP and the runway threshold, pi-
with any charted crossing restrictions. lots conducting the LDA PRM approach are re-
5. SOIA and ILS PRM differences as noted sponsible for separating themselves visually from
on the AAUP. traffic conducting the ILS PRM approach to the adja-
cent runway, which means maneuvering the aircraft
(a) ILS PRM, LDA Traffic (only published as necessary to avoid that traffic until landing, and
on the AAUP when the ILS PRM approach is used providing wake turbulence avoidance, if applicable.
in conjunction with an LDA PRM approach to the Pilots maintaining visual separation should advise
adjacent runway). To provide better situational ATC, as soon as practical, if visual contact with the
awareness, and because traffic on the LDA may be aircraft conducting the ILS PRM approach is lost and
visible on the ILS aircrafts TCAS, pilots are re- execute a missed approach unless otherwise instruc-
minded of the fact that aircraft will be maneuvering ted by ATC.
behind them to align with the adjacent runway. While
e. Differences between Simultaneous ILS and
conducting the ILS PRM approach to Runway XXX,
other aircraft may be conducting the offset LDA PRM ILS PRM or LDA PRM approaches of import-
approach to Runway XXX. These aircraft will ap- ance to the pilot.
proach from the (left/right) rear and will realign with 1. Runway Spacing. Prior to simultaneous
Runway XXX after making visual contact with the close parallel approaches, most ATC directed break-
ILS traffic. Under normal circumstances, these air- outs were the result of two aircraft in-trail on the same
craft will not pass the ILS traffic. final approach course getting too close together. Two
aircraft going in the same direction did not mandate
(b) SOIA LDA PRM Items. The AAUP sec-
quick reaction times. With PRM closely spaced ap-
tion for the SOIA LDA PRM approach contains most
proaches, two aircraft could be alongside each other,
information found in the ILS PRM section. It replaces
navigating on courses that are separated by less than
certain information as seen below and provides pilots
4,300 feet. In the unlikely event that an aircraft blun-
with the procedures to be used in the visual segment
ders off its course and makes a worst case turn of 30
of the LDA PRM approach from the LDA MAP until
degrees toward the adjacent final approach course,
landing.
closing speeds of 135 feet per second could occur that
(c) SOIA LDA PRM Navigation (replaces constitute the need for quick reaction. A blunder has
ILS PRM (4) and (a) above). The pilot may find to be recognized by the monitor controller, and
crossing altitudes published along the final approach breakout instructions issued to the endangered air-
course. The pilot is advised that descending on the craft. The pilot will not have any warning that a
LDA glideslope ensures complying with any charted breakout is imminent because the blundering air-
crossing restrictions. Remain on the LDA course un- craft will be on another frequency. It is important
that, when a pilot receives breakout instructions, he/ minute rate of descent in the event a descending
she assumes that a blundering aircraft is about to or breakout is issued.
has penetrated the NTZ and is heading toward his/her
4. Hand-flown Breakouts. The use of the
approach course. The pilot must initiate a breakout
autopilot is encouraged while flying an ILS PRM or
as soon as safety allows. While conducting PRM ap-
LDA PRM approach, but the autopilot must be
proaches, pilots must maintain an increased sense of
disengaged in the rare event that a breakout is issued.
awareness in order to immediately react to an ATC in-
Simulation studies of breakouts have shown that a
struction (breakout) and maneuver as instructed by
hand-flown breakout can be initiated consistently
ATC, away from a blundering aircraft.
faster than a breakout performed using the autopilot.
2. Communications. To help in avoiding 5. TCAS. The ATC breakout instruction is the
communication problems caused by stuck micro- primary means of conflict resolution. TCAS, if
phones and two parties talking at the same time, two installed, provides another form of conflict resolution
frequencies for each runway will be in use during ILS in the unlikely event other separation standards
PRM and LDA PRM approach operations, the would fail. TCAS is not required to conduct a closely
primary tower frequency and the PRM monitor spaced approach.
frequency. The tower controller transmits and receive The TCAS provides only vertical resolution of air-
in a normal fashion on the primary frequency and craft conflicts, while the ATC breakout instruction
also transmits on the PRM monitor frequency. The provides both vertical and horizontal guidance for
monitor controllers transmissions override on conflict resolutions. Pilots should always immedi-
both frequencies. The pilots flying the approach will ately follow the TCAS Resolution Advisory (RA),
listen to both frequencies but only transmit on the whenever it is received. Should a TCAS RA be re-
primary tower frequency. If the PRM monitor ceived before, during, or after an ATC breakout
controller initiates a breakout and the primary instruction is issued, the pilot should follow the RA,
frequency is blocked by another transmission, the even if it conflicts with the climb/descent portion of
breakout instruction will still be heard on the PRM the breakout maneuver. If following an RA requires
monitor frequency. deviating from an ATC clearance, the pilot must ad-
NOTE vise ATC as soon as practical. While following an
At some airports, the override capability may be on other RA, it is extremely important that the pilot also
than the tower frequency (KSFO overrides the final radar comply with the turn portion of the ATC breakout in-
controller frequency). Pilots should carefully review the struction unless the pilot determines safety to be
dual communications requirements on the AAUP prior to factor. Adhering to these procedures assures the pilot
accepting a PRM approach. that acceptable breakout separation margins will
always be provided, even in the face of a normal pro-
3. Breakouts. The probability is extremely cedural or system failure.
low that an aircraft will blunder from its assigned
approach course and enter the NTZ, causing ATC to 5417. Simultaneous Converging
breakout the aircraft approaching on the adjacent Instrument Approaches
ILS or LDA course. However, because of the close
a. ATC may conduct instrument approaches
proximity of the final approach courses, it is essential
simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways
that pilots follow the ATC breakout instructions
having an included angle from 15 to 100 degrees, at
precisely and expeditiously. The controllers break-
airports where a program has been specifically
out instructions provide conflict resolution for
approved to do so.
the threatened aircraft, with the turn portion of the
breakout being the single most important element b. The basic concept requires that dedicated,
in achieving maximum protection. A descending separate standard instrument approach procedures be
breakout will only be issued when it is the only developed for each converging runway included.
controller option. In no case will the controller These approaches can be identified by the letter V
descend an aircraft below the MVA, which will in the title; for example, ILS V Rwy 17
provide at least 1,000 feet clearance above obstacles. (CONVERGING). Missed Approach Points must
The pilot is not expected to exceed 1,000 feet per be at least 3 miles apart and missed approach
procedures ensure that missed approach protected for knowing if they can conduct an RNP approach
airspace does not overlap. with an arc or not. Aircraft speeds, winds and bank
angles have been taken into consideration in the
c. Other requirements are: radar availability,
development of the procedures.
nonintersecting final approach courses, precision
approach capability for each runway and, if runways 3. RNP required for extraction or not.
intersect, controllers must be able to apply visual Where required, the missed approach procedure may
separation as well as intersecting runway separation use RNP values less than RNP1. The reliability of
criteria. Intersecting runways also require minimums the navigation system has to be very high in order to
of at least 700 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility. conduct these approaches. Operation on these
Straight in approaches and landings must be made. procedures generally requires redundant equipment,
d. Whenever simultaneous converging as no single point of failure can cause loss of both
approaches are in progress, aircraft will be informed approach and missed approach navigation.
by the controller as soon as feasible after initial 4. Nonstandard speeds or climb gradients.
contact or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller RNP AR approaches are developed based on standard
will have direct communications capability with the approach speeds and a 200 ft/NM climb gradient in
tower controller where separation responsibility has the missed approach. Any exceptions to these
not been delegated to the tower. standards will be indicated on the approach
5418. RNP AR Instrument Approach procedure, and the operator should ensure they can
Procedures comply with any published restrictions before
conducting the operation.
These procedures require authorization analogous to
the special authorization required for Category II or 5. Temperature Limits. For aircraft using
III ILS procedures. Authorization required (AR) barometric vertical navigation (without temperature
procedures are to be conducted by aircrews meeting compensation) to conduct the approach, low and
special training requirements in aircraft that meet the hightemperature limits are identified on the
specified performance and functional requirements. procedure. Cold temperatures reduce the glidepath
angle while high temperatures increase the glidepath
a. Unique characteristics of RNP AR angle. Aircraft using baro VNAV with temperature
Approaches compensation or aircraft using an alternate means for
1. RNP value. Each published line of minima vertical guidance (e.g., SBAS) may disregard the
has an associated RNP value. The indicated value temperature restrictions. The charted temperature
defines the lateral and vertical performance require- limits are evaluated for the final approach segment
ments. A minimum RNP type is documented as part only. Regardless of charted temperature limits or
of the RNP AR authorization for each operator and temperature compensation by the FMS, the pilot may
may vary depending on aircraft configuration or need to manually compensate for cold temperature on
operational procedures (e.g., GPS inoperative, use of minimum altitudes and the decision altitude.
flight director vice autopilot).
6. Aircraft size. The achieved minimums may
2. Curved path procedures. Some RNP ap- be dependent on aircraft size. Large aircraft may
proaches have a curved path, also called a require higher minimums due to gear height and/or
radiustoafix (RF) leg. Since not all aircraft have wingspan. Approach procedure charts will be
the capability to fly these arcs, pilots are responsible annotated with applicable aircraft size restrictions.
FIG 5424
FIG 5427
Final Approach Obstacle Clearance
NOTE
Circling approach area radii vary according to approach category and MSL circling altitude due to TAS changes
see FIG 5428.
FIG 5428
Standard and Expanded Circling Approach Radii in the U.S. TPP
2. Precision Obstacle Free Zone (POFZ). A (SM) (or runway visual range below 4,000 feet). If the
volume of airspace above an area beginning at the POFZ is not clear, the MINIMUM authorized height
runway threshold, at the threshold elevation, and above touchdown (HAT) and visibility is 250 feet and
centered on the extended runway centerline. The 3/ SM. The POFZ is considered clear even if the wing
4
POFZ is 200 feet (60m) long and 800 feet (240m) of the aircraft holding on a taxiway waiting for
wide. The POFZ must be clear when an aircraft on a runway clearance penetrates the POFZ; however,
vertically guided final approach is within 2 nautical neither the fuselage nor the tail may infringe on the
miles of the runway threshold and the reported ceiling POFZ. The POFZ is applicable at all runway ends
is below 250 feet or visibility less than 3/4 statute mile including displaced thresholds.
FIG 5429
Precision Obstacle Free Zone (POFZ)
c. Straightin Minimums are shown on the IAP make a normal approach for landing. Under such
when the final approach course is within 30 degrees conditions and when ATC has cleared them for
of the runway alignment (15 degrees for GPS IAPs) landing on that runway, pilots are not expected to
and a normal descent can be made from the IFR circle even though only circling minimums are
altitude shown on the IAP to the runway surface. published. If they desire to circle, they should advise
When either the normal rate of descent or the runway ATC.
alignment factor of 30 degrees (15 degrees for GPS
d. SideStep Maneuver Minimums. Landing
IAPs) is exceeded, a straightin minimum is not
minimums for a sidestep maneuver to the adjacent
published and a circling minimum applies. The fact
runway will normally be higher than the minimums
that a straightin minimum is not published does not
to the primary runway.
preclude pilots from landing straightin if they have
the active runway in sight and have sufficient time to
consideration is given to an abnormally early turn. part of the procedure. The NOTAM will specify both
Therefore, when an early missed approach is the textual instructions and any additional equipment
executed, pilots should, unless otherwise cleared by requirements necessary to complete the procedure.
ATC, fly the IAP as specified on the approach plate Air traffic may also issue instructions for the alternate
to the missed approach point at or above the MDA or missed approach when necessary, such as when the
DH before executing a turning maneuver. primary missed approach NAVAID fails during the
approach. Pilots may reject an ATC clearance for an
c. If visual reference is lost while circlingtoland
alternate missed approach that requires equipment
from an instrument approach, the missed approach
not necessary for the published approach procedure
specified for that particular procedure must be
when the alternate missed approach is issued after
followed (unless an alternate missed approach
beginning the approach. However, when the alternate
procedure is specified by ATC). To become
missed approach is issued prior to beginning the
established on the prescribed missed approach
approach the pilot must either accept the entire
course, the pilot should make an initial climbing turn
procedure (including the alternate missed approach),
toward the landing runway and continue the turn until
request a different approach procedure, or coordinate
established on the missed approach course. Inasmuch
with ATC for alternative action to be taken, i.e.,
as the circling maneuver may be accomplished in
proceed to an alternate airport, etc.
more than one direction, different patterns will be
required to become established on the prescribed f. When approach has been missed, request
missed approach course, depending on the aircraft clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative
position at the time visual reference is lost. airport, another approach, etc.
Adherence to the procedure will help assure that an
g. Pilots must ensure that they have climbed to a
aircraft will remain laterally within the circling and
safe altitude prior to proceeding off the published
missed approach obstruction clearance areas. Refer
missed approach, especially in nonradar
to paragraph h concerning vertical obstruction
environments. Abandoning the missed approach
clearance when starting a missed approach at other
prior to reaching the published altitude may not
than the MAP. (See FIG 5430.)
provide adequate terrain clearance. Additional climb
d. At locations where ATC radar service is may be required after reaching the holding pattern
provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors before proceeding back to the IAF or to an alternate.
when provided by ATC in lieu of the published
h. A clearance for an instrument approach
missed approach procedure. (See FIG 5431.)
procedure includes a clearance to fly the published
e. Some locations may have a preplanned alternate missed approach procedure, unless otherwise
missed approach procedure for use in the event the instructed by ATC. The published missed approach
primary NAVAID used for the missed approach procedure provides obstacle clearance only when the
procedure is unavailable. To avoid confusion, the missed approach is conducted on the missed
alternate missed approach instructions are not approach segment from or above the missed approach
published on the chart. However, the alternate missed point, and assumes a climb rate of 200 feet/NM or
approach holding pattern will be depicted on the higher, as published. If the aircraft initiates a missed
instrument approach chart for pilot situational approach at a point other than the missed approach
awareness and to assist ATC by not having to issue point (see paragraph 545b), from below MDA or
detailed holding instructions. The alternate missed DA (H), or on a circling approach, obstacle clearance
approach may be based on NAVAIDs not used in the is not necessarily provided by following the
approach procedure or the primary missed approach. published missed approach procedure, nor is
When the alternate missed approach procedure is separation assured from other air traffic in the
implemented by NOTAM, it becomes a mandatory vicinity.
proach procedures.
011
36 109.2 CNU
R2
191
radiometry, millimeter wave radar, and/or low light landing minimums. While the regulations do not
level image intensifying. The EFVS imagery is prohibit EFVS from being used during any phase of
displayed along with the additional flight information flight, they do prohibit it from being used for
and aircraft flight symbology required by 14 CFR operational credit on anything but a straightin IAP
91.175 (m) on a headup display (HUD), or an with straightin landing minima. EFVS must only be
equivalent display, in the same scale and alignment as used during a circletoland maneuver provided the
the external view and includes the display element, visual references required throughout the circling
sensors, computers and power supplies, indications, maneuver are distinctly visible using natural vision.
and controls. The display is typically presented to the An EFVS cannot be used to satisfy the requirement
pilot by means of an approved HUD. that an identifiable part of the airport be distinctly
visible to the pilot during a circling maneuver at or
a. Basic Strategy Using EFVS. When flying an above MDA or while descending below MDA from
instrument approach procedure (IAP), if the runway a circling maneuver.
environment cannot be visually acquired at decision
altitude (DA) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) 3. Enhanced Flight Visibility. Flight visibility
using natural vision, then a pilot may use an EFVS to is determined by using natural vision, and enhanced
continue descending down to 100 feet above the flight visibility (EFV) is determined by using an
Touchdown Zone Elevation (TDZE), provided all of EFVS. 14 CFR part 91.175 (l) requires that the EFV
the visibility requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (l) observed by using an EFVS cannot be less than the
are met. The primary reference for maneuvering the visibility prescribed in the IAP to be used in order to
aircraft is based on what the pilot sees through the continue to descend below the DA or MDA.
EFVS. At 100 feet above the TDZE, a pilot can con-
b. EFVS Operations At or Below DA or MDA
tinue to descend only when the visual reference
Down to 100 Feet Above the TDZE. The visual
requirements for descent below 100 feet can be seen
segment of an IAP begins at DA or MDA and contin-
using natural vision (without the aid of the EFVS). In
ues to the runway. There are two means of operating
other words, a pilot may not continue to rely on the
in the visual segmentone is by using natural vision
EFVS sensor image to identify the required visual
and the other is by using an EFVS. If the pilot determ-
references below 100 feet above the TDZE. Support-
ines that the EFV observed by using the EFVS is not
ing information is provided by the flight path vector
less than the minimum visibility prescribed in the IAP
(FPV), flight path angle (FPA) reference cue, on-
being flown, and the pilot acquires the required visual
board navigation system, and other imagery and
references prescribed in 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(3) us-
flight symbology displayed on the EFVS. The FPV
ing the EFVS, then the pilot can continue the
and FPA reference cue, along with the EFVS imagery
approach to 100 feet above the TDZE. To continue
of the Touchdown Zone (TDZ), provide the primary
the approach, the pilot uses the EFVS image to visu-
vertical path reference for the pilot when vertical
ally acquire the runway environment (the approach
guidance from a precision approach or approach with
light system (ALS), if installed, or both the runway
vertical guidance is not available.
threshold and the TDZ), confirm lateral alignment,
1. StraightIn Instrument Approach Pro- maneuver to the extended runway centerline earlier
cedures. An EFVS may be used to descend below than would otherwise be possible, and continue a nor-
DA or MDA from any straightin IAP, other than mal descent from the DA or MDA to 100 feet above
Category II or Category III approaches, provided all the TDZE.
of the requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (l) are met.
1. Required Visual References. In order to
This includes straightin precision approaches,
descend below DA or MDA, the following visual
approaches with vertical guidance (for example, LPV
references (specified in 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(3)) for
or LNAV/VNAV), and nonprecision approaches
the runway of intended landing must be distinctly
(for example, VOR, NDB, LOC, RNAV, GPS, LDA,
visible and identifiable to the pilot using the EFVS:
SDF, etc.).
(a) The ALS (if installed), or
2. Circling Approach Procedure. An IAP
with a circletoland maneuver or circletoland (b) The following visual references in both
minimums does not meet criteria for straightin (b)(1) and (b)(2) below:
(1) The runway threshold, identified by at missed approach must be initiated at or below DA or
least one of the following: the beginning of the run- MDA down to 100 feet above TDZE whenever the
way landing surface, the threshold lights, or the pilot determines that:
runway end identifier lights (REIL).
(a) The EFV is less than the visibility minima
(2) The TDZ, identified by at least one of prescribed for the IAP being used;
the following: the runway TDZ landing surface, the (b) The required visual references for the run-
TDZ lights, the TDZ markings, or the runway lights. way of intended landing are no longer distinctly
2. Comparison of Visual Reference Require- visible and identifiable to the pilot using the EFVS
ments for EFVS and Natural Vision. The EFVS imagery;
visual reference requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (c) The aircraft is not continuously in a posi-
(l)(3) comprise a more stringent standard than the tion from which a descent to a landing can be made
visual reference requirements prescribed under 14 on the intended runway, at a normal rate of descent,
CFR part 91.175 (c)(3) when using natural vision. using normal maneuvers; or
The more stringent standard is needed because an
EFVS might not display the color of the lights used (d) For operations under 14 CFR parts 121
to identify specific portions of the runway or might and 135, the descent rate of the aircraft would not
not be able to consistently display the runway allow touchdown to occur within the TDZ of the
markings. The main differences for EFVS operations runway of intended landing.
are that the visual glide slope indicator (VGSI) lights 5. Missed Approach Considerations. It
cannot be used as a visual reference, and specific should be noted that a missed approach after passing
visual references from both the threshold and TDZ the DA, or beyond the missed approach point (MAP),
must be distinctly visible and identifiable. However, involves additional risk until established on the
when using natural vision, only one of the specified published missed approach segment. Initiating a
visual references must be visible and identifiable. goaround after passing the published MAP may
result in loss of obstacle clearance. As with any
3. Visual References and Offset
approach, pilot planning should include contingen-
Approaches. Pilots must be especially knowledge-
cies between the published MAP and touchdown with
able of the approach conditions and approach course
reference to obstacle clearance, aircraft performance,
alignment when considering whether to rely on EFVS
and alternate escape plans.
during a nonprecision approach with an offset final
approach course. Depending upon the combination of c. EFVS Operations At and Below 100 Feet
crosswind correction and the lateral field of view Above the TDZE. At and below 100 feet above the
provided by a particular EFVS, the required visual TDZE, the regulations do not require the EFVS to be
references may or may not be within the pilots view turned off or the display to be stowed in order to con-
looking through the EFVS display. Pilots conducting tinue to a landing. A pilot may continue the approach
any nonprecision approach must verify lateral below this altitude using an EFVS as long as the re-
alignment with the runway centerline when determ- quired visual references can be seen through the
ining when to descend from MDA. display using natural vision. An operator may not
continue to descend beyond this point by relying
4. When to Go Around. Any pilot operating solely on the sensor image displayed on the EFVS.
an aircraft with an EFVS installed should be aware
that the requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (c) for 1. Required Visual References. In order to
using natural vision and the requirements of 14 CFR descend below 100 feet above the TDZE, the flight
part 91.175 (l) for using an EFVS are different. A visibilityassessed using natural visionmust be
pilot would, therefore, first have to determine sufficient for the following visual references to be
whether an approach will be commenced using distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot without
natural vision or using an EFVS. While these two sets reliance on the EFVS to continue to a landing:
of requirements provide a parallel decisionmaking
(a) The lights or markings of the threshold, or
process, the requirements for when a missed
approach must be executed differ. Using EFVS, a (b) The lights or markings of the TDZ.
It is important to note that from 100 feet above the obstacle clearance surface. Prior planning is
TDZE and below, the flight visibility does not have recommended and should include contingencies
to be equal to or greater than the visibility prescribed between the published MAP and touchdown with
for the IAP in order to continue descending. It only reference to obstacle clearance, aircraft performance,
has to be sufficient for the visual references required and alternate escape plans.
by 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(4) to be distinctly visible
d. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Airport Light-
and identifiable to the pilot without reliance on the
ing Impact on EFVS Operations. The FAA has
EFVS.
recently begun to replace incandescent lamps with
2. Comparison of Visual Reference Require- LEDs at some airports in threshold lights, taxiway
ments for EFVS and Natural Vision. Again, the edge lights, taxiway centerline lights, low intensity
visual reference requirements for EFVS in 14 CFR runway edge lights, windcone lights, beacons, and
part 91.175 (l)(4) are more stringent than those some obstruction lighting. Pilots should be aware that
required for natural vision in 14 CFR part 91.175 LED lights cannot be sensed by current EFVS sys-
(c)(3). The main differences for EFVS operations are tems.
that the ALS and red terminating bars or red side row
bars, the REIL, and the VASI cannot be used as visual 5423. Visual Approach
references. Only very specific visual references from
the threshold or the TDZ can be used (that is, the a. A visual approach is conducted on an IFR flight
lights or markings of the threshold or the lights or plan and authorizes a pilot to proceed visually and
markings of the TDZ). clear of clouds to the airport. The pilot must have
either the airport or the preceding identified aircraft
3. When to Go Around. A missed approach in sight. This approach must be authorized and
must be initiated when the pilot determines that: controlled by the appropriate air traffic control
facility. Reported weather at the airport must have a
(a) The flight visibility is no longer sufficient
ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or
to distinctly see and identify the required visual refer-
greater. ATC may authorize this type approach when
ences listed in 14 CFR part 91.175 (l)(4) using natural
it will be operationally beneficial. Visual approaches
vision;
are an IFR procedure conducted under IFR in visual
(b) The aircraft is not continuously in a posi- meteorological conditions. Cloud clearance
tion from which a descent to a landing can be made requirements of 14 CFR Section 91.155 are not
on the intended runway, at a normal rate of descent, applicable, unless required by operation
using normal maneuvers; or specifications.
(c) For operations under 14 CFR parts 121 b. Operating to an Airport Without Weather
and 135, the descent rate of the aircraft would not al- Reporting Service. ATC will advise the pilot when
low touchdown to occur within the TDZ of the weather is not available at the destination airport.
runway of intended landing. ATC may initiate a visual approach provided there is
a reasonable assurance that weather at the airport is a
While touchdown within the TDZ is not specifically ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or
addressed in the regulations for operators other than greater (e.g., area weather reports, PIREPs, etc.).
14 CFR parts 121 and 135 operators, continued oper-
ations below DA or MDA where touchdown in the c. Operating to an Airport With an Operating
TDZ is not assured, where a high sink rate occurs, or Control Tower. Aircraft may be authorized to
where the decision to conduct a missed approach pro- conduct a visual approach to one runway while other
cedure is not executed in a timely manner, all create aircraft are conducting IFR or VFR approaches to
a significant risk to the operation. another parallel, intersecting, or converging runway.
When operating to airports with parallel runways
4. Missed Approach Considerations. As separated by less than 2,500 feet, the succeeding
noted earlier, a missed approach initiated after the DA aircraft must report sighting the preceding aircraft
or MAP involves additional risk. At 100 feet or less unless standard separation is being provided by ATC.
above the runway, it is likely that an aircraft is When operating to parallel runways separated by at
significantly below the TERPS missed approach least 2,500 feet but less than 4,300 feet, controllers
will clear/vector aircraft to the final at an angle not g. Authorization to conduct a visual approach is an
greater than 30 degrees unless radar, vertical, or IFR authorization and does not alter IFR flight plan
visual separation is provided during the turnon. The cancellation responsibility.
purpose of the 30 degree intercept angle is to reduce REFERENCE
the potential for overshoots of the final and to AIM Paragraph 5115 , Canceling IFR Flight Plan
preclude sidebyside operations with one or both h. Radar service is automatically terminated,
aircraft in a bellyup configuration during the without advising the pilot, when the aircraft is
turnon. Once the aircraft are established within instructed to change to advisory frequency.
30 degrees of final, or on the final, these operations
may be conducted simultaneously. When the parallel 5424. Charted Visual Flight Procedure
runways are separated by 4,300 feet or more, or (CVFP)
intersecting/converging runways are in use, ATC
a. CVFPs are charted visual approaches
may authorize a visual approach after advising all
established for environmental/noise considerations,
aircraft involved that other aircraft are conducting
and/or when necessary for the safety and efficiency of
operations to the other runway. This may be
air traffic operations. The approach charts depict
accomplished through use of the ATIS.
prominent landmarks, courses, and recommended
altitudes to specific runways. CVFPs are designed to
d. Separation Responsibilities. If the pilot has be used primarily for turbojet aircraft.
the airport in sight but cannot see the aircraft to be
followed, ATC may clear the aircraft for a visual b. These procedures will be used only at airports
approach; however, ATC retains both separation and with an operating control tower.
wake vortex separation responsibility. When visually c. Most approach charts will depict some
following a preceding aircraft, acceptance of the NAVAID information which is for supplemental
visual approach clearance constitutes acceptance of navigational guidance only.
pilot responsibility for maintaining a safe approach d. Unless indicating a Class B airspace floor, all
interval and adequate wake turbulence separation. depicted altitudes are for noise abatement purposes
and are recommended only. Pilots are not prohibited
e. A visual approach is not an IAP and therefore from flying other than recommended altitudes if
has no missed approach segment. If a go around is operational requirements dictate.
necessary for any reason, aircraft operating at e. When landmarks used for navigation are not
controlled airports will be issued an appropriate visible at night, the approach will be annotated
advisory/clearance/instruction by the tower. At PROCEDURE NOT AUTHORIZED AT NIGHT.
uncontrolled airports, aircraft are expected to remain
clear of clouds and complete a landing as soon as f. CVFPs usually begin within 20 flying miles
possible. If a landing cannot be accomplished, the from the airport.
aircraft is expected to remain clear of clouds and g. Published weather minimums for CVFPs are
contact ATC as soon as possible for further clearance. based on minimum vectoring altitudes rather than the
Separation from other IFR aircraft will be maintained recommended altitudes depicted on charts.
under these circumstances.
h. CVFPs are not instrument approaches and do
not have missed approach segments.
f. Visual approaches reduce pilot/controller
workload and expedite traffic by shortening flight i. ATC will not issue clearances for CVFPs when
paths to the airport. It is the pilots responsibility to the weather is less than the published minimum.
advise ATC as soon as possible if a visual approach j. ATC will clear aircraft for a CVFP after the pilot
is not desired. reports siting a charted landmark or a preceding
aircraft. If instructed to follow a preceding aircraft, pilot assumes the responsibility for obstruction
pilots are responsible for maintaining a safe approach clearance. If radar service is being received, it will
interval and wake turbulence separation. automatically terminate when the pilot is instructed to
change to advisory frequency.
k. Pilots should advise ATC if at any point they are
unable to continue an approach or lose sight of a
preceding aircraft. Missed approaches will be 5426. Landing Priority
handled as a goaround. A clearance for a specific type of approach (ILS,
RNAV, GLS, ADF, VOR or Visual Approach) to an
aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan does not mean
5425. Contact Approach
that landing priority will be given over other traffic.
a. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR ATCTs handle all aircraft, regardless of the type of
flight plan, provided they are clear of clouds and have flight plan, on a firstcome, firstserved basis.
at least 1 mile flight visibility and can reasonably Therefore, because of local traffic or runway in use,
expect to continue to the destination airport in those it may be necessary for the controller in the interest
conditions, may request ATC authorization for a of safety, to provide a different landing sequence. In
contact approach. any case, a landing sequence will be issued to each
aircraft as soon as possible to enable the pilot to
b. Controllers may authorize a contact approach properly adjust the aircrafts flight path.
provided:
1. The contact approach is specifically re- 5427. Overhead Approach Maneuver
quested by the pilot. ATC cannot initiate this a. Pilots operating in accordance with an
approach. IFR flight plan in Visual Meteorological
EXAMPLE Conditions (VMC) may request ATC authorization
Request contact approach. for an overhead maneuver. An overhead maneuver is
not an instrument approach procedure. Overhead
2. The reported ground visibility at the maneuver patterns are developed at airports where
destination airport is at least 1 statute mile. aircraft have an operational need to conduct the
3. The contact approach will be made to an maneuver. An aircraft conducting an overhead
airport having a standard or special instrument maneuver is considered to be VFR and the IFR flight
approach procedure. plan is cancelled when the aircraft reaches the initial
point on the initial approach portion of the maneuver.
4. Approved separation is applied between (See FIG 5432.) The existence of a standard
aircraft so cleared and between these aircraft and overhead maneuver pattern does not eliminate the
other IFR or special VFR aircraft. possible requirement for an aircraft to conform to
conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead
EXAMPLE
maneuver cannot be approved. Aircraft operating to
Cleared contact approach (and, if required) at or below
(altitude) (routing) if not possible (alternative procedures) an airport without a functioning control tower must
and advise. initiate cancellation of an IFR flight plan prior to
executing the overhead maneuver. Cancellation of
c. A contact approach is an approach procedure the IFR flight plan must be accomplished after
that may be used by a pilot (with prior authorization crossing the landing threshold on the initial portion of
from ATC) in lieu of conducting a standard or special the maneuver or after landing. Controllers may
IAP to an airport. It is not intended for use by a pilot authorize an overhead maneuver and issue the
on an IFR flight clearance to operate to an airport not following to arriving aircraft:
having a published and functioning IAP. Nor is it
intended for an aircraft to conduct an instrument 1. Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This
approach to one airport and then, when in the clear, information may be omitted if either is standard.
discontinue that approach and proceed to another PHRASEOLOGY
airport. In the execution of a contact approach, the PATTERN ALTITUDE (altitude). RIGHT TURNS.
2. Request for a report on initial approach. nonstandard. Pilots may be requested to report
PHRASEOLOGY break if required for traffic or other reasons.
REPORT INITIAL.
PHRASEOLOGY
3. Break information and a request for the BREAK AT (specified point).
pilot to report. The Break Point will be specified if REPORT BREAK.
FIG 5432
Overhead Maneuver
INITIAL APPROACH
180 TURN 3 - 5 NM
BREAK POINT
X X
ROLL OUT
INITIAL POINT
X 180 TURN
e. The responsibilities of the pilot and the 2. Assigns altitudes in IFR clearances that are at
controller intentionally overlap in many areas or above the minimum IFR altitudes in controlled
providing a degree of redundancy. Should one or the airspace.
other fail in any manner, this overlapping responsi- 3. Ensures acknowledgement by the pilot for
bility is expected to compensate, in many cases, for issued information, clearances, or instructions.
failures that may affect safety.
4. Ensures that readbacks by the pilot of
f. The following, while not intended to be all altitude, heading, or other items are correct. If
inclusive, is a brief listing of pilot and controller incorrect, distorted, or incomplete, makes corrections
responsibilities for some commonly used procedures as appropriate.
553. Contact Approach (b) Approach not authorized when local area
altimeter not available;
a. Pilot.
(c) Procedure not authorized when control
1. Must request a contact approach and makes it
tower not in operation;
in lieu of a standard or special instrument approach.
(d) Procedure not authorized when glide
2. By requesting the contact approach, indicates
slope not used;
that the flight is operating clear of clouds, has at least
one mile flight visibility, and reasonably expects to (e) Straight-in minimums not authorized at
continue to the destination airport in those conditions. night; etc.
3. Assumes responsibility for obstruction clear- (f) Radar required; or
ance while conducting a contact approach.
(g) The circling minimums published on the
4. Advises ATC immediately if unable to instrument approach chart provide adequate obstruc-
continue the contact approach or if encounters less tion clearance and pilots should not descend below
than 1 mile flight visibility. the circling altitude until the aircraft is in a position
5. Is aware that if radar service is being received, to make final descent for landing. Sound judgment
it may be automatically terminated when told to and knowledge of the pilots and the aircrafts
contact the tower. capabilities are the criteria for determining the exact
maneuver in each instance since airport design and
REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Radar Service Terminated.
the aircraft position, altitude and airspeed must all be
considered.
b. Controller.
REFERENCE
1. Issues clearance for a contact approach only AIM, Paragraph 5420 , Approach and Landing Minimums
when requested by the pilot. Does not solicit the use 3. Upon receipt of an approach clearance while
of this procedure. on an unpublished route or being radar vectored:
2. Before issuing the clearance, ascertains that (a) Complies with the minimum altitude for
reported ground visibility at destination airport is at IFR; and
least 1 mile.
(b) Maintains the last assigned altitude until
3. Provides approved separation between the established on a segment of a published route or IAP,
aircraft cleared for a contact approach and other IFR at which time published altitudes apply.
or special VFR aircraft. When using vertical
separation, does not assign a fixed altitude, but clears 4. When applicable, apply cold temperature
the aircraft at or below an altitude which is at least correction to instrument approach segments. Advise
1,000 feet below any IFR traffic but not below ATC when intending to apply cold temperature
Minimum Safe Altitudes prescribed in 14 CFR correction and of the amount of correction required
Section 91.119. for each affected segment on initial contact (or as
soon as possible). This information is required for
4. Issues alternative instructions if, in their ATC to provide aircraft appropriate vertical separa-
judgment, weather conditions may make completion tion between known traffic.
of the approach impracticable.
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 723 , Altimeter Errors
AIM, TBL 723, ICAO Cold Temperature Error
554. Instrument Approach
b. Controller.
a. Pilot.
1. Issues an approach clearance based on known
1. Be aware that the controller issues clearance
traffic.
for approach based only on known traffic.
2. Issues an IFR approach clearance only after
2. Follows the procedure as shown on the IAP,
the aircraft is established on a segment of published
including all restrictive notations, such as:
route or IAP, or assigns an appropriate altitude for the
(a) Procedure not authorized at night; aircraft to maintain until so established.
3. Complies with the missed approach instruc- 1. Promptly complies with headings and
tions for the IAP being executed from the MAP, altitudes assigned to you by the controller.
unless other missed approach instructions are 2. Questions any assigned heading or altitude
specified by ATC. believed to be incorrect.
4. If executing a missed approach prior to 3. If operating VFR and compliance with any
reaching the MAP, fly the lateral navigation path of radar vector or altitude would cause a violation of any
the instrument procedure to the MAP. Climb to the CFR, advises ATC and obtains a revised clearance or
altitude specified in the missed approach procedure, instructions.
except when a maximum altitude is specified b. Controller.
between the final approach fix (FAF) and the MAP. In
that case, comply with the maximum altitude 1. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C,
restriction. Note, this may require a continued Class D, and Class E airspace:
descent on the final approach. (a) For separation.
5. When applicable, apply cold temperature (b) For noise abatement.
correction to the published missed approach segment.
Advise ATC when intending to apply cold (c) To obtain an operational advantage for the
temperature correction and of the amount of pilot or controller.
correction required on initial contact (or as soon as 2. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C,
possible). This information is required for ATC to Class D, Class E, and Class G airspace when
provide aircraft appropriate vertical separation requested by the pilot.
between known traffic. The pilot must not apply an
3. Vectors IFR aircraft at or above minimum
altitude correction to an assigned altitude when
vectoring altitudes.
provided an initial heading to fly or radar vector in
lieu of published missed approach procedures, unless 4. May vector VFR aircraft, not at an ATC
approved by ATC. assigned altitude, at any altitude. In these cases,
REFERENCE
terrain separation is the pilots responsibility.
AIM, Paragraph 723 , Altimeter Errors
AIM, TBL 723, ICAO Cold Temperature Error
557. Safety Alert
6. Following a missed approach, requests
a. Pilot.
clearance for specific action; i.e., another approach,
hold for improved conditions, proceed to an alternate 1. Initiates appropriate action if a safety alert is
airport, etc. received from ATC.
2. Be aware that this service is not always 2. Complies with speed adjustments from ATC
available and that many factors affect the ability of unless:
the controller to be aware of a situation in which (a) The minimum or maximum safe airspeed
unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another for any particular operation is greater or less than the
aircraft may be developing. requested airspeed. In such cases, advises ATC.
b. Controller. NOTE
It is the pilots responsibility and prerogative to refuse
1. Issues a safety alert if aware an aircraft under speed adjustments considered excessive or contrary to the
their control is at an altitude which, in the controllers aircrafts operating specifications.
judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to
terrain, obstructions or another aircraft. Types of (b) Operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on
safety alerts are: an ATC assigned SPEED ADJUSTMENT of more
than 250 knots IAS and subsequent clearance is
(a) Terrain or Obstruction Alert. Immedi- received for descent below 10,000 feet MSL. In such
ately issued to an aircraft under their control if aware cases, pilots are expected to comply with 14 CFR
the aircraft is at an altitude believed to place the Section 91.117(a).
aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain or obstructions.
3. When complying with speed adjustment
(b) Aircraft Conflict Alert. Immediately assignments, maintains an indicated airspeed within
issued to an aircraft under their control if aware of an plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the
aircraft not under their control at an altitude believed specified speed.
to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other. b. Controller.
With the alert, they offer the pilot an alternative, if
feasible. 1. Assigns speed adjustments to aircraft when
necessary but not as a substitute for good vectoring
2. Discontinue further alerts if informed by the technique.
pilot action is being taken to correct the situation or
2. Adheres to the restrictions published in FAA
that the other aircraft is in sight.
Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, as to when
speed adjustment procedures may be applied.
558. See and Avoid
3. Avoids speed adjustments requiring alternate
a. Pilot. When meteorological conditions permit, decreases and increases.
regardless of type of flight plan or whether or not 4. Assigns speed adjustments to a specified IAS
under control of a radar facility, the pilot is (KNOTS)/Mach number or to increase or decrease
responsible to see and avoid other traffic, terrain, or speed using increments of 5 knots or multiples
obstacles. thereof.
b. Controller. 5. Terminates ATC-assigned speed adjustments
1. Provides radar traffic information to radar when no longer required by issuing further
identified aircraft operating outside positive control instructions to pilots in the following manner:
airspace on a workload permitting basis. (a) Advises pilots to resume normal speed
2. Issues safety alerts to aircraft under their when the aircraft is on a heading, random routing,
control if aware the aircraft is at an altitude believed charted procedure, or route without published speed
to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain, restrictions.
obstructions, or other aircraft. (b) Instructs pilots to comply with speed
restrictions when the aircraft is joining or resuming
559. Speed Adjustments a charted procedure or route with published speed
restrictions.
a. Pilot.
CAUTION
1. Advises ATC any time cruising airspeed The phraseology Climb via SID requires compliance
varies plus or minus 5 percent or 10 knots, whichever with all altitude and/or speed restrictions depicted on the
is greater, from that given in the flight plan. procedure.
(c) Instructs pilots to resume published converging runways where projected flight paths
speed when aircraft are cleared via a charted will cross.
instrument flight procedure that contains published
speed restrictions. 5511. Visual Approach
(d) Advises aircraft to delete speed restric- a. Pilot.
tions when ATC assigned or published speed 1. If a visual approach is not desired, advises
restrictions on a charted procedure are no longer ATC.
required.
2. Complies with controllers instructions for
(e) Clears pilots for approach without restat- vectors toward the airport of intended landing or to a
ing previously issued speed adjustments. visual position behind a preceding aircraft.
REFERENCE 3. The pilot must, at all times, have either the
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Resume Normal Speed
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Resume Published Speed airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. After being
cleared for a visual approach, proceed to the airport
6. Gives due consideration to aircraft capabili-
in a normal manner or follow the preceding aircraft.
ties to reduce speed while descending.
Remain clear of clouds while conducting a visual
7. Does not assign speed adjustments to aircraft approach.
at or above FL 390 without pilot consent. 4. If the pilot accepts a visual approach
clearance to visually follow a preceding aircraft, you
5510. Traffic Advisories (Traffic are required to establish a safe landing interval behind
Information) the aircraft you were instructed to follow. You are
responsible for wake turbulence separation.
a. Pilot. 5. Advise ATC immediately if the pilot is unable
1. Acknowledges receipt of traffic advisories. to continue following the preceding aircraft, cannot
remain clear of clouds, needs to climb, or loses sight
2. Informs controller if traffic in sight. of the airport.
3. Advises ATC if a vector to avoid traffic is 6. Be aware that radar service is automatically
desired. terminated, without being advised by ATC, when the
pilot is instructed to change to advisory frequency.
4. Does not expect to receive radar traffic
advisories on all traffic. Some aircraft may not appear 7. Be aware that there may be other traffic in the
on the radar display. Be aware that the controller may traffic pattern and the landing sequence may differ
be occupied with higher priority duties and unable to from the traffic sequence assigned by approach
issue traffic information for a variety of reasons. control or ARTCC.
5. Advises controller if service is not desired. b. Controller.
1. Do not clear an aircraft for a visual approach
b. Controller.
unless reported weather at the airport is ceiling at or
1. Issues radar traffic to the maximum extent above 1,000 feet and visibility is 3 miles or greater.
consistent with higher priority duties except in When weather is not available for the destination
Class A airspace. airport, inform the pilot and do not initiate a visual
approach to that airport unless there is reasonable
2. Provides vectors to assist aircraft to avoid assurance that descent and flight to the airport can be
observed traffic when requested by the pilot. made visually.
3. Issues traffic information to aircraft in the 2. Issue visual approach clearance when the
Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas for pilot reports sighting either the airport or a preceding
sequencing purposes. aircraft which is to be followed.
4. Controllers are required to issue to each 3. Provide separation except when visual
aircraft operating on intersecting or nonintersecting separation is being applied by the pilot.
5. For all aircraft, inform the pilot when the 1. This clearance must be requested by the pilot
preceding aircraft is a heavy. Inform the pilot of a on an IFR flight plan, and if approved, allows the pilot
small aircraft when the preceding aircraft is a B757. the choice (subject to any ATC restrictions) to select
Visual separation is prohibited behind super aircraft. an altitude or flight level in lieu of an assigned
altitude.
6. When weather is available for the destination
airport, do not initiate a vector for a visual approach NOTE
unless the reported ceiling at the airport is 500 feet or VFRontop is not permitted in certain airspace areas,
more above the MVA and visibility is 3 miles or more. such as Class A airspace, certain restricted areas, etc.
If vectoring weather minima are not available but Consequently, IFR flights operating VFRontop will
weather at the airport is ceiling at or above 1,000 feet avoid such airspace.
and visibility of 3 miles or greater, visual approaches REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 448 , IFR Clearance VFRontop
may still be conducted. AIM, Paragraph 4411 , IFR Separation Standards
AIM, Paragraph 532 , Position Reporting
AIM, Paragraph 533 , Additional Reports
5512. Visual Separation
2. By requesting a VFR-on-top clearance, the
a. Pilot. pilot assumes the sole responsibility to be vigilant so
as to see and avoid other aircraft and to:
1. Acceptance of instructions to follow another
aircraft or to provide visual separation from it is an (a) Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as
acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159.
aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to
maintain in-trail separation. Pilots are responsible to (b) Comply with the VFR visibility and
maintain visual separation until flight paths (altitudes distance from clouds criteria in 14 CFR Sec-
and/or courses) diverge. tion 91.155, Basic VFR Weather Minimums.
2. If instructed by ATC to follow another aircraft (c) Comply with instrument flight rules that
or to provide visual separation from it, promptly are applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR
notify the controller if you lose sight of that aircraft, altitudes, position reporting, radio communications,
are unable to maintain continued visual contact with course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.
it, or cannot accept the responsibility for your own
separation for any reason. 3. Should advise ATC prior to any altitude
change to ensure the exchange of accurate traffic
3. The pilot also accepts responsibility for wake information.
turbulence separation under these conditions.
b. Controller.
b. Controller. Applies visual separation only:
1. Within the terminal area when a controller 1. May clear an aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top
has both aircraft in sight or by instructing a pilot who if the pilot of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan requests
sees the other aircraft to maintain visual separation the clearance.
from it. 2. Informs the pilot of an aircraft cleared to
2. Pilots are responsible to maintain visual climb to VFR-on-top the reported height of the tops
separation until flight paths (altitudes and/or courses) or that no top report is available; issues an alternate
diverge. clearance if necessary; and once the aircraft reports
reaching VFR-on-top, reclears the aircraft to
3. Within en route airspace when aircraft are on maintain VFR-on-top.
opposite courses and one pilot reports having seen the
other aircraft and that the aircraft have passed each 3. Before issuing clearance, ascertain that the
other. aircraft is not in or will not enter Class A airspace.
their entirety, rather than loading RNAV route must develop procedures to verify correct GPS
waypoints from the database into the flight plan operation.
individually. However, selecting and inserting
9. RNAV terminal procedures (DP and STAR)
individual, named fixes from the database is
may be amended by ATC issuing radar vectors and/or
permitted, provided all fixes along the published
clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should avoid
route to be flown are inserted.
premature manual deletion of waypoints from their
4. Pilots must not change any database active legs page to allow for rejoining procedures.
waypoint type from a flyby to flyover, or vice 10. RAIM Prediction: If TSOC129 equipment
versa. No other modification of database waypoints is used to solely satisfy the RNAV and RNP
or the creation of userdefined waypoints on requirement, GPS RAIM availability must be
published RNAV or RNP procedures is permitted, confirmed for the intended route of flight (route and
except to: time). If RAIM is not available, pilots need an
(a) Change altitude and/or airspeed waypoint approved alternate means of navigation.
constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/ REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 5116 , RNAV and RNP Operations
instruction.
11. Definition of established for RNAV and
(b) Insert a waypoint along the published RNP operations. An aircraft is considered to be
route to assist in complying with ATC instruction, established on-course during RNAV and RNP
example, Descend via the WILMS arrival except operations anytime it is within 1 times the required
cross 30 north of BRUCE at/or below FL 210. This accuracy for the segment being flown. For example,
is limited only to systems that allow alongtrack while operating on a Q-Route (RNAV 2), the aircraft
waypoint construction. is considered to be established on-course when it is
5. Pilots of FMSequipped aircraft, who are within 2 nm of the course centerline.
assigned an RNAV DP or STAR procedure and NOTE
subsequently receive a change of runway, transition Pilots must be aware of how their navigation system
or procedure, must verify that the appropriate operates, along with any AFM limitations, and confirm
changes are loaded and available for navigation. that the aircrafts lateral deviation display (or map display
if being used as an allowed alternate means) is suitable for
6. For RNAV 1 DPs and STARs, pilots must use the accuracy of the segment being flown. Automatic scaling
a CDI, flight director and/or autopilot, in lateral and alerting changes are appropriate for some operations.
navigation mode. Other methods providing an For example, TSO-C129 systems change within 30 miles of
equivalent level of performance may also be destination and within 2 miles of FAF to support approach
operations. For some navigation systems and operations,
acceptable.
manual selection of scaling will be necessary.
7. For RNAV 1 DPs and STARs, pilots of (a) Pilots flying FMS equipped aircraft with barometric
aircraft without GPS, using DME/DME/IRU, must vertical navigation (Baro-VNAV) may descend when the
ensure the aircraft navigation system position is aircraft is established on-course following FMS leg
transition to the next segment. Leg transition normally
confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of occurs at the turn bisector for a fly-by waypoint (reference
takeoff roll. The use of an automatic or manual paragraph 1-2-1 for more on waypoints). When using full
runway update is an acceptable means of compliance automation, pilots should monitor the aircraft to ensure the
with this requirement. Other methods providing an aircraft is turning at appropriate lead times and
equivalent level of performance may also be descending once established on-course.
acceptable.
(b) Pilots flying TSO-C129 navigation system equipped
8. For procedures or routes requiring the use of aircraft without full automation should use normal lead
GPS, if the navigation system does not automatically points to begin the turn. Pilots may descend when
alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator established on-course on the next segment of the approach.
a location inside the U.S., its territories or (a) Pilots must file an Instrument Flight Rules
possessions. (IFR) flight plan or file a Defense Visual Flight Rules
(DVFR) flight plan containing the time and point of
g. Transit or transiting U.S. territorial airspace
ADIZ penetration;
means any flight departing from a location outside of
the U.S., its territories or possessions, which operates (b) The pilot must activate the DVFR flight
in U.S. territorial airspace en route to a location plan with U.S. Flight Service and set the aircraft
outside the U.S., its territories or possessions without transponder to the assigned discrete beacon code
landing at a destination in the U.S., its territories or prior to entering the ADIZ;
possessions. (c) The IFR or DVFR aircraft must depart
within 5 minutes of the estimated departure time
h. Aeronautical facility, for the purposes of this
contained in the flight plan, except for (d) below;
section, means a communications facility where
flight plans or position reports are normally filed (d) If the airport of departure within the
during flight operations. Alaskan ADIZ has no facility for filing a flight plan,
the flight plan must be filed immediately after takeoff
or when within range of an appropriate aeronautical
564. ADIZ Requirements facility;
a. To facilitate early identification of all aircraft in (e) State aircraft (U.S. or foreign) planning to
the vicinity of U.S. airspace boundaries, Air Defense operate through an ADIZ should enter ICAO Code M
Identification Zones (ADIZ) have been established. in Item 8 of the flight plan to assist in identification
All aircraft must meet certain requirements to of the aircraft as a state aircraft.
facilitate early identification when operating into, c. Position Reporting Before Penetration of
within, and across an ADIZ, as described in ADIZ.
14 CFR 99.
In accordance with 14 CFR 99.15, Position Reports,
b. Requirements for aircraft operations are as before entering the ADIZ, the pilot must report to an
follows: appropriate aeronautical facility as follows:
1. Transponder Requirements. Unless other- 1. IFR flights in controlled airspace. The pilot
wise authorized by ATC, each aircraft conducting must maintain a continuous watch on the appropriate
operations into, within, or across the contiguous U.S. frequency and report the time and altitude of passing
ADIZ must be equipped with an operable radar each designated reporting point or those reporting
beacon transponder having altitude reporting capa- points specified or requested by ATC, except that
bility, and that transponder must be turned on and set while the aircraft is under radar control, only the
to reply on the appropriate code or as assigned by passing of those reporting points specifically
ATC. (See 14 CFR 99.13, TransponderOn Require- requested by ATC need be reported. (See
ments, for additional information.) 14 CFR 91.183(a), IFR Communications.)
2. Twoway Radio. In accordance with 2. DVFR flights and IFR flights in uncon-
14 CFR 99.9, Radio Requirements, any person trolled airspace:
operating in an ADIZ must maintain twoway radio (a) The time, position, and altitude at which
communication with an appropriate aeronautical the aircraft passed the last reporting point before
facility. For twoway radio communications failure, penetration and the estimated time of arrival over the
follow instructions contained in 14 CFR 99.9. next appropriate reporting point along the flight
route;
3. Flight Plan. In accordance with
14 CFR 99.11, Flight Plan Requirements, and (b) If there is no appropriate reporting point
14 CFR 99.9, except as specified in subparagraph along the flight route, the pilot reports at least 15
564e, no person may operate an aircraft into, minutes before penetration: the estimated time,
within, or from a departure point within an ADIZ, position, and altitude at which the pilot will penetrate;
unless the person files, activates, and closes a flight or
plan with an appropriate aeronautical facility, or is (c) If the departure airport is within an ADIZ
otherwise authorized by air traffic control as follows: or so close to the ADIZ boundary that it prevents the
pilot from complying with (a) or (b) above, the pilot intelligence agency. (See 14 CFR 99.1 for additional
must report immediately after departure: the time of information.)
departure, the altitude, and the estimated time of f. A VFR flight plan filed inflight makes an
arrival over the first reporting point along the flight aircraft subject to interception for positive identifica-
route. tion when entering an ADIZ. Pilots are therefore
3. Foreign civil aircraft. If the pilot of a foreign urged to file the required DVFR flight plan either in
civil aircraft that intends to enter the U.S. through an person or by telephone prior to departure when able.
ADIZ cannot comply with the reporting requirements
in subparagraphs c1 or c2 above, as applicable, the 565. Civil Aircraft Operations To or From
pilot must report the position of the aircraft to the U.S. Territorial Airspace
appropriate aeronautical facility not less than 1 hour
and not more than 2 hours average direct cruising a. Civil aircraft, except as described in subpara-
distance from the U.S. graph 565b below, are authorized to operate to or
from U.S. territorial airspace if in compliance with all
d. LandBased ADIZ. LandBased ADIZ are of the following conditions:
activated and deactivated over U.S. metropolitan
areas as needed, with dimensions, activation dates 1. File and are on an active flight plan (IFR,
and other relevant information disseminated via VFR, or DVFR);
NOTAM. Pilots unable to comply with all NOTAM 2. Are equipped with an operational transpon-
requirements must remain clear of LandBased der with altitude reporting capability, and
ADIZ. Pilots entering a LandBased ADIZ without continuously squawk an ATC assigned transponder
authorization or who fail to follow all requirements code;
risk interception by military fighter aircraft.
3. Maintain twoway radio communications
e. Exceptions to ADIZ requirements. with ATC;
1. Except for the national security requirements 4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ
in paragraph 562, transponder requirements in requirements described in paragraph 564 and any
subparagraph 564b1, and position reporting in other national security requirements in paragraph
subparagraph 564c, the ADIZ requirements in 562;
14 CFR Part 99 described in this section do not apply 5. Comply with all applicable U.S. Customs and
to the following aircraft operations pursuant to Border Protection (CBP) requirements, including
Section 99.1(b), Applicability: Advance Passenger Information System (APIS)
(a) Within the 48 contiguous States or within requirements (see subparagraph 565c below for
the State of Alaska, on a flight which remains within CBP APIS information), in accordance with 19 CFR
10 NM of the point of departure; Part 122, Air Commerce Regulations; and
(b) Operating at true airspeed of less than 180 6. Are in receipt of, and are operating in
knots in the Hawaii ADIZ or over any island, or accordance with, an FAA routing authorization if the
within 12 NM of the coastline of any island, in the aircraft is registered in a U.S. State Departmentdes-
Hawaii ADIZ; ignated special interest country or is operating with
the ICAO three letter designator (3LD) of a company
(c) Operating at true airspeed of less than 180
in a country listed as a U.S. State Departmentdesig-
knots in the Alaska ADIZ while the pilot maintains a
nated special interest country, unless the operator
continuous listening watch on the appropriate
holds valid FAA Part 129 operations specifications.
frequency; or
VFR and DVFR flight operations are prohibited for
(d) Operating at true airspeed of less than 180 any aircraft requiring an FAA routing authorization.
knots in the Guam ADIZ. (See paragraph 5611 for FAA routing authoriza-
2. An FAA air route traffic control center tion information).
(ARTCC) may exempt certain aircraft operations on b. Civil aircraft registered in the U.S., Canada, or
a local basis in concurrence with the DOD or pursuant Mexico with a maximum certificated takeoff gross
to an agreement with a U.S. Federal security or weight of 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs) or less that are
operating without an operational transponder, and/or maximum certificated takeoff gross weight greater
the ability to maintain twoway radio communica- than 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs), as described in
tions with ATC, are authorized to operate to or from subparagraph 566c below.
U.S. territorial airspace over Alaska if in compliance c. Civil aircraft with a maximum certificated
with all of the following conditions: takeoff gross weight greater than 100,309 pounds
1. Depart and land at an airport within the U.S. (45,500 kgs) are authorized to operate within U.S.
or Canada; territorial airspace if in compliance with all of the
following conditions:
2. Enter or exit U.S. territorial airspace over
1. File and are on an active flight plan (IFR or
Alaska north of the fiftyfourth parallel;
VFR);
3. File and are on an active flight plan; 2. Equipped with an operational transponder
4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ with altitude reporting capability, and continuously
requirements described in paragraph 564 and any squawk an ATC assigned transponder code;
other national security requirements in paragraph 3. Maintain twoway radio communications
562; with ATC;
5. Squawk 1200 if VFR and equipped with a 4. Aircraft not registered in the U.S. must
transponder; and operate under an approved Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) aviation security program (see
6. Comply with all applicable U.S. CBP paragraph 5610 for TSA aviation security program
requirements, including Advance Passenger Infor- information) or in accordance with an FAA/TSA
mation System (APIS) requirements (see airspace waiver (see paragraph 569 for FAA/TSA
subparagraph 565c below for CBP APIS informa- airspace waiver information), except as authorized in
tion), in accordance with 19 CFR Part 122, Air 566c6. below;
Commerce Regulations.
5. Are in receipt of, and are operating in
c. CBP APIS Information. Information about accordance with an FAA routing authorization and an
U.S. CBP APIS requirements is available at FAA/TSA airspace waiver if the aircraft is registered
http://www.cbp.gov. in a U.S. State Departmentdesignated special
interest country or is operating with the ICAO 3LD of
566. Civil Aircraft Operations Within U.S. a company in a country listed as a U.S. State
Territorial Airspace Departmentdesignated special interest country,
unless the operator holds valid FAA Part 129
a. Civil aircraft with a maximum certificated operations specifications. VFR and DVFR flight
takeoff gross weight less than or equal to 100,309 operations are prohibited for any aircraft requiring an
pounds (45,500 kgs) are authorized to operate within FAA routing authorization. (See paragraph 5611
U.S. territorial airspace in accordance with all for FAA routing authorization information.); and
applicable regulations and VFR in airport traffic 6. Aircraft not registered in the U.S., when
pattern areas of U.S. airports near the U.S. border, conducting postmaintenance, manufacturer, pro-
except for those described in subparagraph 566b duction, or acceptance flight test operations, are
below. exempt from the requirements in 566c4 above if all
b. Civil aircraft with a maximum certificated of the following requirements are met:
takeoff gross weight less than or equal to 100,309 (a) A U.S. company must have operational
pounds (45,500 kgs) and registered in a U.S. State control of the aircraft;
Departmentdesignated special interest country or
(b) An FAAcertificated pilot must serve as
operating with the ICAO 3LD of a company in a
pilot in command;
country listed as a U.S. State Departmentdesignated
special interest country, unless the operator holds (c) Only crewmembers are permitted onboard
valid FAA Part 129 operations specifications, must the aircraft; and
operate within U.S. territorial airspace in accordance (d) Maintenance Flight is included in the
with the same requirements as civil aircraft with a remarks section of the flight plan.
1. Enter and exit U.S. territorial airspace over State Department will issue a diplomatic clearance
Alaska north of the fiftyfourth parallel; for such operations. (See subparagraph 5611 for
FAA routing authorizations information).
2. File and are on an active flight plan;
d. Foreign state aircraft operating with a diplomat-
3. Squawk 1200 if VFR and equipped with a
ic clearance must navigate U.S. territorial airspace on
transponder.
an active IFR flight plan, unless specifically
4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ approved for VFR flight operations by the U.S. State
requirements described in paragraph 564 and any Department in the diplomatic clearance.
other national security requirements in paragraph NOTE
562. Foreign state aircraft operations to or from, within, or
transiting U.S. territorial airspace; or transiting any U.S.
568. Foreign State Aircraft Operations controlled oceanic airspace, should enter ICAO code M in
Item 8 of the flight plan to assist in identification of the
a. Foreign state aircraft are authorized to operate aircraft as a state aircraft.
in U.S. territorial airspace if in compliance with all of e. A foreign aircraft that operates to or from,
the following conditions: within, or in transit of U.S. territorial airspace while
1. File and are on an active IFR flight plan; conducting a state aircraft operation is not authorized
to change its status as a state aircraft during any
2. Equipped with an operational transponder portion of the approved, diplomatically cleared
with altitude reporting capability and continuously itinerary.
squawk an ATC assigned transponder code;
f. A foreign aircraft described in subparagraph
3. Maintain twoway radio communications 568e above may operate from or within U.S.
with ATC; territorial airspace as a civil aircraft operation, once
4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ it has completed its approved, diplomatically cleared
requirements described in paragraph 564 and any itinerary, if the aircraft operator is:
other national security requirements in paragraph 1. A foreign air carrier that holds valid FAA Part
562. 129 operations specifications; and
b. Diplomatic Clearances. Foreign state aircraft 2. Is in compliance with all other requirements
may operate to or from, within, or in transit of U.S. applied to foreign civil aircraft operations from or
territorial airspace only when authorized by the U.S. within U.S. territorial airspace. (See paragraphs
State Department by means of a diplomatic 565 and 566.)
clearance, except as described in subparagraph
568h below. g. Foreign state aircraft operations are not
authorized to or from Ronald Reagan Washington
1. Information about diplomatic clearances is National Airport (KDCA).
available at the U.S. State Department web site
http://www.state.gov/t/pm/iso/c56895.htm (lower h. Diplomatic Clearance Exceptions. State
case only). aircraft operations on behalf of the governments of
Canada and Mexico conducted for the purposes of air
2. A diplomatic clearance may be initiated by ambulance, firefighting, law enforcement, search and
contacting the U.S. State Department via email at rescue, or emergency evacuation are authorized to
DCAS@state.gov or via phone at (202) 6633390. transit U.S. territorial airspace within 50 NM of their
NOTE respective borders with the U.S., with or without an
A diplomatic clearance is not required for foreign state active flight plan, provided they have received and
aircraft operations that transit U.S. controlled oceanic continuously transmit an ATC assigned transponder
airspace but do not enter U.S. territorial airspace. (See code. State aircraft operations on behalf of the
subparagraph 568d for flight plan information.) governments of Canada and Mexico conducted under
c. An FAA routing authorization for state aircraft this subparagraph 568h are not required to obtain
operations of special interest countries listed in a diplomatic clearance from the U.S. State
subparagraph 5611b. is required before the U.S. Department.
569. FAA/TSA Airspace Waivers Cuba, Iran, The Democratic Peoples Republic of
Korea (North Korea), The Peoples Republic of
a. Operators may submit requests for FAA/TSA
China, The Russian Federation, Sudan, and Syria.
airspace waivers at https://waivers.faa.gov by
selecting international as the waiver type. NOTE
FAA flight routing authorizations are not required for
b. Information regarding FAA/TSA airspace aircraft registered in Hong Kong, Taiwan, or Macau.
waivers can be found at: http://www.tsa.gov/forin-
dustry/generalaviation or can be obtained by c. Aircraft operating with the ICAO 3LD assigned
contacting TSA at (571) 2272071. to a company or entity from a country listed as a State
Departmentdesignated special interest country and
c. All existing FAA/TSA waivers issued under holding valid FAA Part 129 operations specifications
previous FDC NOTAMS remain valid until the do not require FAA flight routing authorization.
expiration date specified in the waiver, unless sooner
superseded or rescinded. d. FAA routing authorizations will only be granted
for IFR operations. VFR and DVFR flight operations
5610. TSA Aviation Security Programs are prohibited for any aircraft requiring an FAA
routing authorization.
a. Applicants for U.S. air operator certificates will
be provided contact information for TSA aviation
security programs by the U.S. Department of 5612. Emergency Security Control of Air
Transportation during the certification process. Traffic (ESCAT)
b. For information about applicable TSA security a. During defense emergency or air defense
programs: emergency conditions, additional special security
1. U.S. air carriers and commercial operators instructions may be issued in accordance with
must contact their TSA Principal Security Specialist 32 CFR Part 245, Plan for the Emergency Security
(PSS); and Control of Air Traffic (ESCAT).
2. Foreign air carriers must contact their b. Under the provisions of 32 CFR Part 245, the
International Industry Representative (IIR). military will direct the action to be taken in regard to
landing, grounding, diversion, or dispersal of aircraft
5611. FAA Flight Routing Authorizations in the defense of the U.S. during emergency
conditions.
a. Information about FAA routing authorizations
for U.S. State Departmentdesignated special c. At the time a portion or all of ESCAT is
interest country flight operations to or from, within, implemented, ATC facilities will broadcast appropri-
or transiting U.S. territorial airspace is available by ate instructions received from the Air Traffic Control
country at: System Command Center (ATCSCC) over available
ATC frequencies. Depending on instructions re-
1. FAA web site http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/ ceived from the ATCSCC, VFR flights may be
publications/us_restrictions/; or directed to land at the nearest available airport, and
2. Phone by contacting the FAA System IFR flights will be expected to proceed as directed by
Operations Support Center (SOSC) at ATC.
(202) 2678115.
d. Pilots on the ground may be required to file a
b. Special Interest Countries. The U.S. State flight plan and obtain an approval (through FAA)
Departmentdesignated special interest countries are prior to conducting flight operation.
FIG 561
Intercept Procedures
FIG 562
Helicopter Intercept Procedures
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1)
Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning
1 DAYRocking wings from a position You have AEROPLANES: Understood,
slightly above and ahead of, and normally been DAYRocking wings and following. will comply.
to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and, intercepted.
after acknowledgement, a slow level turn, Follow me.
normally to the left, on to the desired
heading.
HELICOPTERS:
DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting
aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a
steady landing light (if carried).
TBL 562
Intercepting Signals
INTERCEPTING SIGNALS
Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept
Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft
(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2)
Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning
4 DAY or NIGHTRaising landing gear (if Aerodrome DAY or NIGHTIf it is desired that the Understood,
fitted) and flashing landing lights while you have intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting follow me.
passing over runway in use or helicopter designated is aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the
landing area at a height exceeding 300m inadequate. intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear
(1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m (if fitted) and uses the Series 1 signals
(2,000 ft) (in the case of a helicopter, at a prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
height exceeding 50m (170 ft) but not
exceeding 100m (330 ft) above the
aerodrome level, and continuing to circle If it is decided to release the intercepted Understood,
runway in use or helicopter landing area. If aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the you may
unable to flash landing lights, flash any Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting proceed.
other lights available. aircraft.
5 DAY or NIGHTRegular switching on and Cannot DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals Understood.
off of all available lights but in such a comply. prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
manner as to be distinct from flashing
lights.
6 DAY or NIGHTIrregular flashing of all In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals Understood.
available lights. prescribed for intercepting aircraft.
a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa a
a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a
a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a
a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a
a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa
a a a aa a a aa a a
a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a
a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa
a a a a
a a a aa aa a a a aa aa a a
a a a a a a a a a aa aa a a aa aa a aa aa a a aa aa a a aa a a aa aa a a aa aa a a aa a
a a a aa a aa aa aa a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a aa a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa
a a aa a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa aa a a a aa aa a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a aa aa a a a a a aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
a a
a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a aa a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a
a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a a aa
a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa
a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a a a
a a a aa a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a aa aa
a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aaaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a a a a
a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa
a a a a a a a
a a a aa a a a aa a a a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a a a
a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aaaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aaaa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a
a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a aa
Designated Mountainous Areas
a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a
a
a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a aa a a a aa
Air Defense Identification Zone Boundaries
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a a a a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aaaa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a
a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a
a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa
a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aaaa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a
a aa aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a aa a a a aa a
a a a a a
a aa a
a a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa aa aa aa a aa aa aa a aa aa aa
a a a
5616. ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas (See FIG 563.)
AIM
5613
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
4/27/17
12/10/15
5617. Visual Warning System (VWS) ATC on an appropriate frequency, VHF Guard 121.5
or UHF Guard 243.0, and provide your aircraft
The VWS signal consists of highly-focused red and identification, position, and nature of the flight.
green colored laser lights designed to illuminate in an Failure to follow these procedures may result in
alternating red and green signal pattern. These lasers interception by military aircraft. Further noncompli-
may be directed at specific aircraft suspected of ance with interceptor aircraft or ATC may result in the
making unauthorized entry into the Washington, DC use of force.
Special Flight Rules Area (DC SFRA) proceeding on
a heading or flight path that may be interpreted as a c. Pilots planning to operate aircraft in or near the
threat or that operate contrary to the operating rules DC SFRA are to familiarize themselves with aircraft
for the DC SFRA. The beam is neither hazardous to intercept procedures. This information applies to all
the eyes of pilots/aircrew or passengers, regardless of aircraft operating within the DC SFRA including
altitude or distance from the source nor will the beam DOD, Law Enforcement, and aircraft engaged in
affect aircraft systems. aeromedical operations and does not change
procedures established for reporting unauthorized
a. If you are communicating with ATC, and this laser illumination as published in FAA Advisory
signal is directed at your aircraft, you are required to Circulars and Notices.
contact ATC and advise that you are being
REFERENCE
illuminated by a visual warning system. CFR 91.161
b. If this signal is directed at you, and you are not d. More details including a video demonstration of
communicating with ATC, you are advised to turn to the VWS are available from the following FAA web
the most direct heading away from the center of the site: www.faasafety.gov/VisualWarningSystem/Vi-
DC SFRA as soon as possible. Immediately contact sualWarning.htm.
General 611
12/10/15 AIM
621. Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in 622. Transponder Emergency Operation
Difficulty
a. When a distress or urgency condition is
encountered, the pilot of an aircraft with a coded radar
a. Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide beacon transponder, who desires to alert a ground
radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to radar facility, should squawk Mode 3/A,
VFR aircraft in difficulty when the pilot can talk with Code 7700/Emergency and Mode C altitude report-
the controller, and the aircraft is within radar ing and then immediately establish communications
coverage. Pilots should clearly understand that with the ATC facility.
authorization to proceed in accordance with such
radar navigational assistance does not constitute b. Radar facilities are equipped so that Code 7700
authorization for the pilot to violate CFRs. In effect, normally triggers an alarm or special indicator at all
assistance is provided on the basis that navigational control positions. Pilots should understand that they
guidance information is advisory in nature, and the might not be within a radar coverage area. Therefore,
responsibility for flying the aircraft safely remains they should continue squawking Code 7700 and
with the pilot. establish radio communications as soon as possible.
discretionary. The decision will depend on the avoided. In the case of an inadvertent 406 MHz ELT
circumstances of the individual incident. activation, the owner can deactivate the 406 MHz
ELT. If the 406 MHz ELT equipped aircraft is being
flown, the RCC can quickly activate a search.
624. Emergency Locator Transmitter
406 MHz ELTs permit the CospasSarsat satellite
(ELT)
system to narrow the search area to a more confined
a. General. area compared to that of a 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz
ELT. 406 MHz ELTs also include a lowpower
1. ELTs are required for most General Aviation 121.5 MHz homing transmitter to aid searchers in
airplanes. finding the aircraft in the terminal search phase.
REFERENCE
14 CFR SECTION 91.207. (c) Each analog ELT emits a distinctive
downward swept audio tone on 121.5 MHz and
2. ELTs of various types were developed as a 243.0 MHz.
means of locating downed aircraft. These electronic,
battery operated transmitters operate on one of three (d) If armed and when subject to crash
frequencies. These operating frequencies are generated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically
121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz, and the newer 406 MHz. activate and continuously emit their respective
ELTs operating on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are signals, analog or digital. The transmitters will
analog devices. The newer 406 MHz ELT is a digital operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide
transmitter that can be encoded with the owners temperature range. A properly installed, maintained,
contact information or aircraft data. The latest and functioning ELT can expedite search and rescue
406 MHz ELT models can also be encoded with the operations and save lives if it survives the crash and
aircrafts position data which can help SAR forces is activated.
locate the aircraft much more quickly after a crash. (e) Pilots and their passengers should know
The 406 MHz ELTs also transmits a stronger signal how to activate the aircrafts ELT if manual activation
when activated than the older 121.5 MHz ELTs. is required. They should also be able to verify the
(a) The Federal Communications Commis- aircrafts ELT is functioning and transmitting an alert
sion (FCC) requires 406 MHz ELTs be registered after a crash or manual activation.
with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric (f) Because of the large number of 121.5 MHz
Administration (NOAA) as outlined in the ELTs ELT false alerts and the lack of a quick means of
documentation. The FAAs 406 MHz ELT Technical verifying the actual status of an activated 121.5 MHz
Standard Order (TSO) TSOC126 also requires that or 243.0 MHz analog ELT through an owner
each 406 MHz ELT be registered with NOAA. The registration database, U.S. SAR forces do not
reason is NOAA maintains the owner registration respond as quickly to initial 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT
database for U.S. registered 406 MHz alerting alerts as the SAR forces do to 406 MHz ELT alerts.
devices, which includes ELTs. NOAA also operates Compared to the almost instantaneous detection of a
the United States portion of the CospasSarsat 406 MHz ELT, SAR forces normal practice is to wait
satellite distress alerting system designed to detect for either a confirmation of a 121.5/243.0 MHz alert
activated ELTs and other distress alerting devices. by additional satellite passes or through confirmation
(b) In the event that a properly registered of an overdue aircraft or similar notification. In some
406 MHz ELT activates, the CospasSarsat satellite cases, this confirmation process can take hours. SAR
system can decode the owners information and forces can initiate a response to 406 MHz alerts in
provide that data to the appropriate search and minutes compared to the potential delay of hours for
rescue (SAR) center. In the United States, NOAA a 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.
provides the alert data to the appropriate U.S. Air 3. The CospasSarsat system has announced the
Force Rescue Coordination Center (RCC) or U.S. termination of satellite monitoring and reception of
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. That RCC the 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz frequencies in 2009.
can then telephone or contact the owner to verify the The CospasSarsat system will continue to monitor
status of the aircraft. If the aircraft is safely secured the 406 MHz frequency. What this means for pilots is
in a hangar, a costly ground or airborne search is that after the termination date, those aircraft with only
121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz ELTs onboard will have nance. These false alarms can be minimized by
to depend upon either a nearby Air Traffic Control monitoring 121.5 MHz and/or 243.0 MHz as follows:
facility receiving the alert signal or an overflying
(a) In flight when a receiver is available.
aircraft monitoring 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz
detecting the alert. To ensure adequate monitoring of (b) Before engine shut down at the end of
these frequencies and timely alerts after 2009, all each flight.
airborne pilots should periodically monitor these (c) When the ELT is handled during installa-
frequencies to try and detect an activated tion or maintenance.
121.5/243.0 MHz ELT.
(d) When maintenance is being performed
b. Testing. near the ELT.
1. ELTs should be tested in accordance with the (e) When a ground crew moves the aircraft.
manufacturers instructions, preferably in a shielded (f) If an ELT signal is heard, turn off the
or screened room or specially designed test container aircrafts ELT to determine if it is transmitting. If it
to prevent the broadcast of signals which could has been activated, maintenance might be required
trigger a false alert. before the unit is returned to the ARMED position.
2. When this cannot be done, aircraft operation- You should contact the nearest Air Traffic facility and
al testing is authorized as follows: notify it of the inadvertent activation.
d. Inflight Monitoring and Reporting.
(a) Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs should only
be tested during the first 5 minutes after any hour. If 1. Pilots are encouraged to monitor 121.5 MHz
operational tests must be made outside of this period, and/or 243.0 MHz while inflight to assist in
they should be coordinated with the nearest FAA identifying possible emergency ELT transmissions.
Control Tower. Tests should be no longer than three On receiving a signal, report the following
audible sweeps. If the antenna is removable, a information to the nearest air traffic facility:
dummy load should be substituted during test (a) Your position at the time the signal was
procedures. first heard.
(b) Digital 406 MHz ELTs should only be (b) Your position at the time the signal was
tested in accordance with the units manufacturers last heard.
instructions.
(c) Your position at maximum signal
(c) Airborne tests are not authorized. strength.
while an aircraft is in flight, the aircraft can be STL St. Louis, Missouri
directed to an airport with this capability. The FAA TUS Tucson, Arizona
provides initial and refresher training for all handlers, TUL Tulsa, Oklahoma
provides single purpose explosive detector dogs, and
requires that each team is annually evaluated in five
c. If due to weather or other considerations an
areas for FAA certification: aircraft (widebody and
aircraft with a suspected hidden explosive problem
narrowbody), vehicles, terminal, freight (cargo), and
were to land or intended to land at an airport other
luggage. If you desire this service, notify your
than those listed in b above, it is recommended that
company or an FAA air traffic control facility.
they call the FAAs Washington Operations Center
b. The following list shows the locations of (telephone 2022673333, if appropriate) or have an
current FAA K9 teams: air traffic facility with which you can communicate
contact the above center requesting assistance.
TBL 621
FAA Sponsored Explosives Detection
Dog/Handler Team Locations 626. Search and Rescue
3. If you land en route and are delayed more than signals illustrated on these pages can be used to
30 minutes, report this information to the nearest FSS transmit messages to the pilot circling over your
and give them your original destination. location.
4. If your ETE changes by 30 minutes or more, 2. Stand in the open when you make the signals.
report a new ETA to the nearest FSS and give them
your original destination. Remember that if you fail 3. Be sure the background, as seen from the air,
to respond within one-half hour after your ETA at is not confusing.
final destination, a search will be started to locate you.
4. Go through the motions slowly and repeat
5. It is important that you close your flight plan each signal until you are positive that the pilot
IMMEDIATELY AFTER ARRIVAL AT YOUR FINAL understands you.
DESTINATION WITH THE FSS DESIGNATED
WHEN YOUR FLIGHT PLAN WAS FILED. The pilot j. Observance of Downed Aircraft.
is responsible for closure of a VFR or DVFR flight 1. Determine if crash is marked with a yellow
plan; they are not closed automatically. This will cross; if so, the crash has already been reported and
prevent needless search efforts. identified.
6. The rapidity of rescue on land or water will
depend on how accurately your position may be 2. If possible, determine type and number of
determined. If a flight plan has been followed and aircraft and whether there is evidence of survivors.
your position is on course, rescue will be expedited. 3. Fix the position of the crash as accurately as
h. Survival Equipment. possible with reference to a navigational aid. If
possible, provide geographic or physical description
1. For flight over uninhabited land areas, it is of the area to aid ground search parties.
wise to take and know how to use survival equipment
for the type of climate and terrain. 4. Transmit the information to the nearest FAA
2. If a forced landing occurs at sea, chances for or other appropriate radio facility.
survival are governed by the degree of crew 5. If circumstances permit, orbit the scene to
proficiency in emergency procedures and by the guide in other assisting units until their arrival or until
availability and effectiveness of water survival you are relieved by another aircraft.
equipment.
6. Immediately after landing, make a complete
i. Body Signal Illustrations.
report to the nearest FAA facility, or Air Force or
1. If you are forced down and are able to attract Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. The report
the attention of the pilot of a rescue airplane, the body can be made by a long distance collect telephone call.
FIG 621
GroundAir Visual Code for Use by Survivors
1 Require assistance V
2 Require medical assistance X
3 No or Negative N
4 Yes or Affirmative Y
5 Proceeding in this direction
1. Lay out symbols by using strips of fabric or parachutes, pieces of wood, stones, or any available material.
2. Provide as much color contrast as possible between material used for symbols and background against which symbols are exposed.
3. Symbols should be at least 10 feet high or larger. Care should be taken to lay out symbols exactly as shown.
4. In addition to using symbols, every effort is to be made to attract attention by means of radio, flares, smoke, or other available means.
5. On snow covered ground, signals can be made by dragging, shoveling or tramping. Depressed areas forming symbols will
appear black from the air.
6. Pilot should acknowledge message by rocking wings from side to side.
FIG 622
GroundAir Visual Code for use by Ground Search Parties
1 Operation completed. L L L
2 We have found all personnel. L L
3 We have found only some personnel.
We are not able to continue.
4
Returning to base. X X
5
Have divided into two groups.
Each proceeding in direction indicated.
NEED MEDICAL
ASSISTANCE-URGENT
Used only when life is at stake
FIG 624
All OK CAN PROCEED SHORTLY
WAIT IF PRACTICABLE
One arm horizontal
FIG 626
Long Delay
LAND HERE
NEGATIVE (NO)
White cloth waved horizontally PICK US UP-
PLANE ABANDONED
Both arms vertical
FIG 6212
Affirmative (Ground) FIG 6214
Affirmative (Aircraft)
AFFIRMATIVE (YES)
AFFIRMATIVE (YES) Dip nose of plane several times
White cloth waved vertically
NEGATIVE (NO)
Fishtail plane
FIG 6217
Message received and NOT understood (Aircraft)
(b) If unable to immediately establish com- necessary. If you do, advise the ground station of the
munications with an air traffic facility/agency, new frequency and station name prior to the change,
squawk Mode A/3, Code 7700/Emergency and transmitting in the blind if necessary. If twoway
Mode C. communications cannot be established on the new
frequency, return immediately to the frequency or
3. Transmit a distress or urgency message
station where twoway communications last existed.
consisting of as many as necessary of the following
elements, preferably in the order listed: c. When in a distress condition with bailout, crash
landing or ditching imminent, take the following
(a) If distress, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAY
additional actions to assist search and rescue units:
DAY; if urgency, PANPAN, PANPAN, PANPAN.
1. Time and circumstances permitting, transmit
(b) Name of station addressed.
as many as necessary of the message elements in
(c) Aircraft identification and type. subparagraph a3 above, and any of the following that
you think might be helpful:
(d) Nature of distress or urgency.
(a) ELT status.
(e) Weather.
(b) Visible landmarks.
(f) Pilots intentions and request.
(c) Aircraft color.
(g) Present position, and heading; or if lost,
last known position, time, and heading since that (d) Number of persons on board.
position. (e) Emergency equipment on board.
(h) Altitude or flight level. 2. Actuate your ELT if the installation permits.
(i) Fuel remaining in minutes. 3. For bailout, and for crash landing or ditching
(j) Number of people on board. if risk of fire is not a consideration, set your radio for
continuous transmission.
(k) Any other useful information.
4. If it becomes necessary to ditch, make every
REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Fuel Remaining. effort to ditch near a surface vessel. If time permits,
an FAA facility should be able to get the position of
b. After establishing radio contact, comply with
the nearest commercial or Coast Guard vessel from a
advice and instructions received. Cooperate. Do not
Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center.
hesitate to ask questions or clarify instructions when
you do not understand or if you cannot comply with 5. After a crash landing, unless you have good
clearance. Assist the ground station to control reason to believe that you will not be located by
communications on the frequency in use. Silence search aircraft or ground teams, it is best to remain
interfering radio stations. Do not change frequency or with your aircraft and prepare means for signaling
change to another ground station unless absolutely search aircraft.
PRIMARY
SWELL SWELL
SECONDARY
SWELL
G
IN
CH G
IT IN ING
D D CH
EA DIT
H ING
AD
HE
WIND
WIND
FIG 634
(50 knot wind)
FIG 632
Double Swell (15 knot wind)
SWELL
W
W
IN
PRIMARY
IN
D
D
SWELL G
IN
TCH ING
I D
D
EA
H
SECONDARY
SWELL
Aircraft with low landing speeds - land into the wind.
FIG 635
WindSwellDitch Heading
DIRECTION OF
SWELL MOVEMENT
BEST
GOOD
FAIR
GOOD
Landing parallel to the major swell
GOOD !! POOR!!!
KS IDE FACE
BAC
Landing on the face and back of swell
4. Swell Face. The side of the swell toward the 10. Swell Direction. The direction from which
observer. The backside is the side away from the a swell is moving. This direction is not necessarily the
observer. These definitions apply regardless of the result of the wind present at the scene. The swell may
direction of swell movement. be moving into or across the local wind. Swells, once
set in motion, tend to maintain their original direction
5. Primary Swell. The swell system having the for as long as they continue in deep water, regardless
greatest height from trough to crest. of changes in wind direction.
11. Swell Height. The height between crest swell, the choice will depend on the velocity of the
and trough, measured in feet. The vast majority of wind versus the velocity and height of the secondary
ocean swells are lower than 12 to 15 feet, and swells swell.
over 25 feet are not common at any spot on the d. The simplest method of estimating the wind
oceans. Successive swells may differ considerably in direction and velocity is to examine the windstreaks
height. on the water. These appear as long streaks up and
c. In order to select a good heading when ditching down wind. Some persons may have difficulty
an aircraft, a basic evaluation of the sea is required. determining wind direction after seeing the streaks on
Selection of a good ditching heading may well the water. Whitecaps fall forward with the wind but
minimize damage and could save your life. It can be are overrun by the waves thus producing the illusion
extremely dangerous to land into the wind without that the foam is sliding backward. Knowing this, and
regard to sea conditions; the swell system, or systems, by observing the direction of the streaks, the wind
must be taken into consideration. Remember one direction is easily determined. Wind velocity can be
axiom AVOID THE FACE OF A SWELL. estimated by noting the appearance of the whitecaps,
foam and wind streaks.
1. In ditching parallel to the swell, it makes little
difference whether touchdown is on the top of the 1. The behavior of the aircraft on making
crest or in the trough. It is preferable, however, to land contact with the water will vary within wide limits
on the top or back side of the swell, if possible. After according to the state of the sea. If landed parallel to
determining which heading (and its reciprocal) will a single swell system, the behavior of the aircraft may
parallel the swell, select the heading with the most approximate that to be expected on a smooth sea. If
into the wind component. landed into a heavy swell or into a confused sea, the
deceleration forces may be extremely greatresulting
2. If only one swell system exists, the problem in breaking up of the aircraft. Within certain limits,
is relatively simpleeven with a high, fast system. the pilot is able to minimize these forces by proper sea
Unfortunately, most cases involve two or more swell evaluation and selection of ditching heading.
systems running in different directions. With more 2. When on final approach the pilot should look
than one system present, the sea presents a confused ahead and observe the surface of the sea. There may
appearance. One of the most difficult situations be shadows and whitecapssigns of large seas.
occurs when two swell systems are at right angles. Shadows and whitecaps close together indicate short
For example, if one system is eight feet high, and the and rough seas. Touchdown in these areas is to be
other three feet, plan to land parallel to the primary avoided. Select and touchdown in any area (only
system, and on the down swell of the secondary about 500 feet is needed) where the shadows and
system. If both systems are of equal height, a whitecaps are not so numerous.
compromise may be advisableselect an intermediate
heading at 45 degrees down swell to both systems. 3. Touchdown should be at the lowest speed and
When landing down a secondary swell, attempt to rate of descent which permit safe handling and
touch down on the back side, not on the face of the optimum nose up attitude on impact. Once first
swell. impact has been made, there is often little the pilot can
do to control a landplane.
3. If the swell system is formidable, it is
considered advisable, in landplanes, to accept more e. Once preditching preparations are completed,
crosswind in order to avoid landing directly into the the pilot should turn to the ditching heading and
swell. commence letdown. The aircraft should be flown
low over the water, and slowed down until ten knots
4. The secondary swell system is often from the or so above stall. At this point, additional power
same direction as the wind. Here, the landing may be should be used to overcome the increased drag caused
made parallel to the primary system, with the wind by the nose up attitude. When a smooth stretch of
and secondary system at an angle. There is a choice water appears ahead, cut power, and touchdown at the
to two directions paralleling the primary system. One best recommended speed as fully stalled as possible.
direction is downwind and down the secondary swell, By cutting power when approaching a relatively
and the other is into the wind and into the secondary smooth area, the pilot will prevent overshooting and
will touchdown with less chance of planing off into made just after passage of the crest. If contact is made
a second uncontrolled landing. Most experienced on the face of the swell, the aircraft may be swamped
seaplane pilots prefer to make contact with the water or thrown violently into the air, dropping heavily into
in a semistalled attitude, cutting power as the tail the next swell. If control surfaces remain intact, the
makes contact. This technique eliminates the chance pilot should attempt to maintain the proper nose
of misjudging altitude with a resultant heavy drop in above the horizon attitude by rapid and positive use
a fully stalled condition. Care must be taken not to of the controls.
drop the aircraft from too high altitude or to balloon
f. After Touchdown. In most cases drift, caused
due to excessive speed. The altitude above water
by crosswind can be ignored; the forces acting on the
depends on the aircraft. Over glassy smooth water, or
aircraft after touchdown are of such magnitude that
at night without sufficient light, it is very easy, for
drift will be only a secondary consideration. If the
even the most experienced pilots to misjudge altitude
aircraft is under good control, the crab may be
by 50 feet or more. Under such conditions, carry
kicked out with rudder just prior to touchdown. This
enough power to maintain nine to twelve degrees
is more important with high wing aircraft, for they are
nose up attitude, and 10 to 20 percent over stalling
laterally unstable on the water in a crosswind and may
speed until contact is made with the water. The proper
roll to the side in ditching.
use of power on the approach is of great importance.
REFERENCE
If power is available on one side only, a little power This information has been extracted from Appendix H of the National
should be used to flatten the approach; however, the Search and Rescue Manual.
engine should not be used to such an extent that the
aircraft cannot be turned against the good engines 634. Special Emergency (Air Piracy)
right down to the stall with a margin of rudder
movement available. When near the stall, sudden a. A special emergency is a condition of air piracy,
application of excessive unbalanced power may or other hostile act by a person(s) aboard an aircraft,
result in loss of directional control. If power is which threatens the safety of the aircraft or its
available on one side only, a slightly higher than passengers.
normal glide approach speed should be used. This b. The pilot of an aircraft reporting a special
will ensure good control and some margin of speed emergency condition should:
after leveling off without excessive use of power. The
1. If circumstances permit, apply distress or
use of power in ditching is so important that when it
urgency radiotelephony procedures. Include the
is certain that the coast cannot be reached, the pilot
details of the special emergency.
should, if possible, ditch before fuel is exhausted. The
use of power in a night or instrument ditching is far REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 631 , Distress and Urgency Communications
more essential than under daylight contact
conditions. 2. If circumstances do not permit the use of
prescribed distress or urgency procedures, transmit:
1. If no power is available, a greater than normal (a) On the air/ground frequency in use at the
approach speed should be used down to the flareout. time.
This speed margin will allow the glide to be broken
early and more gradually, thereby giving the pilot (b) As many as possible of the following
time and distance to feel for the surface decreasing elements spoken distinctly and in the following order:
the possibility of stalling high or flying into the water. (1) Name of the station addressed (time and
When landing parallel to a swell system, little circumstances permitting).
difference is noted between landing on top of a crest
(2) The identification of the aircraft and
or in the trough. If the wings of aircraft are trimmed
present position.
to the surface of the sea rather than the horizon, there
is little need to worry about a wing hitting a swell (3) The nature of the special emergency
crest. The actual slope of a swell is very gradual. If condition and pilot intentions (circumstances
forced to land into a swell, touchdown should be permitting).
(4) If unable to provide this information, 1. Maintain a true airspeed of no more than
use code words and/or transponder as follows: 400 knots, and preferably an altitude of between
10,000 and 25,000 feet.
Spoken Words
TRANSPONDER SEVEN FIVE ZERO ZERO 2. Fly a course toward the destination which the
hijacker has announced.
Meaning
I am being hijacked/forced to a new destination e. If these procedures result in either radio contact
Transponder Setting or air intercept, the pilot will attempt to comply with
Mode 3/A, Code 7500 any instructions received which may direct the
aircraft to an appropriate landing field or alter the
NOTE aircrafts flight path off its current course, away from
Code 7500 will never be assigned by ATC without prior
protected airspace.
notification from the pilot that the aircraft is being
subjected to unlawful interference. The pilot should refuse
the assignment of Code 7500 in any other situation and 635. Fuel Dumping
inform the controller accordingly. Code 7500 will trigger
the special emergency indicator in all radar ATC facilities. a. Should it become necessary to dump fuel, the
c. Air traffic controllers will acknowledge and pilot should immediately advise ATC. Upon receipt
confirm receipt of transponder Code 7500 by asking of information that an aircraft will dump fuel, ATC
the pilot to verify it. If the aircraft is not being will broadcast or cause to be broadcast immediately
subjected to unlawful interference, the pilot should and every 3 minutes thereafter the following on
respond to the query by broadcasting in the clear that appropriate ATC and FSS radio frequencies:
the aircraft is not being subjected to unlawful EXAMPLE
interference. Upon receipt of this information, the Attention all aircraft fuel dumping in progress over
controller will request the pilot to verify the code (location) at (altitude) by (type aircraft) (flight direction).
selection depicted in the code selector windows in the b. Upon receipt of such a broadcast, pilots of
transponder control panel and change the code to the aircraft affected, which are not on IFR flight plans or
appropriate setting. If the pilot replies in the special VFR clearances, should clear the area
affirmative or does not reply, the controller will not specified in the advisory. Aircraft on IFR flight plans
ask further questions but will flight follow, respond to or special VFR clearances will be provided specific
pilot requests and notify appropriate authorities. separation by ATC. At the termination of the fuel
d. If it is possible to do so without jeopardizing the dumping operation, pilots should advise ATC. Upon
safety of the flight, the pilot of a hijacked passenger receipt of such information, ATC will issue, on the
aircraft, after departing from the cleared routing over appropriate frequencies, the following:
which the aircraft was operating, will attempt to do EXAMPLE
one or more of the following things, insofar as ATTENTION ALL AIRCRAFT FUEL DUMPING BY
circumstances may permit: (type aircraft) TERMINATED.
radio failure occurs after the time/fix specified, the altitude calculated from the filed or amended (with ATC)
to be expected is not applicable and the pilot should Estimated Time En Route (ETE).
maintain an altitude consistent with 1 or 2 above. If the
pilot receives an expect further clearance containing a (2) If the clearance limit is not a fix from
lower altitude, the pilot should maintain the highest of 1 or which an approach begins, leave the clearance limit
2 above until that time/fix specified in subparagraph (c) at the expect further clearance time if one has been
Leave clearance limit, below. received, or if none has been received, upon arrival
EXAMPLE over the clearance limit, and proceed to a fix from
1. A pilot experiencing two-way radio failure at an which an approach begins and commence descent or
assigned altitude of 7,000 feet is cleared along a direct descent and approach as close as possible to the
route which will require a climb to a minimum IFR altitude estimated time of arrival as calculated from the filed
of 9,000 feet, should climb to reach 9,000 feet at the time or amended (with ATC) estimated time en route.
or place where it becomes necessary (see 14 CFR
Section 91.177(b)). Later while proceeding along an 642. Transponder Operation During
airway with an MEA of 5,000 feet, the pilot would descend
Two-way Communications Failure
to 7,000 feet (the last assigned altitude), because that
altitude is higher than the MEA. a. If an aircraft with a coded radar beacon
2. A pilot experiencing two-way radio failure while being transponder experiences a loss of two-way radio
progressively descended to lower altitudes to begin an capability, the pilot should adjust the transponder to
approach is assigned 2,700 feet until crossing the VOR and reply on Mode A/3, Code 7600.
then cleared for the approach. The MOCA along the airway b. The pilot should understand that the aircraft
is 2,700 feet and MEA is 4,000 feet. The aircraft is within
may not be in an area of radar coverage.
22 NM of the VOR. The pilot should remain at 2,700 feet
until crossing the VOR because that altitude is the
minimum IFR altitude for the route segment being flown. 643. Reestablishing Radio Contact
3. The MEA between a and b: 5,000 feet. The MEA a. In addition to monitoring the NAVAID voice
between b and c: 5,000 feet. The MEA between c and d: feature, the pilot should attempt to reestablish
11,000 feet. The MEA between d and e: 7,000 feet. A pilot communications by attempting contact:
had been cleared via a, b, c, d, to e. While flying between
a and b the assigned altitude was 6,000 feet and the pilot 1. On the previously assigned frequency; or
was told to expect a clearance to 8,000 feet at b. Prior to 2. With an FSS or *ARINC.
receiving the higher altitude assignment, the pilot
experienced two-way failure. The pilot would maintain b. If communications are established with an FSS
6,000 to b, then climb to 8,000 feet (the altitude advised to or ARINC, the pilot should advise that radio
expect). The pilot would maintain 8,000 feet, then climb to communications on the previously assigned frequen-
11,000 at c, or prior to c if necessary to comply with an cy has been lost giving the aircrafts position, altitude,
MCA at c. (14 CFR Section 91.177(b).) Upon reaching d, last assigned frequency and then request further
the pilot would descend to 8,000 feet (even though the MEA clearance from the controlling facility. The preceding
was 7,000 feet), as 8,000 was the highest of the altitude does not preclude the use of 121.5 MHz. There is no
situations stated in the rule (14 CFR Section 91.185). priority on which action should be attempted first. If
(c) Leave clearance limit. the capability exists, do all at the same time.
NOTE
(1) When the clearance limit is a fix from
*Aeronautical Radio/Incorporated (ARINC) is a commer-
which an approach begins, commence descent or cial communications corporation which designs,
descent and approach as close as possible to the constructs, operates, leases or otherwise engages in radio
expect further clearance time if one has been activities serving the aviation community. ARINC has the
received, or if one has not been received, as close as capability of relaying information to/from ATC facilities
possible to the Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) as throughout the country.
FIG 652
Recommend Stop
FIG 653
Emergency Contained
711. National Weather Service Aviation gather weather information to support the needs of
Weather Service Program the FAA and other users of the system.
a. Weather service to aviation is a joint effort of the 5. Several NWS National Centers for Environ-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration mental Production (NCEP) provide aviation specific
(NOAA), the National Weather Service (NWS), the weather forecasts, or select public forecasts which are
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Department of interest to pilots and operators.
of Defense, and various private sector aviation (a) The Aviation Weather Center (AWC)
weather service providers. Requirements for all displays a variety of domestic and international
aviation weather products originate from the FAA, aviation forecast products over the Internet at
which is the Meteorological Authority for the U.S. aviationweather.gov.
b. NWS meteorologists are assigned to all air (b) The NCEP Central Operations (NCO) is
route traffic control centers (ARTCC) as part of the responsible for the operation of many numerical
Center Weather Service Units (CWSU) as well as the weather prediction models, including those which
Air Traffic Control System Command Center produce the many wind and temperature aloft
(ATCSCC). These meteorologists provide special- forecasts.
ized briefings as well as tailored forecasts to support (c) The Storm Prediction Center (SPC) issues
the needs of the FAA and other users of the NAS. tornado and severe weather watches along with other
guidance forecasts.
c. Aviation Products
(d) The National Hurricane Center (NHC)
1. The NWS maintains an extensive surface, issues forecasts on tropical weather systems (for
upper air, and radar weather observing program; and example, hurricanes).
a nationwide aviation weather forecasting service.
(e) The Space Weather Prediction Center
2. Airport observations (METAR and SPECI) (SWPC) provides alerts, watches, warnings and
supported by the NWS are provided by automated forecasts for space weather events (for example, solar
observing systems. storms) affecting or expected to affect Earths
environment.
3. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) are
(f) The Weather Prediction Center (WPC)
prepared by 123 NWS Weather Forecast Offices
provides analysis and forecast products on a national
(WFOs) for over 700 airports. These forecasts are
scale including surface pressure and frontal analyses.
valid for 24 or 30 hours and amended as required.
6. NOAA operates two Volcanic Ash Advisory
4. Inflight aviation advisories (for example, Centers (VAAC) which issue forecasts of ash clouds
Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMETs) following a volcanic eruption in their area of
and Airmens Meteorological Information (AIR- responsibility.
METs)) are issued by three NWS Meteorological
Watch Offices; the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) 7. Details on the products provided by the above
in Kansas City, MO, the Alaska Aviation Weather listed offices and centers is available in FAA
Unit (AAWU) in Anchorage, AK, and the WFO in Advisory Circular 00-45, Aviation Weather Services.
Honolulu, HI. Both the AWC and the AAWU issue d. Weather element values may be expressed by
area forecasts (FA) for selected areas. In addition, using different measurement systems depending on
NWS meteorologists assigned to most ARTCCs as several factors, such as whether the weather products
part of the Center Weather Service Unit (CWSU) will be used by the general public, aviation interests,
provide Center Weather Advisories (CWAs) and international services, or a combination of these
Meteorology 711
5/26/16
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
AIM
5/26/16
12/10/15
users. FIG 711 provides conversion tables for the For customer service: (800) 3453828
most used weather elements that will be encountered
by pilots. Lockheed Martin Flight Services
Internet Access: http://www.1800wxbrief.com
For customer service: (866) 9366826
712. FAA Weather Services
a. The FAA provides the Flight Service program, 713. Use of Aviation Weather Products
which serves the weather needs of pilots through its
flight service stations (FSS) (both government and a. Air carriers and operators certificated under the
contract via 1-800-WX-BRIEF) and via the Internet, provisions of 14 CFR Part 119 are required to use the
through CSC Direct User Access Terminal System aeronautical weather information systems defined in
(DUATS) and Lockheed Martin Flight Services the Operations Specifications issued to that certifi-
(DUATS II). cate holder by the FAA. These systems may utilize
basic FAA/National Weather Service (NWS) weather
b. The FAA maintains an extensive surface services, contractor or operatorproprietary weath-
weather observing program. Airport observations er services and/or Enhanced Weather Information
(METAR and SPECI) in the U.S. are provided by System (EWINS) when approved in the Operations
automated observing systems. Various levels of Specifications. As an integral part of this system
human oversight of the METAR and SPECI reports approval, the procedures for collecting, producing
and augmentation may be provided at select larger and disseminating aeronautical weather information,
airports by either government or contract personnel as well as the crew member and dispatcher training to
qualified to report specified weather elements that support the use of system weather products, must be
cannot be detected by the automated observing accepted or approved.
system.
b. Operators not certificated under the provisions
c. Other Sources of Weather Information of 14 CFR Part 119 are encouraged to use FAA/NWS
products through Flight Service Stations, Direct User
1. Telephone Information Briefing Service
Access Terminal System (DUATS), Lockheed
(TIBS) (FSS); and in Alaska, Transcribed Weather
Martin Flight Services, and/or Flight Information
Broadcast (TWEB) locations, and telephone access
ServicesBroadcast (FISB).
to the TWEB (TELTWEB) provide continuously
updated recorded weather information for short or c. The suite of available aviation weather product
local flights. Separate paragraphs in this section give types is expanding, with the development of new
additional information regarding these services. sensor systems, algorithms and forecast models. The
REFERENCE
FAA and NWS, supported by various weather
AIM, Paragraph 717 , Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) research laboratories and corporations under contract
AIM, Paragraph 718 , Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) to the Government, develop and implement new
(Alaska Only)
aviation weather product types. The FAAs NextGen
2. Weather and aeronautical information are Aviation Weather Research Program (AWRP)
also available from numerous private industry facilitates collaboration between the NWS, the FAA,
sources on an individual or contract pay basis. and various industry and research representatives.
Information on how to obtain this service should be This collaboration ensures that user needs and
available from local pilot organizations. technical readiness requirements are met before
experimental products mature to operational applica-
3. Pilots with a current medical certificate can tion.
access the DUATS and Lockheed Martin Flight
Services via the Internet. Pilots can receive preflight d. The AWRP manages the transfer of aviation
weather data and file domestic VFR and IFR flight weather R&D to operational use through technical
plans. The following are the FAA contract vendors: review panels and conducting safety assessments to
ensure that newly developed aviation weather
Computer Sciences Corporation (CSC) products meet regulatory requirements and enhance
Internet Access: http://www.duats.com safety.
712 Meteorology
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 711
Weather Elements Conversion Tables
Meteorology 713
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
5/26/16
12/10/15
e. The AWRP review and decisionmaking operators should be cautious when using unfamiliar
process applies criteria to weather products at various weather products.
stages . The stages are composed of the following: NOTE
When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station
1. Sponsorship of user needs.
Specialist.
2. R & D and controlled testing. h. With increased access to weather products via
3. Experimental application. the public Internet, the aviation community has
access to an over whelming amount of weather
4. Operational application. information and data that support self-briefing. FAA
f. Pilots and operators should be aware that AC 00-45 (current edition) describes the weather
weather services provided by entities other than FAA, products distributed by the NWS. Pilots and
NWS or their contractors (such as the DUATS and operators using the public Internet to access weather
Lockheed Martin Flight Services DUATS II) may not from a third party vendor should request and/or
meet FAA/NWS quality control standards. Hence, review an appropriate description of services and
operators and pilots contemplating using such provider disclosure. This should include, but is not
services should request and/or review an appropriate limited to, the type of weather product (for example,
description of services and provider disclosure. This current weather or forecast weather), the currency of
should include, but is not limited to, the type of the product (i.e., product issue and valid times), and
weather product (for example, current weather or the relevance of the product. Pilots and operators
forecast weather), the currency of the product (that is, should be cautious when using unfamiliar weather
product issue and valid times), and the relevance of products and when in doubt, consult with a Flight
the product. Pilots and operators should be cautious Service Specialist.
when using unfamiliar products, or products not i. The development of new weather products,
supported by FAA/NWS technical specifications. coupled with the termination of some legacy textual
NOTE and graphical products may create confusion between
When in doubt, consult with a FAA Flight Service Station regulatory requirements and the new products. All
Specialist. flightrelated, aviation weather decisions must be
based on all available pertinent weather products. As
g. In addition, pilots and operators should be
every flight is unique and the weather conditions for
aware there are weather services and products
that flight vary hour by hour, day to day, multiple
available from government organizations beyond the
weather products may be necessary to meet aviation
scope of the AWRP process mentioned earlier in this
weather regulatory requirements. Many new weather
section. For example, governmental agencies such as
products now have a Precautionary Use Statement
the NWS and the Aviation Weather Center (AWC), or
that details the proper use or application of the
research organizations such as the National Center
specific product.
for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) display weather
model data and experimental products which j. The FAA has identified three distinct types of
require training and/or expertise to properly interpret weather information available to pilots and operators.
and use. These products are developmental proto- 1. Observations. Raw weather data collected
types that are subject to ongoing research and can by some type of sensor suite including surface and
change without notice. Therefore, some data on airborne observations, radar, lightning, satellite
display by government organizations, or government imagery, and profilers.
data on display by independent organizations may be 2. Analysis. Enhanced depiction and/or inter-
unsuitable for flight planning purposes. Operators pretation of observed weather data.
and pilots contemplating using such services should
request and/or review an appropriate description of 3. Forecasts. Predictions of the development
services and provider disclosure. This should include, and/or movement of weather phenomena based on
but is not limited to, the type of weather product (for meteorological observations and various mathemat-
example, current weather or forecast weather), the ical models.
currency of the product (i.e., product issue and valid k. Not all sources of aviation weather information
times), and the relevance of the product. Pilots and are able to provide all three types of weather
714 Meteorology
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information. The FAA has determined that operators 714. Preflight Briefing
and pilots may utilize the following approved sources
a. Flight Service Stations (FSSs) are the primary
of aviation weather information:
source for obtaining preflight briefings and inflight
1. Federal Government. The FAA and NWS weather information. Flight Service Specialists are
collect raw weather data, analyze the observations, qualified and certificated by the NWS as Pilot
and produce forecasts. The FAA and NWS Weather Briefers. They are not authorized to make
disseminate meteorological observations, analyses, original forecasts, but are authorized to translate and
and forecasts through a variety of systems. In interpret available forecasts and reports directly into
addition, the Federal Government is the only terms describing the weather conditions which you
approval authority for sources of weather observa- can expect along your flight route and at your
tions; for example, contract towers and airport destination. Available aviation weather reports,
forecasts and aviation weather charts are displayed at
operators may be approved by the Feder al
each FSS, for pilot use. Pilots should feel free to use
Government to provide weather observations.
these self briefing displays where available, or to ask
for a briefing or assistance from the specialist on duty.
2. Enhanced Weather Information System
Three basic types of preflight briefings are available
(EWINS). An EWINS is an FAA authorized,
to serve your specific needs. These are: Standard
proprietary system for tracking, evaluating, report-
Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and Outlook Brief-
ing, and forecasting the presence or lack of adverse
ing. You should specify to the briefer the type of
weather phenomena. The FAA authorizes a certific-
briefing you want, along with your appropriate
ate holder to use an EWINS to produce flight
background information. This will enable the briefer
movement forecasts, adverse weather phenomena
to tailor the information to your intended flight. The
forecasts, and other meteorological advisories. For
following paragraphs describe the types of briefings
more detailed information regarding EWINS, see the
available and the information provided in each
Aviation Weather Services Advisory Circular 0045
briefing.
and the Flight Standards Information Management
System 8900.1. REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 511 , Preflight Preparation, for items that are
required.
3. Commercial Weather Information
Providers. In general, commercial providers b. Standard Briefing. You should request a
produce proprietary weather products based on Standard Briefing any time you are planning a flight
NWS/FAA products with formatting and layout and you have not received a previous briefing or have
modifications but no material changes to the weather not received preliminary information through mass
information itself. This is also referred to as dissemination media; e.g., TIBS, TWEB (Alaska
repackaging. In addition, commercial providers only), etc. International data may be inaccurate or
may produce analyses, forecasts, and other incomplete. If you are planning a flight outside of
proprietary weather products that substantially alter U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will advise you
the information contained in governmentproduced to check data as soon as practical after entering
products. However, those proprietary weather foreign airspace, unless you advise that you have the
products that substantially alter government international cautionary advisory. The briefer will
produced weather products or information, may only automatically provide the following information in
be approved for use by 14 CFR Part 121 and Part 135 the sequence listed, except as noted, when it is
certificate holders if the commercial provider is applicable to your proposed flight.
EWINS qualified. 1. Adverse Conditions. Significant meteoro-
logical and/or aeronautical information that might
NOTE
influence the pilot to alter or cancel the proposed
Commercial weather information providers contracted by
FAA to provide weather observations, analyses, and flight; for example, hazardous weather conditions,
forecasts (e.g., contract towers) are included in the Federal airport closures, air traffic delays, etc. Pilots should
Government category of approved sources by virtue of be especially alert for current or forecast weather
maintaining required technical and quality assurance that could reduce flight minimums below VFR or
standards under Federal Government oversight. IFR conditions. Pilots should also be alert for any
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reported or forecast icing if the aircraft is not certified within 1 hour before and after the planned arrival are
for operating in icing conditions. Flying into areas included.
of icing or weather below minimums could have 7. Winds Aloft. Forecast winds aloft will be
disastrous results. provided using degrees of the compass. The briefer
2. VFR Flight Not Recommended. When will interpolate wind directions and speeds between
VFR flight is proposed and sky conditions or levels and stations as necessary to provide expected
visibilities are present or forecast, surface or aloft, conditions at planned altitudes. (Heights are MSL.)
that, in the briefers judgment, would make flight Temperature information will be provided on request.
under VFR doubtful, the briefer will describe the 8. Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs).
conditions, describe the affected locations, and use
the phrase VFR flight not recommended. This (a) Available NOTAM (D) information perti-
recommendation is advisory in nature. The final nent to the proposed flight, including special use
decision as to whether the flight can be conducted airspace (SUA) NOTAMs for restricted areas, aerial
safely rests solely with the pilot. Upon receiving a refueling, and night vision goggles (NVG).
VFR flight not recommended statement, the NOTE
nonIFR rated pilot will need to make a go or no go Other SUA NOTAMs (D), such as military operations
decision. This decision should be based on weighing area (MOA), military training route (MTR), and warning
the current and forecast weather conditions against area NOTAMs, are considered upon request briefing
the pilots experience and ratings. The aircrafts items as indicated in paragraph 714b10(a).
equipment, capabilities and limitations should also (b) Prohibited Areas P40, P49, P56,
be considered. and the special flight rules area (SFRA) for
NOTE Washington, DC.
Pilots flying into areas of minimal VFR weather could (c) FSS briefers do not provide FDC NOTAM
encounter unforecasted lowering conditions that place the information for special instrument approach proce-
aircraft outside the pilots ratings and experience level. dures unless specifically asked. Pilots authorized by
This could result in spatial disorientation and/or loss of
the FAA to use special instrument approach
control of the aircraft.
procedures must specifically request FDC NOTAM
3. Synopsis. A brief statement describing the information for these procedures.
type, location and movement of weather systems
NOTE
and/or air masses which might affect the proposed 1. NOTAM information may be combined with current
flight. conditions when the briefer believes it is logical to do so.
NOTE 2. NOTAM (D) information and FDC NOTAMs which
These first 3 elements of a briefing may be combined in any have been published in the Notices to Airmen Publication
order when the briefer believes it will help to more clearly are not included in pilot briefings unless a review of this
describe conditions. publication is specifically requested by the pilot. For
4. Current Conditions. Reported weather complete flight information you are urged to review the
conditions applicable to the flight will be summarized printed NOTAMs in the Notices to Airmen Publication and
from all available sources; e.g., METARs/ SPECIs, the Chart Supplement U.S. in addition to obtaining a
PIREPs, RAREPs. This element will be omitted if the briefing.
proposed time of departure is beyond 2 hours, unless 9. ATC Delays. Any known ATC delays and
the information is specifically requested by the pilot. flow control advisories which might affect the
proposed flight.
5. En Route Forecast. Forecast en route
conditions for the proposed route are summarized in 10. Pilots may obtain the following from
logical order; i.e., departure/climbout, en route, and flight service station briefers upon request:
descent. (Heights are MSL, unless the contractions (a) Information on SUA and SUArelated
AGL or CIG are denoted indicating that heights airspace, except those listed in paragraph 714b8.
are above ground.)
NOTE
6. Destination Forecast. The destination fore- 1. For the purpose of this paragraph, SUA and related
cast for the planned ETA. Any significant changes airspace includes the following types of airspace: alert
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area, military operations area (MOA), warning area, and d. Outlook Briefing. You should request an
air traffic control assigned airspace (ATCAA). MTR data Outlook Briefing whenever your proposed time of
includes the following types of airspace: IFR training departure is six or more hours from the time of the
routes (IR), VFR training routes (VR), and slow training briefing. The briefer will provide available forecast
routes (SR).
data applicable to the proposed flight. This type of
2. Pilots are encouraged to request updated information briefing is provided for planning purposes only. You
from ATC facilities while in flight. should obtain a Standard or Abbreviated Briefing
(b) A review of the Notices to Airmen prior to departure in order to obtain such items as
Publication for pertinent NOTAMs and Special adverse conditions, current conditions, updated
Notices. forecasts, winds aloft and NOTAMs, etc.
(c) Approximate density altitude data. e. When filing a flight plan only, you will be asked
(d) Information regarding such items as air if you require the latest information on adverse
traffic services and rules, customs/immigration conditions pertinent to the route of flight.
procedures, ADIZ rules, search and rescue, etc.
f. Inflight Briefing. You are encouraged to
(e) GPS RAIM availability for 1 hour before obtain your preflight briefing by telephone or in
to 1 hour after ETA or a time specified by the pilot. person before departure. In those cases where you
(f) Other assistance as required. need to obtain a preflight briefing or an update to a
previous briefing by radio, you should contact the
c. Abbreviated Briefing. Request an Abbrevia- nearest FSS to obtain this information. After
ted Briefing when you need information to communications have been established, advise the
supplement mass disseminated data, update a specialist of the type briefing you require and provide
previous briefing, or when you need only one or two appropriate background information. You will be
specific items. Provide the briefer with appropriate provided information as specified in the above
background information, the time you received the paragraphs, depending on the type of briefing
previous information, and/or the specific items requested. En Route advisories tailored to the phase
needed. You should indicate the source of the of flight that begins after climb-out and ends with
information already received so that the briefer can descent to land are provided upon pilot request. Pilots
limit the briefing to the information that you have not are encouraged to provide a continuous exchange of
received, and/or appreciable changes in meteorologi- information on weather, winds, turbulence, flight
cal/aeronautical conditions since your previous visibility, icing, etc., between pilots and inflight
briefing. To the extent possible, the briefer will specialists. Pilots should report good weather as well
provide the information in the sequence shown for a as bad, and confirm expected conditions as well as
Standard Briefing. If you request only one or two unexpected. Remember that weather conditions can
specific items, the briefer will advise you if adverse change rapidly and that a go or no go decision, as
conditions are present or forecast. (Adverse condi- mentioned in paragraph 714b2, should be assessed
tions contain both meteorological and/or aeronautical at all phases of flight.
information.) Details on these conditions will be
provided at your request. International data may be g. Following any briefing, feel free to ask for any
inaccurate or incomplete. If you are planning a flight information that you or the briefer may have missed
outside of U.S. controlled airspace, the briefer will or are not understood. This way, the briefer is able to
advise you to check data as soon as practical after present the information in a logical sequence, and
entering foreign airspace, unless you advise that you lessens the chance of important items being
have the international cautionary advisory. overlooked.
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715. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories portion of this total area would be affected at any one
time.
a. Background
1. SIGMETs/AIRMET (or GAIRMET) for the
1. Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories are conterminous U.S. (CONUS)
forecasts to advise en route aircraft of development of
potentially hazardous weather. Inflight aviation SIGMETs/AIRMET text products for the CONUS
weather advisories in the conterminous U.S. are are issued corresponding to the areas in FIG 712.
issued by the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) in The maximum forecast period for a CONUS
Kansas City, MO, as well as 20 Center Weather SIGMET is 4 hours and 6 hours for CONUS
Service Units (CWSU) associated with ARTCCs. AIRMETs. The GAIRMET is issued over the
AWC also issues advisories for portions of the Gulf CONUS every 6 hours, valid at 3hour increments
of Mexico, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which are through 12 hours with optional forecasts possible
under the control of ARTCCs with Oceanic flight during the first 6 hours. The first 6 hours of the
information regions (FIRs). The Weather Forecast GAIRMET correspond to the 6hour period of the
Office (WFO) in Honolulu issues advisories for the AIRMET. SIGMETs and AIRMETs are considered
Hawaiian Islands and a large portion of the Pacific widespread because they must be either affecting
Ocean. In Alaska, the Alaska Aviation Weather Unit or be forecasted to affect an area of at least 3,000
(AAWU) issues inflight aviation weather advisories square miles at any one time. However, if the total
along with the Anchorage CWSU. All heights are area to be affected during the forecast period is very
referenced MSL, except in the case of ceilings (CIG) large, it could be that in actuality only a small portion
which indicate AGL. of this total area would be affected at any one time.
Only SIGMETs for the CONUS are for non-convect-
2. There are four types of inflight aviation ive weather. The U.S. issues a special category of
weather advisories: the SIGMET, the Convective SIGMETs for convective weather called Convective
SIGMET, the AIRMET (text or graphical product), SIGMETs.
and the Center Weather Advisory (CWA). All of these
2. SIGMETs/AIRMETs for Alaska
advisories use the same location identifiers (either
VORs, airports, or wellknown geographic areas) to Alaska SIGMETs are valid for up to 4 hours, except
describe the hazardous weather areas. for Volcanic Ash Cloud SIGMETs which are valid for
up to 6 hours. Alaska AIRMETs are valid for up to
3. The Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs), 8 hours.
(with associated Alert Messages) (AWW) supple-
ments these Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories. 3. SIGMETs/AIRMETs for Hawaii and U.S.
FIRs in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Western
b. SIGMET (WS)/AIRMET (WA or Atlantic and Eastern and Central Pacific Oceans
GAIRMET)
These SIGMETs are valid for up to 4 hours, except
SIGMETs/AIRMET text (WA) products are issued SIGMETs for Tropical Cyclones and Volcanic Ash
corresponding to the Area Forecast (FA) areas Clouds, which are valid for up to 6 hours. AIRMETs
described in FIG 712 and FIG 713. The are issued for the Hawaiian Islands and are valid for
maximum forecast period is 4 hours for SIGMETs up to 6 hours. No AIRMETs are issued for U.S. FIRs
and 6 hours for AIRMETs. The GAIRMET is issued in the the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Western
over the CONUS every 6 hours, valid at 3hour Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
increments through 12 hours with optional forecasts
c. SIGMET
possible during the first 6 hours. The first 6 hours of
the GAIRMET correspond to the 6hour period of A SIGMET advises of weather that is potentially
the AIRMET. SIGMETs and AIRMETs are consid- hazardous to all aircraft. SIGMETs are unscheduled
ered widespread because they must be either products that are valid for 4 hours. However,
affecting or be forecasted to affect an area of at least SIGMETs associated with tropical cyclones and
3,000 square miles at any one time. However, if the volcanic ash clouds are valid for 6 hours.
total area to be affected during the forecast period is Unscheduled updates and corrections are issued as
very large, it could be that in actuality only a small necessary.
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1. In the CONUS, SIGMETs are issued when (a) Severe thunderstorm due to:
the following phenomena occur or are expected to (1) Surface winds greater than or equal to
occur: 50 knots.
(a) Severe icing not associated with thunder- (2) Hail at the surface greater than or equal
storms. 3/
to 4 inches in diameter.
(b) Severe or extreme turbulence or clear air (3) Tornadoes.
turbulence (CAT) not associated with thunderstorms.
(b) Embedded thunderstorms.
(c) Widespread dust storms or sandstorms
(c) A line of thunderstorms.
lowering surface visibilities to below 3 miles.
(d) Thunderstorms producing precipitation
(d) Volcanic ash. greater than or equal to heavy precipitation affecting
2. In Alaska and Hawaii, SIGMETs are also 40 percent or more of an area at least 3,000 square
issued for: miles.
(a) Tornadoes. 2. Any convective SIGMET implies severe or
greater turbulence, severe icing, and lowlevel wind
(b) Lines of thunderstorms. shear. A convective SIGMET may be issued for any
(c) Embedded thunderstorms. convective situation that the forecaster feels is
hazardous to all categories of aircraft.
(d) Hail greater than or equal to 3/4 inch in
diameter. 3. Convective SIGMET bulletins are issued for
the western (W), central (C), and eastern (E) United
3. SIGMETs are identified by an alphabetic States. (Convective SIGMETs are not issued for
designator from November through Yankee exclud- Alaska or Hawaii.) The areas are separated at 87 and
ing Sierra and Tango. (Sierra, Tango, and Zulu are 107 degrees west longitude with sufficient overlap to
reserved for AIRMET text [WA] products; cover most cases when the phenomenon crosses the
GAIRMETS do not use the Sierra, Tango, or Zulu boundaries. Bulletins are issued hourly at H+55.
designators.) The first issuance of a SIGMET will be Special bulletins are issued at any time as required
labeled as UWS (Urgent Weather SIGMET). and updated at H+55. If no criteria meeting
Subsequent issuances are at the forecasters discre- convective SIGMET requirements are observed or
tion. Issuance for the same phenomenon will be forecasted, the message CONVECTIVE SIGMET...
sequentially numbered, using the original designator NONE will be issued for each area at H+55.
until the phenomenon ends. For example, the first Individual convective SIGMETs for each area (W, C,
issuance in the Chicago (CHI) FA area for E) are numbered sequentially from number one each
phenomenon moving from the Salt Lake City (SLC) day, beginning at 00Z. A convective SIGMET for a
FA area will be SIGMET Papa 3, if the previous two continuing phenomenon will be reissued every hour
issuances, Papa 1 and Papa 2, had been in the SLC FA at H+55 with a new number. The text of the bulletin
area. Note that no two different phenomena across the consists of either an observation and a forecast or just
country can have the same alphabetic designator at a forecast. The forecast is valid for up to 2 hours.
the same time.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE CONVECTIVE SIGMET 44C
Example of a SIGMET: VALID UNTIL 1455Z
BOSR WS 050600 AR TX OK
SIGMET ROMEO 2 VALID UNTIL 051000 FROM 40NE ADM-40ESE MLC-10W TXK-50WNW
ME NH VT LFK-40ENE SJT-40NE ADM
FROM CAR TO YSJ TO CON TO MPV TO CAR AREA TS MOV FROM 26025KT. TOPS ABV FL450.
OCNL SEV TURB BLW 080 EXP DUE TO STG NWLY OUTLOOK VALID 061455-061855
FLOW. CONDS CONTG BYD 1000Z. FROM 60WSW OKC-MLC-40N TXK-40WSW
d. Convective SIGMET (WST) IGB-VUZ-MGM-HRV-60S BTR-40N
IAH-60SW SJT-40ENE LBB-60WSW OKC
1. Convective SIGMETs are issued in the WST ISSUANCES EXPD. REFER TO MOST RECENT
conterminous U.S. for any of the following: ACUS01 KWNS FROM STORM PREDICTION CENTER
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FIG 712
SIGMET and AIRMET Locations Conterminous United States
FIG 713
Hawaii Area Forecast Locations
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e. SIGMET Outside the CONUS intensities lower than those which require the
issuance of SIGMETs. AIRMETs are intended for
1. Three NWS offices have been designated by
dissemination to all pilots in the preflight and en route
ICAO as Meteorological Watch Offices (MWOs).
phase of flight to enhance safety. AIRMET
These offices are responsible for issuing SIGMETs
information is available in two formats: text bulletins
for designated areas outside the CONUS that include
(WA) and graphics (GAIRMET). Both formats meet
Alaska, Hawaii, portions of the Atlantic and Pacific
the criteria of paragraph 713i and are issued on a
Oceans, and the Gulf of Mexico.
scheduled basis every 6 hours beginning at
2. The offices which issue international 0245 UTC. Unscheduled updates and corrections are
SIGMETs are: issued as necessary. AIRMETs contain details about
IFR, extensive mountain obscuration, turbulence,
(a) The AWC in Kansas City, Missouri.
strong surface winds, icing, and freezing levels.
(b) The AAWU in Anchorage, Alaska.
2. There are three AIRMETs: Sierra, Tango,
(c) The WFO in Honolulu, Hawaii. and Zulu. After the first issuance each day, scheduled
3. SIGMETs for outside the CONUS are issued or unscheduled bulletins are numbered sequentially
for 6 hours for volcanic ash clouds, 6 hours for for easier identification.
tropical cyclones (e.g. hurricanes and tropical (a) AIRMET Sierra describes IFR conditions
storms), and 4 hours for all other events. Like the and/or extensive mountain obscurations.
CONUS SIGMETs, SIGMETs for outside the
CONUS are also identified by an alphabetic (b) AIRMET Tango describes moderate
designator from Alpha through Mike and are turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or
numbered sequentially until that weather phenome- greater, and/or nonconvective lowlevel wind shear.
non ends. The criteria for an international SIGMET (c) AIRMET Zulu describes moderate icing
are: and provides freezing level heights.
(a) Thunderstorms occurring in lines, em- EXAMPLE
bedded in clouds, or in large areas producing Example of AIRMET Sierra issued for the Chicago FA
tornadoes or large hail. area:
CHIS WA 131445
(b) Tropical cyclones. AIRMET SIERRA UPDT 2 FOR IFR AND MTN OBSCN
(c) Severe icing. VALID UNTIL 132100.
AIRMET IFR...KY
(d) Severe or extreme turbulence. FROM 20SSW HNN TO HMV TO 50ENE DYR TO20SSW
HNN
(e) Dust storms and sandstorms lowering CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM PCPN/BR/FG. CONDS
visibilities to less than 3 miles. ENDG BY 18Z.
(f) Volcanic ash. .
AIRMET IFR....MN LS
EXAMPLE FROM INL TO 70W YQT TO 40ENE DLH TO
Example of SIGMET Outside the U.S.: 30WNW DLH TO 50SE GFK TO 20 ENE GFK TO
WSNT06 KKCI 022014 INL
SIGA0F CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM BR. CONDS ENDG 15
KZMA KZNY TJZS SIGMET FOXTROT 3 VALID 18Z.
022015/030015 KKCI MIAMI OCEANIC FIR NEW .
YORK OCEANIC FIR SAN JUAN FIR FRQ TS WI AREA AIRMET IFR....KS
BOUNDED BY 2711N6807W 2156N6654W 2220N7040W FROM 30N SLN TO 60E ICT TO 40S ICT TO 50W
2602N7208W 2711N6807W. TOPS TO FL470. MOV NE LBL TO 30SSW GLD TO 30N SLN
15KT. WKN. BASED ON SAT AND LTG OBS. CIG BLW 010/VIS BLW 3SM PCPN/BR/FG. CONDS
MOSHER ENDG 1518Z.
f. AIRMET .
AIRMET MTN OBSCN...KY TN
1. AIRMETs (WAs) are advisories of signifi- FROM HNN TO HMV TO GQO TO LOZ TO HNN
cant weather phenomena but describe conditions at MTN OBSC BY CLDS/PCPN/BR. CONDS CONTG
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BYD 21Z THRU 03Z. the first 6 hours (for example, 01, 02, 04, and 05). 00
..... hour represents the initial conditions, and the
EXAMPLE subsequent graphics depict the area affected by the
Example of AIRMET Tango issued for the Salt Lake City particular hazard at that valid time. Forecasts valid at
FA area: 00 through 06 hours correspond to the text AIRMET
SLCT WA 131445 bulletin. Forecasts valid at 06 through 12 hours
AIRMET TANGO UPDT 2 FOR TURB VALID UNTIL correspond to the text bulletin outlook. GAIRMET
132100. depicts the following en route aviation weather
AIRMET TURB...MT hazards:
FROM 40NW HVR TO 50SE BIL TO 60E DLN TO
60SW YQL TO 40NW HVR (a) Instrument flight rule conditions (ceiling
MOD TURB BLW 150. CONDS DVLPG 1821Z. < 1000 and/or surface visibility <3 miles)
CONDS CONTG BYD 21Z THRU 03Z.
. (b) Mountain obscuration
AIRMET TURB....ID MT WY NV UT CO (c) Icing
FROM 100SE MLS TO 50SSW BFF TO 20SW BTY
TO 40SW BAM TO 100SE MLS (d) Freezing level
MOD TURB BTN FL310 AND FL410. CONDS
(e) Turbulence
CONTG BYD 21Z ENDG 2100Z.
. (f) Low level wind shear (LLWS)
AIRMET TURB...NV AZ NM CA AND CSTL WTRS
FROM 100WSW ENI TO 40W BTY TO 40S LAS TO (g) Strong surface winds
30ESE TBE TO INK TO ELP TO 50S TUS TO BZA GAIRMETs are snap shots at discrete time intervals
TO 20S MZB TO 150SW PYE TO 100WSW ENI as defined above. The text AIRMET is the result of
MOD TURB BTWN FL210 AND FL380. CONDS
the production of the GAIRMET but provided in a
CONTG BYD 21Z THRU 03Z.
.... time smear for a 6hr valid period. GAIRMETs
provide a higher forecast resolution than text
EXAMPLE AIRMET products. Since GAIRMETs and text
Example of AIRMET Zulu issued for the San Francisco
AIRMETs are created from the same forecast
FA area:
SFOZ WA 131445
production process, there exists perfect consist-
AIRMET ZULU UPDT 2 FOR ICE AND FRZLVL VALID ency between the two. Using the two together will
UNTIL 132100. provide clarity of the area impacted by the weather
NO SGFNT ICE EXP OUTSIDE OF CNVTV ACT. hazard and improve situational awareness and
. decision making.
FRZLVL....RANGING FROM SFC105 ACRS AREA
MULT FRZLVL BLW 080 BOUNDED BY 40SE
Interpolation of time periods between GAIRMET
YDC60NNW GEG60SW MLP30WSW BKE valid times: Users must keep in mind when using the
20SW BAM70W BAM40SW YKM40E HUH GAIRMET that if a 00 hour forecast shows no
40SE YDC significant weather and a 03 hour forecast shows
SFC ALG 20NNW HUH30SSE HUH60S SEA hazardous weather, they must assume a change is
50NW LKV60WNWOAL30SW OAL occurring during the period between the two
040 ALG 40W HUH30W HUH30NNW SEA40N forecasts. It should be taken into consideration that
PDX20NNW DSD the hazardous weather starts immediately after the 00
080 ALG 160NW FOT80SW ONP50SSW EUG hour forecast unless there is a defined initiation or
40SSE OED50SSE CZQ60E EHF40WSW LAS ending time for the hazardous weather. The same
....
would apply after the 03 hour forecast. The user
3. Graphical AIRMETs (GAIRMETs), should assume the hazardous weather condition
found on the Aviation Weather Center webpage at is occurring between the snap shots unless informed
http://aviationweather.gov, are graphical forecasts of otherwise. For example, if a 00 hour forecast shows
enroute weather hazards valid at discrete times no no hazard, a 03 hour forecast shows the presence of
more than 3 hours apart for a period of up to 12 hours hazardous weather, and a 06 hour forecast shows no
into the future (for example, 00, 03, 06, 09, and 12 hazard, the user should assume the hazard exists from
hours). Additional forecasts may be inserted during the 0001 hour to the 0559 hour time period.
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4. VFR. Ceiling greater than 3,000 feet and 718. Transcribed Weather Broadcast
visibility greater than 5 miles; includes sky clear. (TWEB) (Alaska Only)
b. The cause of LIFR, IFR, or MVFR is indicated Equipment is provided in Alaska by which
by either ceiling or visibility restrictions or both. The meteorological and aeronautical data are recorded on
contraction CIG and/or weather and obstruction to tapes and broadcast continuously over selected L/MF
vision symbols are used. If winds or gusts of 25 knots and VOR facilities. Broadcasts are made from a series
or greater are forecast for the outlook period, the word of individual tape recordings, and changes, as they
WIND is also included for all categories including occur, are transcribed onto the tapes. The information
VFR. provided varies depending on the type equipment
available. Generally, the broadcast contains a
EXAMPLE summary of adverse conditions, surface weather
1. LIFR CIGlow IFR due to low ceiling. observations, pilot weather reports, and a density
2. IFR FGIFR due to visibility restricted by fog. altitude statement (if applicable). At the discretion of
the broadcast facility, recordings may also include a
3. MVFR CIG HZ FUmarginal VFR due to both ceiling synopsis, winds aloft forecast, en route and terminal
and visibility restricted by haze and smoke.
forecast data, and radar reports. At selected locations,
4. IFR CIG RA WINDIFR due to both low ceiling and telephone access to the TWEB has been provided
visibility restricted by rain; wind expected to be 25 knots or (TELTWEB). Telephone numbers for this service
greater. are found in the Chart Supplement Alaska. These
broadcasts are made available primarily for preflight
and inflight planning, and as such, should not be
717. Telephone Information Briefing considered as a substitute for specialistprovided
Service (TIBS) preflight briefings.
a. TIBS, provided by FSS, is a system of
719. Inflight Weather Broadcasts
automated telephone recordings of meteorological
and aeronautical information available throughout a. Weather Advisory Broadcasts. ARTCCs
the United States. Based on the specific needs of each broadcast a Severe Weather Forecast Alert (AWW),
area, TIBS provides route and/or area briefings in Convective SIGMET, SIGMET, or CWA alert once
addition to airspace procedures and special an- on all frequencies, except emergency, when any part
nouncements concerning aviation interests that may of the area described is within 150 miles of the
be available. Depending on user demand, other items airspace under their jurisdiction. These broadcasts
may be provided; for example, surface weather contain SIGMET or CWA (identification) and a brief
observations, terminal forecasts, wind and temperat- description of the weather activity and general area
ures aloft forecasts, etc. affected.
EXAMPLE
b. TIBS is not intended to be a substitute for
1. Attention all aircraft, SIGMET Delta Three, from Myton
specialistprovided preflight briefings from FSS. to Tuba City to Milford, severe turbulence and severe clear
TIBS is recommended as a preliminary briefing and icing below one zero thousand feet. Expected to continue
often will be valuable in helping you to make a go beyond zero three zero zero zulu.
or no go decision.
2. Attention all aircraft, convective SIGMET Two Seven
c. Pilots are encouraged to utilize TIBS, which can Eastern. From the vicinity of Elmira to Phillipsburg.
be accessed by dialing the FSS tollfree telephone Scattered embedded thunderstorms moving east at one
zero knots. A few intense level five cells, maximum tops four
number, 1800WXBRIEF (9927433) or specific
five zero.
published TIBS telephone numbers in certain areas.
Consult the FSS Telephone Numbers section of the 3. Attention all aircraft, Kansas City Center weather
Chart Supplement U.S. or the Chart Supplement advisory one zero three. Numerous reports of moderate to
Alaska or Pacific. severe icing from eight to niner thousand feet in a three zero
mile radius of St. Louis. Light or negative icing reported
NOTE from four thousand to one two thousand feet remainder of
A touchtone telephone is necessary to fully utilize TIBS. Kansas City Center area.
Meteorology 7115
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FIG 714
GAIRMET Graphical Product
Meteorology 7117
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7110. Flight Information Services (FIS) 2. Three Data Link Modes. There are three data
link modes that may be used for transmitting AI and
a. FIS. FIS is a method of disseminating
MET information to aircraft. The intended use of the
meteorological (MET) and aeronautical information
AI and/or MET information will determine the most
(AI) to displays in the cockpit in order to enhance
appropriate data link service.
pilot situational awareness, provide decision support
tools, and improve safety. FIS augments traditional (a) Broadcast Mode: A one-way interaction
pilot voice communication with Flight Service in which AI and/or MET updates or changes
Stations (FSSs), ATC facilities, or Airline Operations applicable to a designated geographic area are
Control Centers (AOCCs). FIS is not intended to continuously transmitted (or transmitted at repeated
replace traditional pilot and controller/flight service periodic intervals) to all aircraft capable of receiving
specialist/aircraft dispatcher preflight briefings or the broadcast within the service volume defined by
inflight voice communications. FIS, however, can the system network architecture.
provide textual and graphical information that can (b) Contract/Demand Mode: A two-way
help abbreviate and improve the usefulness of such interaction in which AI and/or MET information is
communications. FIS enhances pilot situational transmitted to an aircraft in response to a specific
awareness and improves safety. request.
1. Data link Service Providers (DLSP) - DLSP (c) Contract/Update Mode: A two-way inter-
deploy and maintain airborne, ground-based, and, in action that is an extension of the Demand Mode.
some cases, space-based infrastructure that supports Initial AI and/or MET report(s) are sent to an aircraft
the transmission of AI/MET information over one or and subsequent updates or changes to the AI and/or
more physical links. DLSP may provide a free of MET information that meet the contract criteria are
charge or for-fee service that permits end users to automatically or manually sent to an aircraft.
uplink and downlink AI/MET and other information. 3. To ensure airman compliance with Federal
The following are examples of DLSP: Aviation Regulations, manufacturers operating
(a) FAA FIS-B. A ground-based broadcast manuals should remind airmen to contact ATC
service provided through the ADS-B Universal controllers, FSS specialists, operator dispatchers, or
Access Transceiver (UAT) network. The service airline operations control centers for general and
provides users with a 978 MHz data link capability mission critical aviation weather information and/or
when operating within range and line-of-sight of a NAS status conditions (such as NOTAMs, Special
transmitting ground station. FIS-B enables users of Use Airspace status, and other government flight
properly equipped aircraft to receive and display a information). If FIS products are systemically
suite of broadcast weather and aeronautical informa- modified (for example, are displayed as abbreviated
tion products. plain text and/or graphical depictions), the modifica-
tion process and limitations of the resultant product
(b) Non-FAA FIS Systems. Several commer- should be clearly described in the vendors user
cial vendors provide customers with FIS data over guidance.
both the aeronautical spectrum and on other
frequencies using a variety of data link protocols. 4. Operational Use of FIS. Regardless of the
Services available from these providers vary greatly type of FIS system being used, several factors must
and may include tier based subscriptions. Advance- be considered when using FIS:
ments in bandwidth technology permits preflight as (a) Before using FIS for inflight operations,
well as inflight access to the same MET and AI pilots and other flight crewmembers should become
information available on the ground. Pilots and familiar with the operation of the FIS system to be
operators using non-FAA FIS for MET and AI used, the airborne equipment to be used, including its
information should be knowledgeable regarding the system architecture, airborne system components,
weather services being provided as some commercial coverage service volume and other limitations of the
vendors may be repackaging NWS sourced weather, particular system, modes of operation and indications
while other commercial vendors may alter the of various system failures. Users should also be
weather information to produce vendortailored or familiar with the specific content and format of the
vendorspecific weather reports and forecasts. services available from the FIS provider(s). Sources
7118 Meteorology
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of information that may provide this specific adjust the amount of information based on numerous
guidance include manufacturers manuals, training factors including, but not limited to, the phase of
programs, and reference guides. flight, single pilot operation, autopilot availability,
class of airspace, and the weather conditions
(b) FIS should not serve as the sole source of encountered.
aviation weather and other operational information.
ATC, FSSs, and, if applicable, AOCC VHF/HF voice (f) FIS NOTAM products, including Tempor-
remain as a redundant method of communicating ary Flight Restriction (TFR) information, are
aviation weather, NOTAMs, and other operational advisoryuse information and are intended for
information to aircraft in flight. FIS augments these situational awareness purposes only. Cockpit dis-
traditional ATC/FSS/AOCC services and, for some plays of this information are not appropriate for
products, offers the advantage of being displayed as tactical navigation pilots should stay clear of any
graphical information. By using FIS for orientation, geographic area displayed as a TFR NOTAM. Pilots
the usefulness of information received from should contact FSSs and/or ATC while en route to
conventional means may be enhanced. For example, obtain updated information and to verify the cockpit
FIS may alert the pilot to specific areas of concern display of NOTAM information.
that will more accurately focus requests made to FSS
or AOCC for inflight updates or similar queries made (g) FIS supports better pilot decisionmaking
to ATC. by increasing situational awareness. Better decision
making is based on using information from a variety
(c) The airspace and aeronautical environ- of sources. In addition to FIS, pilots should take
ment is constantly changing. These changes occur advantage of other weather/NAS status sources,
quickly and without warning. Critical operational including, briefings from Flight Service Stations,
decisions should be based on use of the most current data from other air traffic control facilities, airline
and appropriate data available. When differences operation control centers, pilot reports, as well as
exist between FIS and information obtained by voice their own observations.
communication with ATC, FSS, and/or AOCC (if
applicable), pilots are cautioned to use the most (h) FAAs Flight Information Service
recent data from the most authoritative source. Broadcast (FISB).
(d) FIS aviation weather products (for (1) FISB is a groundbased broadcast
example, graphical groundbased radar precipitation service provided through the FAAs Automatic
depictions) are not appropriate for tactical (typical Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) Ser-
timeframe of less than 3 minutes) avoidance of severe vices Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) network.
weather such as negotiating a path through a weather The service provides users with a 978 MHz data link
hazard area. FIS supports strategic (typical timeframe capability when operating within range and lineof
of 20 minutes or more) weather decisionmaking such sight of a transmitting ground station. FISB enables
as route selection to avoid a weather hazard area in its users of properlyequipped aircraft to receive and
entirety. The misuse of information beyond its display a suite of broadcast weather and aeronautical
applicability may place the pilot and aircraft in information products.
jeopardy. In addition, FIS should never be used in lieu
of an individual preflight weather and flight planning (2) The following list represents the initial
briefing. suite of text and graphical products available through
FISB and provided freeofcharge. Detailed
(e) DLSP offer numerous MET and AI information concerning FISB meteorological
products with information that can be layered on top products can be found in Advisory Circular 0045,
of each other. Pilots need to be aware that too much Aviation Weather Services, and AC 00-63, Use of
information can have a negative effect on their Cockpit Displays of Digital Weather and Aeronautic-
cognitive work load. Pilots need to manage the al Information. Information on Special Use Airspace
amount of information to a level that offers the most (SUA), Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR), and
pertinent information to that specific flight without Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) products can be found
creating a cockpit distraction. Pilots may need to in Chapters 3, 4 and 5 of this manual.
Meteorology 7119
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[a] Text: Aviation Routine Weather (6) Prior to using this capability, users
Report (METAR) and Special Aviation Report should familiarize themselves with the operation of
(SPECI); FISB avionics by referencing the applicable Users
Guides. Guidance concerning the interpretation of
[b] Text: Pilot Weather Report (PIREP);
information displayed should be obtained from the
[c] Text: Winds and Temperatures Aloft; appropriate avionics manufacturer.
[d] Text: Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (7) FISB malfunctions not attributed to
(TAF) and amendments; aircraft system failures or covered by active NOTAM
[e] Text: Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) should be reported by radio or telephone to the nearest
Distant and Flight Data Center; FSS facility.
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TBL 711
FISB Over UAT Product Update and Transmission Intervals
1 The Update Interval is the rate at which the product data is available from the source.
2 The Transmission Interval is the amount of time within which a new or updated product transmission must be completed
and the rate or repetition interval at which the product is rebroadcast.
Meteorology 7121
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TBL 712
Product Parameters for Low/Medium/High Altitude Tier Radios
Product Surface Radios Low Altitude Tier Medium Altitude High Altitude Tier
Tier
CONUS NEXRAD N/A CONUS NEXRAD CONUS NEXRAD CONUS NEXRAD
not provided imagery imagery
Winds & Temps 500 NM lookahead 500 NM lookahead 750 NM lookahead 1,000 NM look
Aloft range range range ahead range
METAR 100 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead 375 NM lookahead CONUS: CONUS
range range range Class B & C airport
METARs and 500
NM lookahead
range
Outside of CONUS:
500 NM look-ahead
range
TAF 100 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead 375 NM lookahead CONUS: CONUS
range range range Class B & C airport
TAFs and 500 NM
lookahead range
Outside of CONUS:
500 NM look-ahead
range
AIRMET, SIGMET, 100 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead 375 NM lookahead 500 NM lookahead
PIREP, and SUA/ range. PIREP/SUA/ range range range
SAA SAA is N/A.
Regional NEXRAD 150 NM lookahead 150 NM lookahead 200 NM lookahead 250 NM lookahead
range range range range
NOTAMs D, FDC, 100 NM lookahead 100 NM lookahead 100 NM lookahead 100 NM lookahead
and TFR range range range range
7111. Weather Observing Programs ter to broadcast local, minute-by-minute weather data
directly to the pilot.
a. Manual Observations. With only a few
exceptions, these reports are from airport locations NOTE
staffed by FAA personnel who manually observe, When the barometric pressure exceeds 31.00 inches Hg.,
perform calculations, and enter these observations see Paragraph 722 , Procedures, for the altimeter
setting procedures.
into the (WMSCR) communication system. The
format and coding of these observations are 2. The AWOS observations will include the
contained in Paragraph 7129 , Key to Aviation prefix AUTO to indicate that the data are derived
Routine Weather Report (METAR) and Aerodrome from an automated system. Some AWOS locations
Forecasts (TAF). will be augmented by certified observers who will
provide weather and obstruction to vision informa-
b. Automated Weather Observing System
tion in the remarks of the report when the reported
(AWOS).
visibility is less than 7 miles. These sites, along with
1. Automated weather reporting systems are the hours of augmentation, are to be published in the
increasingly being installed at airports. These Chart Supplement U.S. Augmentation is identified in
systems consist of various sensors, a processor, a the observation as OBSERVER WEATHER. The
computer-generated voice subsystem, and a transmit- AWOS wind speed, direction and gusts, temperature,
7122 Meteorology
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dew point, and altimeter setting are exactly the same 4. The information is transmitted over a discrete
as for manual observations. The AWOS will also VHF radio frequency or the voice portion of a local
report density altitude when it exceeds the field NAVAID. AWOS transmissions on a discrete VHF
elevation by more than 1,000 feet. The reported radio frequency are engineered to be receivable to a
visibility is derived from a sensor near the touchdown maximum of 25 NM from the AWOS site and a
of the primary instrument runway. The visibility maximum altitude of 10,000 feet AGL. At many
sensor output is converted to a visibility value using locations, AWOS signals may be received on the
a 10minute harmonic average. The reported sky surface of the airport, but local conditions may limit
condition/ceiling is derived from the ceilometer the maximum AWOS reception distance and/or
located next to the visibility sensor. The AWOS altitude. The system transmits a 20 to 30 second
algorithm integrates the last 30 minutes of ceilometer weather message updated each minute. Pilots should
data to derive cloud layers and heights. This output monitor the designated frequency for the automated
may also differ from the observer sky condition in weather broadcast. A description of the broadcast is
that the AWOS is totally dependent upon the cloud contained in subparagraph c. There is no two-way
advection over the sensor site. communication capability. Most AWOS sites also
have a dial-up capability so that the minute-by-min-
3. These real-time systems are operationally ute weather messages can be accessed via telephone.
classified into nine basic levels:
5. AWOS information (system level, frequency,
(a) AWOSA only reports altimeter setting; phone number, etc.) concerning specific locations is
NOTE published, as the systems become operational, in the
Any other information is advisory only. Chart Supplement U.S., and where applicable, on
published Instrument Approach Procedures. Selected
(b) AWOSAV reports altimeter and individual systems may be incorporated into
visibility; nationwide data collection and dissemination net-
NOTE works in the future.
Any other information is advisory only.
c. AWOS Broadcasts. Computer-generated
(c) AWOSl usually reports altimeter setting, voice is used in AWOS to automate the broadcast of
wind data, temperature, dew point, and density the minute-by-minute weather observations. In
altitude; addition, some systems are configured to permit the
addition of an operator-generated voice message;
(d) AWOS2 provides the information pro-
e.g., weather remarks following the automated
vided by AWOSl plus visibility; and
parameters. The phraseology used generally follows
(e) AWOS3 provides the information pro- that used for other weather broadcasts. Following are
vided by AWOS2 plus cloud/ceiling data. explanations and examples of the exceptions.
(f) AWOS 3P provides reports the same as 1. Location and Time. The location/name and
the AWOS 3 system, plus a precipitation identifica- the phrase AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVA-
tion sensor. TION, followed by the time are announced.
(g) AWOS 3PT reports the same as the (a) If the airports specific location is
AWOS 3P System, plus thunderstorm/lightning included in the airports name, the airports name is
reporting capability. announced.
EXAMPLE
(h) AWOS 3T reports the same as AWOS 3 Bremerton National Airport automated weather observa-
system and includes a thunderstorm/lightning tion, one four five six zulu;
reporting capability. Ravenswood Jackson County Airport automated weather
observation, one four five six zulu.
(i) AWOS 4 reports the same as the AWOS
3 system, plus precipitation occurrence, type and (b) If the airports specific location is not
accumulation, freezing rain, thunderstorm, and included in the airports name, the location is
runway surface sensors. announced followed by the airports name.
Meteorology 7123
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(b) National communications networks. 5. There are two types of automated stations,
AO1 for automated weather reporting stations
(c) Computer-generated voice (available without a precipitation discriminator, and AO2 for
through FAA radio broadcast to pilots, and dial-in automated stations with a precipitation discriminator.
telephone line). As appropriate, AO1 and AO2 must appear in
NOTE remarks. (A precipitation discriminator can deter-
Wind direction broadcast over FAA radios is in reference mine the difference between liquid and
to magnetic north. frozen/freezing precipitation).
4. An ASOS/AWOS/AWSS report without NOTE
human intervention will contain only that weather To decode an ASOS/AWSS report, refer to FIG 715 and
data capable of being reported automatically. The FIG 716.
modifier for this METAR report is AUTO. When REFERENCE
A complete explanation of METAR terminology is located in AIM,
an observer augments or backsup an ASOS/AWOS/ Paragraph 7129 , Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation
AWSS site, the AUTO modifier disappears. Routine Weather Report (METAR).
7126 Meteorology
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FIG 715
Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation (Front)
Meteorology 7127
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FIG 716
Key to Decode an ASOS/AWSS (METAR) Observation (Back)
7128 Meteorology
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e. TBL 713 contains a comparison of weather inserts the correct or missing value for the automated
observing programs and the elements reported. ASOS/AWSS elements. This service is provided by
air traffic controllers under the Limited Aviation
f. Service Standards. During 1995, a govern- Weather Reporting Station (LAWRS) process, FSS
ment/industry team worked to comprehensively and NWS observers, and, at selected sites,
reassess the requirements for surface observations at NonFederal Observation Program observers.
the nations airports. That work resulted in agreement
on a set of service standards, and the FAA and NWS Two categories of airports require detail beyond
ASOS sites to which the standards would apply. The Service Level C in order to enhance air traffic control
term Service Standards refers to the level of detail efficiency and increase system capacity. Services at
in weather observation. The service standards consist these airports are typically provided by contract
of four different levels of service (A, B, C, and D) as weather observers, NWS observers, and, at some
described below. Specific observational elements locations, FSS observers.
included in each service level are listed in 3. Service Level B is a service in which weather
TBL 714. observations consist of all elements provided under
1. Service Level D defines the minimum Service Level C, plus augmentation of additional data
acceptable level of service. It is a completely beyond the capability of the ASOS/AWSS. This
automated service in which the ASOS/AWSS category of airports includes smaller hubs or special
observation will constitute the entire observation, airports in other ways that have worse than average
i.e., no additional weather information is added by a bad weather operations for thunderstorms and/or
human observer. This service is referred to as a stand freezing/frozen precipitation, and/or that are remote
alone D site. airports.
4. Service Level A, the highest and most
2. Service Level C is a service in which the
demanding category, includes all the data reported in
human observer, usually an air traffic controller,
Service Standard B, plus additional requirements as
augments or adds information to the automated
specified. Service Level A covers major aviation
observation. Service Level C also includes backup of
hubs and/or high volume traffic airports with average
ASOS/AWSS elements in the event of an ASOS/
or worse weather.
AWSS malfunction or an unrepresentative
ASOS/AWSS report. In backup, the human observer
TBL 713
Weather Observing Programs
Runway Surface
Thunderstorm/
Accumulation
Freezing Rain
Cloud/Ceiling
Identification
Precipitation
Precipitation
Temperature
Occurrence
Occurrence
Condition
Lightning
Rainfall
Dew Point
Altimeter
Altimeter
Reported
Density
Remarks
Visibility
Element
Wind
Type
AWSS X X X X X X X X X X
ASOS X X X X X X X X X X
AWOSA X
AWOSA/V X X
AWOS1 X X X X
AWOS2 X X X X X
AWOS3 X X X X X X
AWOS3P X X X X X X X
AWOS3T X X X X X X X
AWOS3P/T X X X X X X X X
AWOS4 X X X X X X X X X X X X
Manual X X X X X X X
REFERENCE FAA Order 7900.5B, Surface Weather Observing, for element reporting.
Meteorology 7129
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TBL 714
SERVICE LEVEL A
Service Level A consists of all the elements of 10 minute longline RVR at precedented sites or
Service Levels B, C and D plus the elements additional visibility increments of 1/8, 1/16 and 0
listed to the right, if observed. Sector visibility
Variable sky condition
Cloud layers above 12,000 feet and cloud types
Widespread dust, sand and other obscurations
Volcanic eruptions
SERVICE LEVEL B
Service Level B consists of all the elements of Longline RVR at precedented sites
Service Levels C and D plus the elements listed to (may be instantaneous readout)
the right, if observed. Freezing drizzle versus freezing rain
Ice pellets
Snow depth & snow increasing rapidly remarks
Thunderstorm and lightning location remarks
Observed significant weather not at the station
remarks
SERVICE LEVEL C
Service Level C consists of all the elements of Service Thunderstorms
Level D plus augmentation and backup by a human Tornadoes
observer or an air traffic control specialist on location Hail
nearby. Backup consists of inserting the correct value if Virga
the system malfunctions or is unrepresentative. Volcanic ash
Augmentation consists of adding the elements listed to Tower visibility
the right, if observed. During hours that the observing Operationally significant remarks as deemed
facility is closed, the site reverts to Service Level D. appropriate by the observer
SERVICE LEVEL D
This level of service consists of an ASOS or AWSS Wind
continually measuring the atmosphere at a point near the Visibility
runway. The ASOS or AWSS senses and measures the Precipitation/Obstruction to vision
weather parameters listed to the right. Cloud height
Sky cover
Temperature
Dew point
Altimeter
7112. Weather Radar Services transmittals. Data contained in the reports are also
collected by the National Center for Environmental
a. The National Weather Service operates a Prediction and used to prepare national radar
network of radar sites for detecting coverage, summary charts for dissemination on facsimile
intensity, and movement of precipitation. The circuits.
network is supplemented by FAA and DOD radar
sites in the western sections of the country. Local c. A clear radar display (no echoes) does not mean
warning radar sites augment the network by operating that there is no significant weather within the
on an as needed basis to support warning and forecast coverage of the radar site. Clouds and fog are not
programs. detected by the radar. However, when echoes are
present, turbulence can be implied by the intensity of
b. Scheduled radar observations are taken hourly the precipitation, and icing is implied by the presence
and transmitted in alpha-numeric format on weather of the precipitation at temperatures at or below zero
telecommunications circuits for flight planning degrees Celsius. Used in conjunction with other
purposes. Under certain conditions, special radar weather products, radar provides invaluable informa-
reports are issued in addition to the hourly tion for weather avoidance and flight planning.
7130 Meteorology
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FIG 717
NEXRAD Coverage
Meteorology 7131
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FIG 718
NEXRAD Coverage
7132 Meteorology
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FIG 719
NEXRAD Coverage
Meteorology 7133
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d. All En Route Flight Advisory Service facilities 3. ATC facilities that, due to equipment
and FSSs have equipment to directly access the radar limitations, cannot display the intensity levels of
displays from the individual weather radar sites. precipitation, will describe the location of the
Specialists at these locations are trained to interpret precipitation area by geographic position, or position
the display for pilot briefing and inflight advisory relative to the aircraft. Since the intensity level is not
services. The Center Weather Service Units located in available, the controller will state INTENSITY
ARTCCs also have access to weather radar displays UNKNOWN.
and provide support to all air traffic facilities within
their centers area. 4. ARTCC facilities normally use a Weather and
Radar Processor (WARP) to display a mosaic of data
e. Additional information on weather radar obtained from multiple NEXRAD sites. There is a
products and services can be found in AC 0045, time delay between actual conditions and those
Aviation Weather Services. displayed to the controller. For example, the
REFERENCE precipitation data on the ARTCC controllers display
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Precipitation Radar Weather could be up to 6 minutes old. When the WARP is not
Descriptions.
AIM, Paragraph 7127 , Thunderstorms available, a second system, the narrowband Air Route
Chart Supplement U.S., Charts, NWS Upper Air Observing Stations and Surveillance Radar (ARSR) can display two distinct
Weather Network for the location of specific radar sites. levels of precipitation intensity that will be described
to pilots as MODERATE (30 to 40 dBZ) and
7113. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance HEAVY TO EXTREME ( > 40 dBZ ). The WARP
Assistance processor is only used in ARTCC facilities.
a. ATC Radar Weather Display. 5. ATC radar is not able to detect turbulence.
1. ATC radars are able to display areas of Generally, turbulence can be expected to occur as the
precipitation by sending out a beam of radio energy rate of rainfall or intensity of precipitation increases.
that is reflected back to the radar antenna when it Turbulence associated with greater rates of rainfall/
strikes an object or moisture which may be in the form precipitation will normally be more severe than any
of rain drops, hail, or snow. The larger the object is, associated with lesser rates of rainfall/precipitation.
or the more dense its reflective surface, the stronger Turbulence should be expected to occur near
the return will be presented. Radar weather convective activity, even in clear air. Thunderstorms
processors indicate the intensity of reflective returns are a form of convective activity that imply severe or
in terms of decibels (dBZ). ATC systems cannot greater turbulence. Operation within 20 miles of
detect the presence or absence of clouds. The ATC thunderstorms should be approached with great
systems can often determine the intensity of a caution, as the severity of turbulence can be markedly
precipitation area, but the specific character of that greater than the precipitation intensity might indicate.
area (snow, rain, hail, VIRGA, etc.) cannot be b. Weather Avoidance Assistance.
determined. For this reason, ATC refers to all
weather areas displayed on ATC radar scopes as 1. To the extent possible, controllers will issue
precipitation. pertinent information on weather or chaff areas and
assist pilots in avoiding such areas when requested.
2. All ATC facilities using radar weather
Pilots should respond to a weather advisory by either
processors with the ability to determine precipitation
acknowledging the advisory or by acknowledging the
intensity, will describe the intensity to pilots as:
advisory and requesting an alternative course of
(a) LIGHT (< 30 dBZ) action as follows:
(b) MODERATE (30 to 40 dBZ) (a) Request to deviate off course by stating a
(c) HEAVY (> 40 to 50 dBZ) heading or degrees, direction of deviation, and
approximate number of miles. In this case, when the
(d) EXTREME (> 50 dBZ) requested deviation is approved, navigation is at the
NOTE pilots prerogative, but must maintain the altitude
Enroute ATC radars Weather and Radar Processor assigned, and remain within the lateral restrictions
(WARP) does not display light precipitation intensity. issued by ATC.
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(b) An approval for lateral deviation author- be furnished to ATC when requesting clearance to
izes the pilot to maneuver left or right within the detour around weather activity:
limits specified in the clearance. (a) Proposed point where detour will
NOTE commence.
1. It is often necessary for ATC to restrict the amount of
(b) Proposed route and extent of detour
lateral deviation (twenty degrees right, up to fifteen
degrees left, up to ten degrees left or right of course).
(direction and distance).
2. The term when able, proceed direct, in an ATC (c) Point where original route will be
weather deviation clearance, refers to the pilots ability to resumed.
remain clear of the weather when returning to (d) Flight conditions (IFR or VFR).
course/route.
(e) Any further deviation that may become
(c) Request a new route to avoid the affected necessary as the flight progresses.
area.
(f) Advise if the aircraft is equipped with
(d) Request a change of altitude. functioning airborne radar.
6. To a large degree, the assistance that might be
(e) Request radar vectors around the affected
rendered by ATC will depend upon the weather
areas.
information available to controllers. Due to the
2. For obvious reasons of safety, an IFR pilot extremely transitory nature of severe weather
must not deviate from the course or altitude or flight situations, the controllers weather information may
level without a proper ATC clearance. When weather be of only limited value if based on weather observed
conditions encountered are so severe that an on radar only. Frequent updates by pilots giving
immediate deviation is determined to be necessary specific information as to the area affected, altitudes,
and time will not permit approval by ATC, the pilots intensity and nature of the severe weather can be of
emergency authority may be exercised. considerable value. Such reports are relayed by radio
or phone to other pilots and controllers and also
3. When the pilot requests clearance for a route receive widespread teletypewriter dissemination.
deviation or for an ATC radar vector, the controller
7. Obtaining IFR clearance or an ATC radar
must evaluate the air traffic picture in the affected
vector to circumnavigate severe weather can often be
area, and coordinate with other controllers (if ATC
accommodated more readily in the en route areas
jurisdictional boundaries may be crossed) before
away from terminals because there is usually less
replying to the request.
congestion and, therefore, offer greater freedom of
4. It should be remembered that the controllers action. In terminal areas, the problem is more acute
primary function is to provide safe separation because of traffic density, ATC coordination
between aircraft. Any additional service, such as requirements, complex departure and arrival routes,
weather avoidance assistance, can only be provided adjacent airports, etc. As a consequence, controllers
to the extent that it does not derogate the primary are less likely to be able to accommodate all requests
function. Its also worth noting that the separation for weather detours in a terminal area or be in a
workload is generally greater than normal when position to volunteer such routing to the pilot.
weather disrupts the usual flow of traffic. ATC radar Nevertheless, pilots should not hesitate to advise
limitations and frequency congestion may also be a controllers of any observed severe weather and
factor in limiting the controllers capability to should specifically advise controllers if they desire
provide additional service. circumnavigation of observed weather.
5. It is very important, therefore, that the request c. Procedures for Weather Deviations and
for deviation or radar vector be forwarded to ATC as Other Contingencies in Oceanic Controlled
far in advance as possible. Delay in submitting it may Airspace.
delay or even preclude ATC approval or require that 1. When the pilot initiates communications with
additional restrictions be placed on the clearance. ATC, rapid response may be obtained by stating
Insofar as possible the following information should WEATHER DEVIATION REQUIRED to indicate
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priority is desired on the frequency and for ATC (e) Deviations of less than 10 NM or
response. operations within COMPOSITE (NOPAC and
CEPAC) Airspace, should REMAIN at ASSIGNED
2. The pilot still retains the option of initiating
altitude. Otherwise, when the aircraft is approximate-
the communications using the urgency call PAN
ly 10 NM from track, initiate an altitude change based
PAN 3 times to alert all listening parties of a special
on the following criteria:
handling condition which will receive ATC priority
TBL 715
for issuance of a clearance or assistance.
3. ATC will: Route Deviations Altitude Change
Centerline/Track >10 NM
(a) Approve the deviation.
East Left Descend 300 Feet
(b) Provide vertical separation and then 000 179M Right Climb 300 Feet
approve the deviation; or West Left Climb 300 Feet
180359M Right Descend 300 Feet
(c) If ATC is unable to establish vertical
Pilot Memory Slogan: East right up,
separation, ATC must advise the pilot that standard West right down.
separation cannot be applied; provide essential traffic
information for all affected aircraft, to the extent (f) When returning to track, be at assigned
practicable; and if possible, suggest a course of flight level when the aircraft is within approximately
action. ATC may suggest that the pilot climb or 10 NM of centerline.
descend to a contingency altitude (1,000 feet above or (g) If contact was not established prior to
below that assigned if operating above FL 290; deviating, continue to attempt to contact ATC to
500 feet above or below that assigned if operating at obtain a clearance. If contact was established,
or below FL 290). continue to keep ATC advised of intentions and
PHRASEOLOGY obtain essential traffic information.
STANDARD SEPARATION NOT AVAILABLE, DEVIATE
AT PILOTS DISCRETION; SUGGEST CLIMB (or 7114. Runway Visual Range (RVR)
descent) TO (appropriate altitude); TRAFFIC (position
There are currently two configurations of RVR in the
and altitude); REPORT DEVIATION COMPLETE.
NAS commonly identified as Taskers and New
4. The pilot will follow the ATC advisory Generation RVR. The Taskers are the existing
altitude when approximately 10 NM from track as configuration which uses transmissometer technolo-
well as execute the procedures detailed in para- gy. The New Generation RVRs were deployed in
graph 7113c5. November 1994 and use forward scatter technology.
The New Generation RVRs are currently being
5. If contact cannot be established or revised
deployed in the NAS to replace the existing Taskers.
ATC clearance or advisory is not available and
deviation from track is required, the pilot must take a. RVR values are measured by transmissometers
the following actions: mounted on 14foot towers along the runway. A full
RVR system consists of:
(a) If possible, deviate away from an
organized track or route system. 1. Transmissometer projector and related items.
2. Transmissometer receiver (detector) and
(b) Broadcast aircraft position and intentions
related items.
on the frequency in use, as well as on frequency
121.5 MHz at suitable intervals stating: flight 3. Analog
identification (operator call sign), flight level, track 4. recorder.
code or ATS route designator, and extent of deviation
5. Signal data converter and related items.
expected.
6. Remote digital or remote display program-
(c) Watch for conflicting traffic both visually mer.
and by reference to TCAS (if equipped).
b. The transmissometer projector and receiver are
(d) Turn on aircraft exterior lights. mounted on towers 250 feet apart. A known intensity
7136 Meteorology
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of light is emitted from the projector and is measured h. Details on the requirements for the operational
by the receiver. Any obscuring matter such as rain, use of RVR are contained in FAA AC 971, Runway
snow, dust, fog, haze or smoke reduces the light Visual Range (RVR). Pilots are responsible for
intensity arriving at the receiver. The resultant compliance with minimums prescribed for their class
intensity measurement is then converted to an RVR of operations in the appropriate CFRs and/or
value by the signal data converter. These values are operations specifications.
displayed by readout equipment in the associated air i. RVR values are also measured by forward
traffic facility and updated approximately once every scatter meters mounted on 14foot frangible
minute for controller issuance to pilots. fiberglass poles. A full RVR system consists of:
c. The signal data converter receives information 1. Forward scatter meter with a transmitter,
on the high intensity runway edge light setting in use receiver and associated items.
(step 3, 4, or 5); transmission values from the
2. A runway light intensity monitor (RLIM).
transmissometer and the sensing of day or night
conditions. From the three data sources, the system 3. An ambient light sensor (ALS).
will compute appropriate RVR values. 4. A data processor unit (DPU).
d. An RVR transmissometer established on a 5. Controller display (CD).
250 foot baseline provides digital readouts to a j. The forward scatter meter is mounted on a
minimum of 600 feet, which are displayed in 200 foot 14foot frangible pole. Infrared light is emitted from
increments to 3,000 feet and in 500 foot increments the transmitter and received by the receiver. Any
from 3,000 feet to a maximum value of 6,000 feet. obscuring matter such as rain, snow, dust, fog, haze
e. RVR values for Category IIIa operations extend or smoke increases the amount of scattered light
down to 700 feet RVR; however, only 600 and reaching the receiver. The resulting measurement
800 feet are reportable RVR increments. The along with inputs from the runway light intensity
800 RVR reportable value covers a range of 701 feet monitor and the ambient light sensor are forwarded to
to 900 feet and is therefore a valid minimum the DPU which calculates the proper RVR value. The
indication of Category IIIa operations. RVR values are displayed locally and remotely on
controller displays.
f. Approach categories with the corresponding
minimum RVR values. (See TBL 716.) k. The runway light intensity monitors both the
runway edge and centerline light step settings (steps 1
TBL 716 through 5). Centerline light step settings are used for
Approach Category/Minimum RVR Table CAT IIIb operations. Edge Light step settings are
used for CAT I, II, and IIIa operations.
Category Visibility (RVR)
l. New Generation RVRs can measure and display
Nonprecision 2,400 feet RVR values down to the lowest limits of
Category I 1,800 feet* Category IIIb operations (150 feet RVR). RVR
Category II 1,000 feet values are displayed in 100 feet increments and are
Category IIIa 700 feet reported as follows:
Category IIIb 150 feet 1. 100feet increments for products below
Category IIIc 0 feet 800 feet.
2. 200feet increments for products between
* 1,400 feet with special equipment and authorization
800 feet and 3,000 feet.
g. Ten minute maximum and minimum RVR 3. 500feet increments for products between
values for the designated RVR runway are reported in 3,000 feet and 6,500 feet.
the body of the aviation weather report when the
prevailing visibility is less than one mile and/or the 4. 25meter increments for products below
RVR is 6,000 feet or less. ATCTs report RVR when 150 meters.
the prevailing visibility is 1 mile or less and/or the 5. 50meter increments for products between
RVR is 6,000 feet or less. 150 meters and 800 meters.
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6. 100meter increments for products between known distance from the usual point of observation.
800 meters and 1,200 meters. Visibilities which are determined to be less than
7 miles, identify the obscuring atmospheric condi-
7. 200meter increments for products between
tion; e.g., fog, haze, smoke, etc., or combinations
1,200 meters and 2,000 meters.
thereof.
7115. Reporting of Cloud Heights b. Prevailing visibility is the greatest visibility
equaled or exceeded throughout at least one half of
a. Ceiling, by definition in the CFRs and as used the horizon circle, not necessarily contiguous.
in aviation weather reports and forecasts, is the height Segments of the horizon circle which may have a
above ground (or water) level of the lowest layer of significantly different visibility may be reported in
clouds or obscuring phenomenon that is reported as the remarks section of the weather report; i.e., the
broken, overcast, or obscuration, e.g., an southeastern quadrant of the horizon circle may be
aerodrome forecast (TAF) which reads BKN030 determined to be 2 miles in mist while the remaining
refers to height above ground level. An area forecast quadrants are determined to be 3 miles in mist.
which reads BKN030 indicates that the height is
above mean sea level. c. When the prevailing visibility at the usual point
of observation, or at the tower level, is less than
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 7129 , Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation 4 miles, certificated tower personnel will take
Routine Weather Report (METAR), defines broken, overcast, and visibility observations in addition to those taken at the
obscuration.
usual point of observation. The lower of these two
b. Pilots usually report height values above MSL, values will be used as the prevailing visibility for
since they determine heights by the altimeter. This is aircraft operations.
taken in account when disseminating and otherwise
applying information received from pilots. (Ceil- 7117. Estimating Intensity of Rain and
ing heights are always above ground level.) In Ice Pellets
reports disseminated as PIREPs, height references
are given the same as received from pilots, that is, a. Rain
above MSL. 1. Light. From scattered drops that, regardless
c. In area forecasts or inflight advisories, ceilings of duration, do not completely wet an exposed surface
are denoted by the contraction CIG when used with up to a condition where individual drops are easily
sky cover symbols as in LWRG TO CIG OVC005, seen.
or the contraction AGL after, the forecast cloud 2. Moderate. Individual drops are not clearly
height value. When the cloud base is given in height identifiable; spray is observable just above pave-
above MSL, it is so indicated by the contraction ments and other hard surfaces.
MSL or ASL following the height value. The
heights of clouds tops, freezing level, icing, and 3. Heavy. Rain seemingly falls in sheets;
turbulence are always given in heights above ASL or individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray to
MSL. height of several inches is observed over hard
surfaces.
7116. Reporting Prevailing Visibility b. Ice Pellets
a. Surface (horizontal) visibility is reported in 1. Light. Scattered pellets that do not com-
METAR reports in terms of statute miles and pletely cover an exposed surface regardless of
increments thereof; e.g., 1/16, 1/8, 3/16, 1/4, 5/16, 3/8, 1/2, duration. Visibility is not affected.
5/ , 3/ , 7/ , 1, 1 1/ , etc. (Visibility reported by an
8 4 8 8
2. Moderate. Slow accumulation on ground.
unaugmented automated site is reported differently
Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 7 statute
than in a manual report, i.e., ASOS/AWSS: 0, 1/16, 1/8,
1/ , 1/ , 3/ , 1, 1 1/ 1 1/ 1 3/ 2, 2 1/ 3, 4, 5, etc., AWOS: miles.
4 2 4 4, 2, 4, 2,
M1/4, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2, 1 3/4, 2, 2 1/2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) 3. Heavy. Rapid accumulation on ground.
Visibility is determined through the ability to see and Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 3 statute
identify preselected and prominent objects at a miles.
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7118. Estimating Intensity of Snow or 4. The NWS uses the reports to verify or amend
Drizzle (Based on Visibility) conditions contained in aviation forecast and
advisories. In some cases, pilot reports of hazardous
a. Light. Visibility more than 1/2 statute mile. conditions are the triggering mechanism for the
issuance of advisories. They also use the reports for
b. Moderate. Visibility from more than 1/4 stat-
pilot weather briefings.
ute mile to 1/2 statute mile.
5. The NWS, other government organizations,
c. Heavy. Visibility 1/4 statute mile or less.
the military, and private industry groups use PIREPs
for research activities in the study of meteorological
7119. Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) phenomena.
6. All air traffic facilities and the NWS forward
a. FAA air traffic facilities are required to solicit
the reports received from pilots into the weather
PIREPs when the following conditions are reported
distribution system to assure the information is made
or forecast: ceilings at or below 5,000 feet; visibility
available to all pilots and other interested parties.
at or below 5 miles (surface or aloft); thunderstorms
and related phenomena; icing of light degree or e. The FAA, NWS, and other organizations that
greater; turbulence of moderate degree or greater; enter PIREPs into the weather reporting system use
wind shear and reported or forecast volcanic ash the format listed in TBL 717. Items 1 through 6 are
clouds. included in all transmitted PIREPs along with one or
more of items 7 through 13. Although the PIREP
b. Pilots are urged to cooperate and promptly
should be as complete and concise as possible, pilots
volunteer reports of these conditions and other
should not be overly concerned with strict format or
atmospheric data such as: cloud bases, tops and
phraseology. The important thing is that the
layers; flight visibility; precipitation; visibility
information is relayed so other pilots may benefit
restrictions such as haze, smoke and dust; wind at
from your observation. If a portion of the report needs
altitude; and temperature aloft.
clarification, the ground station will request the
c. PIREPs should be given to the ground facility information. Completed PIREPs will be transmitted
with which communications are established; i.e., to weather circuits as in the following examples:
FSS, ARTCC, or terminal ATC. One of the primary EXAMPLE
duties of the Inflight position is to serve as a 1. KCMH UA /OV APE 230010/TM 1516/FL085/TP
collection point for the exchange of PIREPs with en BE20/SK BKN065/WX FV03SM HZ FU/TA 20/TB LGT
route aircraft.
NOTE
d. If pilots are not able to make PIREPs by radio, 1. One zero miles southwest of Appleton VOR; time
reporting upon landing of the inflight conditions 1516 UTC; altitude eight thousand five hundred; aircraft
type BE200; bases of the broken cloud layer is six thousand
encountered to the nearest FSS or Weather Forecast
five hundred; flight visibility 3 miles with haze and smoke;
Office will be helpful. Some of the uses made of the air temperature 20 degrees Celsius; light turbulence.
reports are:
EXAMPLE
1. The ATCT uses the reports to expedite the 2. KCRW UV /OV KBKW 360015KCRW/TM
flow of air traffic in the vicinity of the field and for 1815/FL120//TP BE99/SK IMC/WX RA/TA M08 /WV
hazardous weather avoidance procedures. 290030/TB LGTMDT/IC LGT RIME/RM MDT MXD
ICG DURC KROA NWBND FL080100 1750Z
2. The FSS uses the reports to brief other pilots, NOTE
to provide inflight advisories, and weather avoidance 2. From 15 miles north of Beckley VOR to Charles-
information to en route aircraft. ton VOR; time 1815 UTC; altitude 12,000 feet; type
aircraft, BE99; in clouds; rain; temperature minus
3. The ARTCC uses the reports to expedite the 8 Celsius; wind 290 degrees magnetic at 30 knots; light to
flow of en route traffic, to determine most favorable moderate turbulence; light rime icing during climb
altitudes, and to issue hazardous weather information northwestbound from Roanoke, VA, between 8,000 and
within the centers area. 10,000 feet at 1750 UTC.
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TBL 717
PIREP Element Code Chart
7120. PIREPs Relating to Airframe Icing 1. Trace. Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of
accumulation slightly greater than sublimation.
a. The effects of ice on aircraft are cumulative- Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not utilized unless
thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and encountered for an extended period of time (over
weight increases. The results are an increase in stall 1 hour).
speed and a deterioration of aircraft performance. In
extreme cases, 2 to 3 inches of ice can form on the 2. Light. The rate of accumulation may create
leading edge of the airfoil in less than 5 minutes. It a problem if flight is prolonged in this environment
takes but 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting power of (over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing
some aircraft by 50 percent and increases the equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does
frictional drag by an equal percentage. not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing
equipment is used.
b. A pilot can expect icing when flying in visible 3. Moderate. The rate of accumulation is such
precipitation, such as rain or cloud droplets, and the that even short encounters become potentially
temperature is between +02 and 10 degrees Celsius. hazardous and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or
When icing is detected, a pilot should do one of two flight diversion is necessary.
things, particularly if the aircraft is not equipped with
deicing equipment; get out of the area of 4. Severe. The rate of accumulation is such that
precipitation; or go to an altitude where the ice protection systems fail to remove the accumula-
temperature is above freezing. This warmer tion of ice, or ice accumulates in locations not
altitude may not always be a lower altitude. Proper normally prone to icing, such as areas aft of protected
preflight action includes obtaining information on the surfaces and any other areas identified by the
freezing level and the above freezing levels in manufacturer. Immediate exit from the condition is
precipitation areas. Report icing to ATC, and if necessary.
operating IFR, request new routing or altitude if icing NOTE
will be a hazard. Be sure to give the type of aircraft to Severe icing is aircraft dependent, as are the other
ATC when reporting icing. The following describes categories of icing intensity. Severe icing may occur at any
how to report icing conditions. accumulation rate.
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TBL 718
Icing Types
Clear Ice See Glaze Ice.
Glaze Ice Ice, sometimes clear and smooth, but usually containing some air pockets, which results in a
lumpy translucent appearance. Glaze ice results from supercooled drops/droplets striking a
surface but not freezing rapidly on contact. Glaze ice is denser, harder, and sometimes more
transparent than rime ice. Factors, which favor glaze formation, are those that favor slow
dissipation of the heat of fusion (i.e., slight supercooling and rapid accretion). With larger
accretions, the ice shape typically includes horns protruding from unprotected leading edge
surfaces. It is the ice shape, rather than the clarity or color of the ice, which is most likely to
be accurately assessed from the cockpit. The terms clear and glaze have been used for
essentially the same type of ice accretion, although some reserve clear for thinner accretions
which lack horns and conform to the airfoil.
Intercycle Ice Ice which accumulates on a protected surface between actuation cycles of a deicing system.
Known or Observed or Actual ice observed visually to be on the aircraft by the flight crew or identified by onboard
Detected Ice Accretion sensors.
Mixed Ice Simultaneous appearance or a combination of rime and glaze ice characteristics. Since the
clarity, color, and shape of the ice will be a mixture of rime and glaze characteristics, accurate
identification of mixed ice from the cockpit may be difficult.
Residual Ice Ice which remains on a protected surface immediately after the actuation of a deicing system.
Rime Ice A rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the rapid freezing of supercooled drops/droplets after
they strike the aircraft. The rapid freezing results in air being trapped, giving the ice its opaque
appearance and making it porous and brittle. Rime ice typically accretes along the stagnation
line of an airfoil and is more regular in shape and conformal to the airfoil than glaze ice. It is
the ice shape, rather than the clarity or color of the ice, which is most likely to be accurately
assessed from the cockpit.
Runback Ice Ice which forms from the freezing or refreezing of water leaving protected surfaces and
running back to unprotected surfaces.
Note
Ice types are difficult for the pilot to discern and have uncertain effects on an airplane in flight. Ice type definitions will
be included in the AIM for use in the Remarks section of the PIREP and for use in forecasting.
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TBL 719
Icing Conditions
Appendix C Icing Conditions Appendix C (14 CFR, Part 25 and 29) is the certification icing condition standard
for approving ice protection provisions on aircraft. The conditions are specified in
terms of altitude, temperature, liquid water content (LWC), representative droplet
size (mean effective drop diameter [MED]), and cloud horizontal extent.
Forecast Icing Conditions Environmental conditions expected by a National Weather Service or an
FAAapproved weather provider to be conducive to the formation of inflight icing
on aircraft.
Freezing Drizzle (FZDZ) Drizzle is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid water drops
which have diameters less than 0.5 mm and greater than 0.05 mm. Freezing drizzle
is drizzle that exists at air temperatures less than 0C (supercooled), remains in
liquid form, and freezes upon contact with objects on the surface or airborne.
Freezing Precipitation Freezing precipitation is freezing rain or freezing drizzle falling through or outside
of visible cloud.
Freezing Rain (FZRA) Rain is precipitation at ground level or aloft in the form of liquid water drops which
have diameters greater than 0.5 mm. Freezing rain is rain that exists at air
temperatures less than 0C (supercooled), remains in liquid form, and freezes upon
contact with objects on the ground or in the air.
Icing in Cloud Icing occurring within visible cloud. Cloud droplets (diameter < 0.05 mm) will be
present; freezing drizzle and/or freezing rain may or may not be present.
Icing in Precipitation Icing occurring from an encounter with freezing precipitation, that is, supercooled
drops with diameters exceeding 0.05 mm, within or outside of visible cloud.
Known Icing Conditions Atmospheric conditions in which the formation of ice is observed or detected in
flight.
Note
Because of the variability in space and time of atmospheric conditions, the existence
of a report of observed icing does not assure the presence or intensity of icing
conditions at a later time, nor can a report of no icing assure the absence of icing
conditions at a later time.
Potential Icing Conditions Atmospheric icing conditions that are typically defined by airframe manufacturers
relative to temperature and visible moisture that may result in aircraft ice accretion
on the ground or in flight. The potential icing conditions are typically defined in the
Airplane Flight Manual or in the Airplane Operation Manual.
Supercooled Drizzle Drops Synonymous with freezing drizzle aloft.
(SCDD)
Supercooled Drops or /Droplets Water drops/droplets which remain unfrozen at temperatures below 0 C.
Supercooled drops are found in clouds, freezing drizzle, and freezing rain in the
atmosphere. These drops may impinge and freeze after contact on aircraft surfaces.
Supercooled Large Drops (SLD) Liquid droplets with diameters greater than 0.05 mm at temperatures less than
0C, i.e., freezing rain or freezing drizzle.
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TBL 7110
Turbulence Reporting Criteria Table
Intensity Aircraft Reaction Reaction Inside Aircraft Reporting TermDefinition
Light Turbulence that momentarily causes Occupants may feel a slight strain OccasionalLess than 1/3 of the time.
slight, erratic changes in altitude and/or against seat belts or shoulder straps.
attitude (pitch, roll, yaw). Report as Unsecured objects may be displaced Intermittent1/3 to 2/3.
Light Turbulence; 1 slightly. Food service may be con-
or ducted and little or no difficulty is ContinuousMore than 2/3.
Turbulence that causes slight, rapid and encountered in walking.
somewhat rhythmic bumpiness without
appreciable changes in altitude or
attitude. Report as Light Chop.
Moderate Turbulence that is similar to Light Occupants feel definite strains against NOTE
Turbulence but of greater intensity. seat belts or shoulder straps. Unse- 1. Pilots should report location(s),
Changes in altitude and/or attitude occur cured objects are dislodged. Food time (UTC), intensity, whether in or
but the aircraft remains in positive service and walking are difficult. near clouds, altitude, type of aircraft
control at all times. It usually causes and, when applicable, duration of
variations in indicated airspeed. Report turbulence.
as Moderate Turbulence; 1
or 2. Duration may be based on time
Turbulence that is similar to Light Chop between two locations or over a single
but of greater intensity. It causes rapid location. All locations should be
bumps or jolts without appreciable readily identifiable.
changes in aircraft altitude or attitude.
Report as Moderate Chop.1
Severe Turbulence that causes large, abrupt Occupants are forced violently against
changes in altitude and/or attitude. It seat belts or shoulder straps. Unse- EXAMPLES:
usually causes large variations in cured objects are tossed about. Food a. Over Omaha. 1232Z, Moderate
indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be Service and walking are impossible. Turbulence, in cloud, Flight
momentarily out of control. Report as Level 310, B707.
Severe Turbulence. 1
Extreme Turbulence in which the aircraft is b. From 50 miles south of Albuquer-
violently tossed about and is practically que to 30 miles north of Phoenix,
impossible to control. It may cause 1210Z to 1250Z, occasional Moderate
structural damage. Report as Extreme Chop, Flight Level 330, DC8.
Turbulence. 1
1 High level turbulence (normally above 15,000 feet ASL) not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms,
should be reported as CAT (clear air turbulence) preceded by the appropriate intensity, or light or moderate chop.
Meteorology 7143
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7123. Wind Shear PIREPs traffic flying in excess of 15,000 feet. The best
available information on this phenomenon must
a. Because unexpected changes in wind speed and
come from pilots via the PIREP reporting procedures.
direction can be hazardous to aircraft operations at
All pilots encountering CAT conditions are urgently
low altitudes on approach to and departing from
requested to report time, location, and intensity (light,
airports, pilots are urged to promptly volunteer
moderate, severe, or extreme) of the element to the
reports to controllers of wind shear conditions they
FAA facility with which they are maintaining radio
encounter. An advance warning of this information
contact. If time and conditions permit, elements
will assist other pilots in avoiding or coping with a
should be reported according to the standards for
wind shear on approach or departure.
other PIREPs and position reports.
b. When describing conditions, use of the terms
negative or positive wind shear should be REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 7122 , PIREPs Relating to Turbulence
avoided. PIREPs of negative wind shear on final,
intended to describe loss of airspeed and lift, have
been interpreted to mean that no wind shear was
encountered. The recommended method for wind
7125. Microbursts
shear reporting is to state the loss or gain of airspeed
and the altitudes at which it was encountered.
a. Relatively recent meteorological studies have
EXAMPLE
confirmed the existence of microburst phenomenon.
1. Denver Tower, Cessna 1234 encountered wind shear,
loss of 20 knots at 400.
Microbursts are small scale intense downdrafts
which, on reaching the surface, spread outward in all
2. Tulsa Tower, American 721 encountered wind shear on directions from the downdraft center. This causes the
final, gained 25 knots between 600 and 400 feet followed presence of both vertical and horizontal wind shears
by loss of 40 knots between 400 feet and surface.
that can be extremely hazardous to all types and
1. Pilots who are not able to report wind shear in categories of aircraft, especially at low altitudes. Due
these specific terms are encouraged to make reports to their small size, short life span, and the fact that
in terms of the effect upon their aircraft. they can occur over areas without surface precipita-
EXAMPLE tion, microbursts are not easily detectable using
Miami Tower, Gulfstream 403 Charlie encountered an conventional weather radar or wind shear alert
abrupt wind shear at 800 feet on final, max thrust required. systems.
2. Pilots using Inertial Navigation Systems
(INSs) should report the wind and altitude both above b. Parent clouds producing microburst activity
and below the shear level. can be any of the low or middle layer convective
cloud types. Note, however, that microbursts
commonly occur within the heavy rain portion of
7124. Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) PIREPs
thunderstorms, and in much weaker, benign
CAT has become a very serious operational factor to appearing convective cells that have little or no
flight operations at all levels and especially to jet precipitation reaching the ground.
7144 Meteorology
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 7110
Evolution of a Microburst
WIND SPEED
10-20 knots
> 20 knots
HEIGHT (feet)
10,000
5,000
0 1 2 3
SCALE (miles)
Vertical cross section of the evolution of a microburst wind field. T is the time of initial divergence at
the surface. The shading refers to the vector wind speeds. Figure adapted from Wilson et al., 1984,
Microburst Wind Structure and Evaluation of Doppler Radar for Wind Shear Detection, DOT/FAA
Report No. DOT/FAA/PM-84/29, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA 37 pp.
c. The life cycle of a microburst as it descends in 3. Visual Signs. Microbursts can be found
a convective rain shaft is seen in FIG 7110. An almost anywhere that there is convective activity.
important consideration for pilots is the fact that the They may be embedded in heavy rain associated with
microburst intensifies for about 5 minutes after it a thunderstorm or in light rain in benign appearing
strikes the ground. virga. When there is little or no precipitation at the
surface accompanying the microburst, a ring of
d. Characteristics of microbursts include:
blowing dust may be the only visual clue of its
1. Size. The microburst downdraft is typically existence.
less than 1 mile in diameter as it descends from the
cloud base to about 1,0003,000 feet above the
4. Duration. An individual microburst will
ground. In the transition zone near the ground, the
seldom last longer than 15 minutes from the time it
downdraft changes to a horizontal outflow that can
strikes the ground until dissipation. The horizontal
extend to approximately 2 1/2 miles in diameter.
winds continue to increase during the first 5 minutes
2. Intensity. The downdrafts can be as strong with the maximum intensity winds lasting approxi-
as 6,000 feet per minute. Horizontal winds near the mately 24 minutes. Sometimes microbursts are
surface can be as strong as 45 knots resulting in a concentrated into a line structure, and under these
90 knot shear (headwind to tailwind change for a conditions, activity may continue for as long as an
traversing aircraft) across the microburst. These hour. Once microburst activity starts, multiple
strong horizontal winds occur within a few hundred microbursts in the same general area are not
feet of the ground. uncommon and should be expected.
Meteorology 7145
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FIG 7111
Microburst Encounter During Takeoff
A microburst encounter during takeoff. The airplane first encounters a headwind and experiences increasing
performance (1), this is followed in short succession by a decreasing headwind component (2), a downdraft
(3), and finally a strong tailwind (4), where 2 through 5 all result in decreasing performance of the airplane.
Position (5) represents an extreme situation just prior to impact. Figure courtesy of Walter Frost, FWG
Associates, Inc., Tullahoma, Tennessee.
e. Microburst wind shear may create a severe experience of penetrating one is characterized in
hazard for aircraft within 1,000 feet of the ground, FIG 7111. The aircraft may encounter a headwind
particularly during the approach to landing and (performance increasing) followed by a downdraft
landing and take-off phases. The impact of a and tailwind (both performance decreasing), possibly
microburst on aircraft which have the unfortunate resulting in terrain impact.
7146 Meteorology
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 7112
NAS Wind Shear Product Systems
(33)
(39)
(36)
(9)
f. Detection of Microbursts, Wind Shear and concept that significantly improves the aviation
Gust Fronts. weather information in the terminal area. (See
FIG 7112.)
1. FAAs Integrated Wind Shear Detection
Plan.
(b) The wind shear/microburst information
(a) The FAA currently employs an integrated and warnings are displayed on the ribbon display
plan for wind shear detection that will significantly terminals (RBDT) located in the tower cabs. They are
improve both the safety and capacity of the majority identical (and standardized) in the LLWAS, TDWR
of the airports currently served by the air carriers. and WSP systems, and so designed that the controller
This plan integrates several programs, such as the does not need to interpret the data, but simply read the
Integrated Terminal Weather System (ITWS), displayed information to the pilot. The RBDTs are
Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), Weather constantly monitored by the controller to ensure the
System Processor (WSP), and Low Level Wind Shear rapid and timely dissemination of any hazardous
Alert Systems (LLWAS) into a single strategic event(s) to the pilot.
Meteorology 7147
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FIG 7113
LLWAS Siting Criteria
(c) The early detection of a wind shear/ 2. Low Level Wind Shear Alert System
microburst event, and the subsequent warning(s) (LLWAS).
issued to an aircraft on approach or departure, will
(a) The LLWAS provides wind data and
alert the pilot/crew to the potential of, and to be
software processes to detect the presence of
prepared for, a situation that could become very
hazardous wind shear and microbursts in the vicinity
dangerous! Without these warnings, the aircraft may
of an airport. Wind sensors, mounted on poles
NOT be able to climb out of, or safely transition, the
sometimes as high as 150 feet, are (ideally) located
event, resulting in a catastrophe. The air carriers,
2,000 3,500 feet, but not more than 5,000 feet, from
working with the FAA, have developed specialized
the centerline of the runway. (See FIG 7113.)
training programs using their simulators to train and
prepare their pilots on the demanding aircraft
procedures required to escape these very dangerous
wind shear and/or microburst encounters.
7148 Meteorology
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 7114
Warning Boxes
(b) LLWAS was fielded in 1988 at 110 air- and precipitation intensities. TDWR products advise
ports across the nation. Many of these systems have the controller of wind shear and microburst events
been replaced by new TDWR and WSP technology. impacting all runways and the areas 1/2 mile on either
Eventually all LLWAS systems will be phased out; side of the extended centerline of the runways out to
however, 39 airports will be upgraded to the 3 miles on final approach and 2 miles out on
LLWASNE (Network Expansion) system, which departure.
employs the very latest software and sensor (FIG 7114 is a theoretical view of the warning
technology. The new LLWASNE systems will not boxes, including the runway, that the software uses in
only provide the controller with wind shear warnings determining the location(s) of wind shear or
and alerts, including wind shear/microburst detection microbursts). These warnings are displayed (as
at the airport wind sensor location, but will also depicted in the examples in subparagraph 5) on the
provide the location of the hazards relative to the RBDT.
airport runway(s). It will also have the flexibility and (b) It is very important to understand what
capability to grow with the airport as new runways are TDWR does NOT DO:
built. As many as 32 sensors, strategically located
around the airport and in relationship to its runway (1) It DOES NOT warn of wind shear
configuration, can be accommodated by the outside of the alert boxes (on the arrival and departure
LLWASNE network. ends of the runways);
(2) It DOES NOT detect wind shear that is
3. Terminal Doppler Weather Radar NOT a microburst or a gust front;
(TDWR). (3) It DOES NOT detect gusty or cross
wind conditions; and
(a) TDWRs are being deployed at 45 loca-
tions across the U.S. Optimum locations for TDWRs (4) It DOES NOT detect turbulence.
are 8 to 12 miles off of the airport proper, and However, research and development is continuing on
designed to look at the airspace around and over the these systems. Future improvements may include
airport to detect microbursts, gust fronts, wind shifts such areas as storm motion (movement), improved
Meteorology 7149
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gust front detection, storm growth and decay, 34 airports across the nation, substantially increasing
microburst prediction, and turbulence detection. the safety of the American flying public.
(c) TDWR also provides a geographical 5. Operational aspects of LLWAS, TDWR
situation display (GSD) for supervisors and traffic and WSP.
management specialists for planning purposes. The To demonstrate how this data is used by both the
GSD displays (in color) 6 levels of weather controller and the pilot, 3 ribbon display examples
(precipitation), gust fronts and predicted storm and their explanations are presented:
movement(s). This data is used by the tower
supervisor(s), traffic management specialists and (a) MICROBURST ALERTS
controllers to plan for runway changes and EXAMPLE
arrival/departure route changes in order to both This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display
reduce aircraft delays and increase airport capacity. in the tower cab.
7150 Meteorology
5/26/16
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FIG 7115
Microburst Alert
(b) WIND SHEAR ALERTS In plain language, the controller is advising the
EXAMPLE aircraft arriving on runway 27 that at about 3 miles
This is what the controller sees on his/her ribbon display out they can expect to encounter a wind shear
in the tower cab. condition that will decrease their airspeed by 20 knots
and possibly encounter turbulence. Additionally, the
27A WSA 20K 3MF 200 15
airport surface winds for landing runway 27 are
NOTE reported as 200 degrees at 15 knots.
(See FIG 7116 to see how the TDWR/WSP determines
the wind shear location). NOTE
This is what the controller will say when issuing the Threshold wind is at pilots request or as deemed
alert. appropriate by the controller.
PHRASEOLOGY
REFERENCE
RUNWAY 27 ARRIVAL, WIND SHEAR ALERT, 20 KT FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, Low Level Wind
LOSS 3 MILE FINAL, THRESHOLD WIND 200 AT 15. Shear/Microburst Advisories, Paragraph 318b2(a).
Meteorology 7151
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FIG 7116
Weak Microburst Alert
7152 Meteorology
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FIG 7117
Gust Front Alert
Meteorology 7153
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6. The Terminal Weather Information for within 30 NM surrounding the terminal area, and
Pilots System (TWIP). expected weather that will impact airport operations.
During inclement weather, i.e., whenever a predeter-
(a) With the increase in the quantity and
mined level of precipitation or wind shear is detected
quality of terminal weather information available
within 15 miles of the terminal area, TWIP products
through TDWR, the next step is to provide this
are updated once each minute for text messages and
information directly to pilots rather than relying on
once every five minutes for character graphic
voice communications from ATC. The National
messages. During good weather (below the predeter-
Airspace System has long been in need of a means of
mined precipitation or wind shear parameters) each
delivering terminal weather information to the
message is updated every 10 minutes. These products
cockpit more efficiently in terms of both speed and
are intended to improve the situational awareness of
accuracy to enhance pilot awareness of weather
the pilot/flight crew, and to aid in flight planning prior
hazards and reduce air traffic controller workload.
to arriving or departing the terminal area. It is
With the TWIP capability, terminal weather
important to understand that, in the context of TWIP,
information, both alphanumerically and graphically,
the predetermined levels for inclement versus good
is now available directly to the cockpit at 43 airports
weather has nothing to do with the criteria for
in the U.S. NAS. (See FIG 7118.)
VFR/MVFR/IFR/LIFR; it only deals with precipita-
FIG 7118 tion, wind shears and microbursts.
TWIP Image of Convective Weather TBL 7111
at MCO International TWIPEquipped Airports
Airport Identifier
Andrews AFB, MD KADW
HartsfieldJackson Atlanta Intl Airport KATL
Nashville Intl Airport KBNA
Logan Intl Airport KBOS
Baltimore/Washington Intl Airport KBWI
Hopkins Intl Airport KCLE
Charlotte/Douglas Intl Airport KCLT
Port Columbus Intl Airport KCMH
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky Intl Airport KCVG
(b) TWIP products are generated using Dallas Love Field Airport KDAL
weather data from the TDWR or the Integrated James M. Cox Intl Airport KDAY
Terminal Weather System (ITWS) testbed. TWIP
Ronald Reagan Washington National Air- KDCA
products are generated and stored in the form of text port
and character graphic messages. Software has been
developed to allow TDWR or ITWS to format the Denver Intl Airport KDEN
data and send the TWIP products to a database DallasFort Worth Intl Airport KDFW
resident at Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC). These Detroit Metro Wayne County Airport KDTW
products can then be accessed by pilots using the
Newark Liberty Intl Airport KEWR
ARINC Aircraft Communications Addressing and
Reporting System (ACARS) data link services. Fort LauderdaleHollywood Intl Airport KFLL
Airline dispatchers can also access this database and William P. Hobby Airport KHOU
send messages to specific aircraft whenever wind Washington Dulles Intl Airport KIAD
shear activity begins or ends at an airport.
George Bush Intercontinental Airport KIAH
(c) TWIP products include descriptions and
Wichita MidContinent Airport KICT
character graphics of microburst alerts, wind shear
alerts, significant precipitation, convective activity Indianapolis Intl Airport KIND
7154 Meteorology
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
Meteorology 7155
5/26/16
7110.65R
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relative humidity is low in any layer between the 4. Dont fly without airborne radar into a cloud
surface and 15,000 feet. Then the lower altitudes may mass containing scattered embedded thunderstorms.
be characterized by strong out flowing winds and Scattered thunderstorms not embedded usually can
severe turbulence. be visually circumnavigated.
e. The probability of lightning strikes occurring to 5. Dont trust the visual appearance to be a
aircraft is greatest when operating at altitudes where reliable indicator of the turbulence inside a
temperatures are between minus 5 degrees Celsius thunderstorm.
and plus 5 degrees Celsius. Lightning can strike
6. Dont assume that ATC will offer radar
aircraft flying in the clear in the vicinity of a
navigation guidance or deviations around thunder-
thunderstorm.
storms.
f. METAR reports do not include a descriptor for
7. Dont use data-linked weather next genera-
severe thunderstorms. However, by understanding
tion weather radar (NEXRAD) mosaic imagery as the
severe thunderstorm criteria, i.e., 50 knot winds or
3/ inch hail, the information is available in the report sole means for negotiating a path through a
4 thunderstorm area (tactical maneuvering).
to know that one is occurring.
8. Do remember that the data-linked NEXRAD
g. Current weather radar systems are able to
mosaic imagery shows where the weather was, not
objectively determine precipitation intensity. These
where the weather is. The weather conditions may be
precipitation intensity areas are described as light,
15 to 20 minutes older than the age indicated on the
moderate, heavy, and extreme.
display.
REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Precipitation Radar Weather Descriptions 9. Do listen to chatter on the ATC frequency for
EXAMPLE Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP) and other aircraft
1. Alert provided by an ATC facility to an aircraft: requesting to deviate or divert.
(aircraft identification) EXTREME precipitation between
10. Do ask ATC for radar navigation guidance
ten oclock and two oclock, one five miles. Precipitation
or to approve deviations around thunderstorms, if
area is two five miles in diameter.
needed.
2. Alert provided by an FSS:
(aircraft identification) EXTREME precipitation two zero 11. Do use data-linked weather NEXRAD
miles west of Atlanta VOR, two five miles wide, moving mosaic imagery (for example, Flight Information
east at two zero knots, tops flight level three niner zero. Service-Broadcast (FIS-B)) for route selection to
avoid thunderstorms entirely (strategic maneuver-
7128. Thunderstorm Flying ing).
12. Do advise ATC, when switched to another
a. Thunderstorm Avoidance. Never regard any
controller, that you are deviating for thunderstorms
thunderstorm lightly, even when radar echoes are of
before accepting to rejoin the original route.
light intensity. Avoiding thunderstorms is the best
policy. Following are some Dos and Donts of 13. Do ensure that after an authorized weather
thunderstorm avoidance: deviation, before accepting to rejoin the original
route, that the route of flight is clear of thunderstorms.
1. Dont land or takeoff in the face of an
approaching thunderstorm. A sudden gust front of 14. Do avoid by at least 20 miles any
low level turbulence could cause loss of control. thunderstorm identified as severe or giving an intense
radar echo. This is especially true under the anvil of
2. Dont attempt to fly under a thunderstorm
a large cumulonimbus.
even if you can see through to the other side.
Turbulence and wind shear under the storm could be 15. Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area
hazardous. has 6/10 thunderstorm coverage.
3. Dont attempt to fly under the anvil of a 16. Do remember that vivid and frequent
thunderstorm. There is a potential for severe and lightning indicates the probability of a severe
extreme clear air turbulence. thunderstorm.
7156 Meteorology
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17. Do regard as extremely hazardous any 5. Establish power settings for turbulence
thunderstorm with tops 35,000 feet or higher whether penetration airspeed recommended in the aircraft
the top is visually sighted or determined by radar. manual.
18. Do give a PIREP for the flight conditions. 6. Turn up cockpit lights to highest intensity to
lessen temporary blindness from lightning.
19. Do divert and wait out the thunderstorms on
7. If using automatic pilot, disengage Altitude
the ground if unable to navigate around an area of
Hold Mode and Speed Hold Mode. The automatic
thunderstorms.
altitude and speed controls will increase maneuvers
20. Do contact Flight Service for assistance in of the aircraft thus increasing structural stress.
avoiding thunderstorms. Flight Service specialists 8. If using airborne radar, tilt the antenna up and
have NEXRAD mosaic radar imagery and NEXRAD down occasionally. This will permit the detection of
single site radar with unique features such as base and other thunderstorm activity at altitudes other than the
composite reflectivity, echo tops, and VAD wind one being flown.
profiles.
c. Following are some Dos and Donts during the
b. If you cannot avoid penetrating a thunderstorm, thunderstorm penetration:
following are some Dos before entering the storm:
1. Do keep your eyes on your instruments.
1. Tighten your safety belt, put on your shoulder Looking outside the cockpit can increase danger of
harness (if installed), if and secure all loose objects. temporary blindness from lightning.
2. Dont change power settings; maintain
2. Plan and hold the course to take the aircraft
settings for the recommended turbulence penetration
through the storm in a minimum time.
airspeed.
3. To avoid the most critical icing, establish a 3. Do maintain constant attitude. Allow the
penetration altitude below the freezing level or above altitude and airspeed to fluctuate.
the level of -15C.
4. Dont turn back once you are in the
4. Verify that pitot heat is on and turn on thunderstorm. A straight course through the storm
carburetor heat or jet engine anti-ice. Icing can be most likely will get the aircraft out of the hazards
rapid at any altitude and cause almost instantaneous most quickly. In addition, turning maneuvers increase
power failure and/or loss of airspeed indication. stress on the aircraft.
Meteorology 7157
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7129. Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
FIG 7119
Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) (Front)
7158 Meteorology
5/26/16
12/10/15 AIM
FIG 7120
Key to Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) and Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) (Back)
In METAR, ReMarK indicator & remarks. For example: Sea- Level RMK SLP045
Pressure in hectoPascals & tenths, as shown: 1004.5 hPa; Temp/dew- T01820159
point in tenths C, as shown: temp. 18.2C, dew-point 15.9C
FM091930 FroM: changes are expected at: 2-digit date, 2-digit hour, and 2-digit
minute beginning time: indicates significant change. Each FM starts on a
new line, indented 5 spaces
TEMPO TEMPOrary: changes expected for <1 hour and in total, < half of the
0920/0922 period between the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour beginning, and 2-digit
date and 2-digit hour ending time
PROB30 PROBability and 2-digit percent (30 or 40): probable condition in the
1004/1007 period between the 2-digit date & 2-digit hour beginning time, and the
2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending time
BECMG BECoMinG: change expected in the period between the 2-digit date and
1013/1015 2-digit hour beginning time, and the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending
time
Table of Significant Present, Forecast and Recent Weather - Grouped in categories and
used in the order listed below; or as needed in TAF, No Significant Weather.
Qualifiers
Intensity or Proximity
- = Light No sign = Moderate + = Heavy
VC = Vicinity, but not at aerodrome. In the US METAR, 5 to 10 SM from the point of observation. In the US
TAF, 5 to 10 SM from the center of the runway complex. Elsewhere, within 8000m.
Descriptor
BC Patches BL Blowing DR Drifting FZ Freezing
MI Shallow PR Partial SH Showers TS Thunderstorm
Weather Phenomena
Precipitation
DZ Drizzle GR Hail GS Small Hail/Snow Pellets
IC Ice Crystals PL Ice Pellets RA Rain SG Snow Grains
SN Snow UP Unknown Precipitation in automated observations
Obscuration
BR Mist (5/8SM) DU Widespread Dust FG Fog (<5/8SM) FU Smoke
HZ Haze PY Spray SA Sand VA Volcanic Ash
Other
DS Dust Storm FC Funnel Cloud +FC Tornado or Waterspout
PO Well developed dust or sand whirls SQ Squall SS Sandstorm
Meteorology 7159
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7160 Meteorology
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5. Wind. The wind is reported as a five digit the lesser of the two will be reported in the body of the
group (six digits if speed is over 99 knots). The first report; the greater will be reported in remarks.
three digits are the direction the wind is blowing
from, in tens of degrees referenced to true north, or (b) Automated visibility. ASOS/AWSS
VRB if the direction is variable. The next two digits visibility stations will show visibility 10 or greater
is the wind speed in knots, or if over 99 knots, the next than 10 miles as 10SM. AWOS visibility stations
three digits. If the wind is gusty, it is reported as a G will show visibility less than 1/4 statute mile as
after the speed followed by the highest gust reported. M1/4SM and visibility 10 or greater than 10 miles
The abbreviation KT is appended to denote the use as 10SM.
of knots for wind speed. NOTE
Automated sites that are augmented by human observer to
EXAMPLE
meet service level requirements can report 0, 1/16 SM, and
13008KT wind from 130 degrees at 8 knots
1/8 SM visibility increments.
08032G45KT wind from 080 degrees at 32 knots with
gusts to 45 knots (c) Variable visibility. Variable visibility is
VRB04KT wind variable in direction at 4 knots shown in remarks (when rapid increase or decrease
00000KT wind calm by 1/2 statute mile or more and the average prevailing
210103G130KT wind from 210 degrees at 103 knots with
visibility is less than three miles) e.g., VIS 1V2
gusts to 130 knots
If the wind direction is variable by 60 degrees or more and
visibility variable between one and two.
the speed is greater than 6 knots, a variable group (d) Sector visibility. Sector visibility is
consisting of the extremes of the wind direction separated shown in remarks when it differs from the prevailing
by a v will follow the prevailing wind group.
visibility, and either the prevailing or sector visibility
32012G22KT 280V350
is less than three miles.
(a) Peak Wind. Whenever the peak wind
EXAMPLE
exceeds 25 knots PK WND will be included in
VIS N2 visibility north two
Remarks, e.g., PK WND 28045/1955 Peak wind two
eight zero at four five occurred at one niner five five. 7. Runway Visual Range (When Reported).
If the hour can be inferred from the report time, only R identifies the group followed by the runway
the minutes will be appended, e.g., PK WND heading (and parallel runway designator, if needed)
34050/38 Peak wind three four zero at five zero / and the visual range in feet (meters in other
occurred at three eight past the hour. countries) followed with FT (feet is not spoken).
(b) Wind shift. Whenever a wind shift (a) Variability Values. When RVR varies
occurs, WSHFT will be included in remarks (by more than on reportable value), the lowest and
followed by the time the wind shift began, e.g., highest values are shown with V between them.
WSHFT 30 FROPA Wind shift at three zero due to
frontal passage. (b) Maximum/Minimum Range. P indi-
cates an observed RVR is above the maximum value
6. Visibility. Prevailing visibility is reported in for this system (spoken as more than). M
statute miles with SM appended to it. indicates an observed RVR is below the minimum
EXAMPLE value which can be determined by the system (spoken
7SM seven statute miles as less than).
15SM fifteen statute miles
1/ SM onehalf statute mile EXAMPLE
2
R32L/1200FT runway three two left RVR one thousand
two hundred.
(a) Tower/surface visibility. If either visi- R27R/M1000V4000FT runway two seven right RVR
bility (tower or surface) is below four statute miles, variable from less than one thousand to four thousand.
Meteorology 7161
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7162 Meteorology
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(a) Amount. The amount of sky cover is (e) Obscurations are reported when the sky
reported in eighths of sky cover, using the is partially obscured by a groundbased phenomena
contractions: by indicating the amount of obscuration as FEW,
SKC . . . . . . . . . clear (no clouds) SCT, BKN followed by three zeros (000). In remarks,
FEW . . . . . . . . >0 to 2/8 the obscuring phenomenon precedes the amount of
SCT . . . . . . . . . scattered (3/8s to 4/8s of obscuration and three zeros.
clouds)
EXAMPLE
BKN . . . . . . . . . broken (5/8s to 7/8s of clouds) BKN000 (in body) . . . . . . . . sky partially obscured
OVC . . . . . . . . . overcast (8/8s clouds) FU BKN000 (in remarks) . . . smoke obscuring five
CB . . . . . . . . . . Cumulonimbus when present to seveneighths of the
TCU . . . . . . . . . Towering cumulus when sky
present
(f) When sky conditions include a layer aloft,
NOTE other than clouds, such as smoke or haze the type of
1. SKC will be reported at manual stations. CLR will phenomena, sky cover and height are shown in
be used at automated stations when no clouds below remarks.
12,000 feet are reported.
EXAMPLE
2. A ceiling layer is not designated in the METAR code. BKN020 (in body) . . . . . . . . ceiling two thousand
For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the lowest broken or broken
overcast layer, or vertical visibility into an obscuration. RMK FU BKN020 . . . . . . . . broken layer of smoke
Also there is no provision for reporting thin layers in the aloft, based at
METAR code. When clouds are thin, that layer must be two thousand
reported as if it were opaque.
(g) Variable ceiling. When a ceiling is
(b) Height. Cloud bases are reported with below three thousand and is variable, the remark
three digits in hundreds of feet above ground level CIG will be shown followed with the lowest and
(AGL). (Clouds above 12,000 feet cannot be reported highest ceiling heights separated by a V.
by an automated station). EXAMPLE
CIG 005V010 . . . . . . . . . . . . ceiling variable
(c) (Type). If Towering Cumulus Clouds between five hundred and
(TCU) or Cumulonimbus Clouds (CB) are present, one thousand
they are reported after the height which represents
(h) Second site sensor. When an automated
their base.
station uses meteorological discontinuity sensors,
EXAMPLE remarks will be shown to identify site specific sky
(Reported as) SCT025TCU BKN080 BKN250 (spoken as) conditions which differ and are lower than conditions
TWO THOUSAND FIVE HUNDRED SCATTERED reported in the body.
TOWERING CUMULUS, CEILING EIGHT THOUSAND
EXAMPLE
BROKEN, TWO FIVE THOUSAND BROKEN.
CIG 020 RY11 . . . . . . . . . . . ceiling two thousand at
(Reported as) SCT008 OVC012CB (spoken as) EIGHT
runway one one
HUNDRED SCATTERED CEILING ONE THOUSAND
TWO HUNDRED OVERCAST CUMULONIMBUS (i) Variable cloud layer. When a layer is
CLOUDS. varying in sky cover, remarks will show the
variability range. If there is more than one cloud
(d) Vertical Visibility (indefinite ceiling
layer, the variable layer will be identified by
height). The height into an indefinite ceiling is
including the layer height.
preceded by VV and followed by three digits
indicating the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet. EXAMPLE
This layer indicates total obscuration. SCT V BKN . . . . . . . . . . . . . scattered layer variable to
broken
EXAMPLE BKN025 V OVC . . . . . . . . . broken layer at
1/ SM FG VV006 visibility one eighth, fog, indefinite two thousand five hundred
8
ceiling six hundred. variable to overcast
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(j) Significant clouds. When significant 11. Altimeter. Altimeter settings are reported
clouds are observed, they are shown in remarks, in a four-digit format in inches of mercury prefixed
along with the specified information as shown below: with an A to denote the units of pressure.
(1) Cumulonimbus (CB), or Cumulonim- EXAMPLE
bus Mammatus (CBMAM), distance (if known), A2995 Altimeter two niner niner five
direction from the station, and direction of 12. Remarks. Remarks will be included in all
movement, if known. If the clouds are beyond observations, when appropriate. The contraction
10 miles from the airport, DSNT will indicate RMK denotes the start of the remarks section of a
distance. METAR report.
EXAMPLE Except for precipitation, phenomena located within
CB W MOV E . . . . . . . cumulonimbus west moving 5 statute miles of the point of observation will be
east
reported as at the station. Phenomena between 5 and
CBMAM DSNT S . . . . cumulonimbus mammatus
distant south
10 statute miles will be reported in the vicinity, VC.
Precipitation not occurring at the point of observation
(2) Towering Cumulus (TCU), location, (if but within 10 statute miles is also reported as in the
known), or direction from the station. vicinity, VC. Phenomena beyond 10 statute miles
EXAMPLE will be shown as distant, DSNT. Distances are in
TCU OHD . . . . . . . . . towering cumulus overhead statute miles except for automated lightning remarks
TCU W . . . . . . . . . . . . towering cumulus west which are in nautical miles. Movement of clouds or
weather will be indicated by the direction toward
(3) Altocumulus Castellanus (ACC), Stra- which the phenomena is moving.
tocumulus Standing Lenticular (SCSL),
Altocumulus Standing Lenticular (ACSL), Cirrocu- (a) There are two categories of remarks:
mulus Standing Lenticular (CCSL) or rotor clouds,
(1) Automated, manual, and plain
describing the clouds (if needed) and the direction
language.
from the station.
(2) Additive and automated maintenance
EXAMPLE
ACC W . . . . . . . . . . . . . altocumulus castellanus west data.
ACSL SWS . . . . . . . . . standing lenticular (b) Automated, Manual, and Plain Lan-
altocumulus southwest guage. This group of remarks may be generated
through south
from either manual or automated weather reporting
APRNT ROTOR CLD S apparent rotor cloud south
CCSL OVR MT E . . . . . standing lenticular stations and generally elaborate on parameters
cirrocumulus over the reported in the body of the report. (Plain language
mountains east remarks are only provided by manual stations).
10. Temperature/Dew Point. Temperature (1) Volcanic eruptions.
and dew point are reported in two, two-digit groups
(2) Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout.
in degrees Celsius, separated by a solidus (/).
Temperatures below zero are prefixed with an M. (3) Station Type (AO1 or AO2).
If the temperature is available but the dew point is
(4) PK WND.
missing, the temperature is shown followed by a
solidus. If the temperature is missing, the group is (5) WSHFT (FROPA).
omitted from the report.
(6) TWR VIS or SFC VIS.
EXAMPLE
15/08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . temperature one five, (7) VRB VIS.
dew point 8
00/M02 . . . . . . . . . . . . temperature zero,
(8) Sector VIS.
dew point minus 2 (9) VIS @ 2nd Site.
M05/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . temperature minus five,
dew point missing (10) (freq) LTG (type) (loc).
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A3012 . . . . . . . . altimeter three zero one two beginning and end for a period of time. In this case,
RMK . . . . . . . . remarks each fourdigit pair consists of a twodigit date and
AO2 . . . . . . . . . this automated station has a a twodigit hour.
weather discriminator (for TAFs are issued in the following format:
precipitation)
TYPE OF REPORT/ICAO STATION IDENTIFIER/
SPECI KCVG 152224Z 28024G36KT 3/4SM DATE AND TIME OF ORIGIN/VALID PERIOD
+TSRA BKN008 OVC020CB 28/23 A3000 RMK DATE AND TIME/FORECAST METEOROLOG-
TSRAB24 TS W MOV E ICAL CONDITIONS
NOTE
SPECI . . . . . . . (nonroutine) aviation special The / above and in the following descriptions are for
weather report separation purposes in this publication and do not appear
KCVG . . . . . . . Cincinnati, OH in the actual TAFs.
152228Z . . . . . . date 15th, time 2228 UTC TAF KORD 051130Z 0512/0618 14008KT 5SM BR
(no modifier) . . This is a manually generated BKN030
report due to the absence of TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
AUTO and AO1 or AO2 FM051600 16010KT P6SM SKC
in remarks FM052300 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020
28024G36KT . . wind two eight zero at PROB40 0600/0606 2SM TSRA OVC008CB
two four gusts three six BECMG 0606/0608 21015KT P6SM NSW
3/4SM . . . . . . . . visibility three fourths SCT040
+TSRA . . . . . . . thunderstorms, heavy rain TAF format observed in the above example:
BKN008 ceiling eight hundred broken
OVC020CB . . . two thousand overcast TAF = type of report
cumulonimbus clouds KORD = ICAO station identifier
28/23 . . . . . . . . . temperature two eight,
051130Z = date and time of origin (issuance time)
dew point two three
A3000 . . . . . . . . altimeter three zero zero zero 0512/0618 = valid period date and times
RMK . . . . . . . . remarks 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030 = forecast meteorolo-
TSRAB24 . . . . . thunderstorm and rain began gical conditions
at two four
TS W MOV E thunderstorm west moving Explanation of TAF elements:
east 1. Type of Report. There are two types of TAF
issuances, a routine forecast issuance (TAF) and an
c. Aerodrome Forecast (TAF). A concise state- amended forecast (TAF AMD). An amended TAF is
ment of the expected meteorological conditions at an issued when the current TAF no longer adequately
airport during a specified period. At most locations, describes the on-going weather or the forecaster feels
TAFs have a 24 hour forecast period. However, TAFs the TAF is not representative of the current or
for some locations have a 30 hour forecast period. expected weather. Corrected (COR) or delayed
These forecast periods may be shorter in the case of (RTD) TAFs are identified only in the communica-
an amended TAF. TAFs use the same codes as tions header which precedes the actual forecasts.
METAR weather reports. They are scheduled four 2. ICAO Station Identifier. The TAF code
times daily for 24hour periods beginning at 0000Z, uses ICAO 4letter location identifiers as described
0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. in the METAR section.
Forecast times in the TAF are depicted in two ways. 3. Date and Time of Origin. This element is
The first is a 6digit number to indicate a specific the date and time the forecast is actually prepared.
point in time, consisting of a twodigit date, The format is a twodigit date and fourdigit time
twodigit hour, and twodigit minute (such as followed, without a space, by the letter Z.
issuance time or FM). The second is a pair of 4. Valid Period Date and Time. The UTC
fourdigit numbers separated by a / to indicate a valid period of the forecast consists of two fourdigit
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sets, separated by a /. The first fourdigit set is a units of wind speed. Wind gusts are noted by the letter
twodigit date followed by the twodigit beginning G appended to the wind speed followed by the
hour, and the second fourdigit set is a twodigit date highest expected gust. A variable wind direction is
followed by the twodigit ending hour. Although noted by VRB where the three digit direction
most airports have a 24hour TAF, a select number of usually appears. A calm wind (3 knots or less) is
airports have a 30hour TAF. In the case of an forecast as 00000KT.
amended forecast, or a forecast which is corrected or EXAMPLE
delayed, the valid period may be for less than 24 18010KT . . . . . wind one eight zero at one zero (wind is
hours. Where an airport or terminal operates on a blowing from 180).
parttime basis (less than 24 hours/day), the TAFs 35012G20KT . . wind three five zero at one two gust two
issued for those locations will have the abbreviated zero.
statement AMD NOT SKED added to the end of (b) Visibility. The expected prevailing visi-
the forecasts. The time observations are scheduled to bility up to and including 6 miles is forecast in statute
end and/or resume will be indicated by expanding the miles, including fractions of miles, followed by SM
AMD NOT SKED statement. Expanded statements to note the units of measure. Expected visibilities
will include: greater than 6 miles are forecast as P6SM (plus
(a) Observation ending time (AFT DDH- six statute miles).
Hmm; for example, AFT 120200) EXAMPLE
1/ SM visibility onehalf
2
(b) Scheduled observations resumption time 4SM visibility four
(TIL DDHHmm; for example, TIL 171200Z) or P6SM visibility more than six
(c) Period of observation unavailability (c) Weather Phenomena. The expected
(DDHH/DDHH); for example, 2502/2512). weather phenomena is coded in TAF reports using the
same format, qualifiers, and phenomena contractions
5. Forecast Meteorological Conditions. This as METAR reports (except UP). Obscurations to
is the body of the TAF. The basic format is: vision will be forecast whenever the prevailing
W I N D / V I S I B I L I T Y / W E AT H E R / S K Y visibility is forecast to be 6 statute miles or less. If no
CONDITION/OPTIONAL DATA (WIND SHEAR) significant weather is expected to occur during a
specific time period in the forecast, the weather
The wind, visibility, and sky condition elements are phenomena group is omitted for that time period. If,
always included in the initial time group of the after a time period in which significant weather
forecast. Weather is included only if significant to phenomena has been forecast, a change to a forecast
aviation. If a significant, lasting change in any of the of no significant weather phenomena occurs, the
elements is expected during the valid period, a new contraction NSW (No Significant Weather) will
time period with the changes is included. It should be appear as the weather group in the new time period.
noted that with the exception of a FM group the (NSW is included only in TEMPO groups).
new time period will include only those elements
NOTE
which are expected to change, i.e., if a lowering of the
It is very important that pilots understand that NSW only
visibility is expected but the wind is expected to refers to weather phenomena, i.e., rain, snow, drizzle, etc.
remain the same, the new time period reflecting the Omitted conditions, such as sky conditions, visibility,
lower visibility would not include a forecast wind. winds, etc., are carried over from the previous time group.
The forecast wind would remain the same as in the
previous time period. Any temporary conditions (d) Sky Condition. TAF sky condition
expected during a specific time period are included forecasts use the METAR format described in the
with that time period. The following describes the METAR section. Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are the
elements in the above format. only cloud type forecast in TAFs. When clear skies
are forecast, the contraction SKC will always be
(a) Wind. This five (or six) digit group used. The contraction CLR is never used in the
includes the expected wind direction (first 3 digits) TAF. When the sky is obscured due to a
and speed (last 2 digits or 3 digits if 100 knots or surfacebased phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV)
greater). The contraction KT follows to denote the into the obscuration is forecast. The format for
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NOTE four digit group gives the beginning date and hour,
The NWS does not use BECMG in the TAF. and the second four digit group gives the ending date
EXAMPLE and hour of the time period during which the
OVC012 BECMG 0114/0116 BKN020 ceiling one temporary conditions are expected. Only the
thousand two hundred overcast. Then a gradual change changing forecast meteorological conditions are
to ceiling two thousand broken between 1400Z on the 1st included in TEMPO groups. The omitted conditions
and 1600Z on the 1st. are carried over from the previous time group.
3. Temporary (TEMPO) group. The TEMPO EXAMPLE
group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility, 1. SCT030 TEMPO 0519/0523 BKN030 three
weather, or sky condition which are expected to last thousand scattered with occasional ceilings three thousand
for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), broken between 1900Z on the 5th and 2300Z on the 5th.
and are expected to occur during less than half the 2. 4SM HZ TEMPO 1900/1906 2SM BR HZ visibility
time period. The TEMPO indicator is followed by four in haze with occasional visibility two in mist and haze
two fourdigit groups separated by a /. The first between 0000Z on the 19th and 0600Z on the 19th.
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(f) For aircraft operating IFR and unable to set b. At or above 18,000 feet MSL. To 29.92 inch-
the current altimeter setting, the following restric- es of mercury (standard setting). The lowest usable
tions apply: flight level is determined by the atmospheric pressure
in the area of operation as shown in TBL 721.
(1) To determine the suitability of depar-
TBL 721
ture alternate airports, destination airports, and Lowest Usable Flight Level
destination alternate airports, increase ceiling
requirements by 100 feet and visibility requirements Altimeter Setting Lowest Usable
by 1/4 statute mile for each 1/10 of an inch of Hg., or (Current Reported) Flight Level
any portion thereof, over 31.00 inches. These 29.92 or higher 180
adjusted values are then applied in accordance with 29.91 to 29.42 185
the requirements of the applicable operating 29.41 to 28.92 190
regulations and operations specifications.
28.91 to 28.42 195
EXAMPLE 28.41 to 27.92 200
Destination altimeter is 31.28 inches, ILS DH 250 feet
(2001/2 ). When flight planning, add 3003/4 to the c. Where the minimum altitude, as prescribed in
weather requirements which would become 50011/4 . 14 CFR Section 91.159 and 14 CFR Section 91.177,
is above 18,000 feet MSL, the lowest usable flight
(2) On approach, 31.00 inches will remain level must be the flight level equivalent of the
set. Decision height (DH) or minimum descent minimum altitude plus the number of feet specified in
altitude must be deemed to have been reached when TBL 722.
the published altitude is displayed on the altimeter.
TBL 722
Lowest Flight Level Correction Factor
NOTE
Although visibility is normally the limiting factor on an Altimeter Setting Correction Factor
approach, pilots should be aware that when reaching DH
the aircraft will be higher than indicated. Using the 29.92 or higher none
example above the aircraft would be approximately 29.91 to 29.42 500 feet
300 feet higher. 29.41 to 28.92 1000 feet
28.91 to 28.42 1500 feet
(3) These restrictions do not apply to
authorized Category II and III ILS operations nor do 28.41 to 27.92 2000 feet
they apply to certificate holders using approved QFE 27.91 to 27.42 2500 feet
altimetry systems.
EXAMPLE
The minimum safe altitude of a route is 19,000 feet MSL
(g) The FAA Regional Flight Standards and the altimeter setting is reported between 29.92 and
Division Manager of the affected area is authorized to 29.42 inches of mercury, the lowest usable flight level will
approve temporary waivers to permit emergency be 195, which is the flight level equivalent of 19,500 feet
resupply or emergency medical service operation. MSL (minimum altitude plus 500 feet).
723. Altimeter Errors Celsius (C)), the outside air temperature cools from
+5 degrees C to 0 degrees C, the temperature error
a. Most pressure altimeters are subject to will nevertheless cause the aircraft to be HIGHER
mechanical, elastic, temperature, and installation
than indicated. It is the extreme cold difference that
errors. (Detailed information regarding the use of
normally would be of concern to the pilot. Also, when
pressure altimeters is found in the Instrument Flying flying in cold conditions over mountainous terrain,
Handbook, Chapter IV.) Although manufacturing
the pilot should exercise caution in flight planning
and installation specifications, as well as the periodic
both in regard to route and altitude to ensure adequate
test and inspections required by regulations (14 CFR en route and terminal area terrain clearance.
Part 43, Appendix E), act to reduce these errors, any
scale error may be observed in the following manner: NOTE
Non-standard temperatures can result in a change to
1. Set the current reported altimeter setting on
effective vertical paths and actual descent rates while
the altimeter setting scale. using aircraft Baro-VNAV equipment for vertical guidance
2. Altimeter should now read field elevation if on final approach segments. A higher than standard
you are located on the same reference level used to temperature will result in a steeper gradient and increased
actual descent rate. Indications of these differences are
establish the altimeter setting.
often not directly related to vertical speed indications.
3. Note the variation between the known field Conversely, a lower than standard temperature will result
elevation and the altimeter indication. If this variation in a shallower descent gradient and reduced actual descent
is in the order of plus or minus 75 feet, the accuracy rate. Pilots should consider potential consequences of
of the altimeter is questionable and the problem these effects on approach minimums, power settings, sight
picture, visual cues, etc., especially for high-altitude or
should be referred to an appropriately rated repair
terrain-challenged locations and during low-visibility
station for evaluation and possible correction. conditions.
b. Once in flight, it is very important to obtain
frequently current altimeter settings en route. If you d. TBL 723, derived from ICAO formulas,
do not reset your altimeter when flying from an area indicates how much error can exist when operating in
of high pressure into an area of low pressure, your cold temperatures. To use the table, find the reported
aircraft will be closer to the surface than your temperature in the left column, read across the top
altimeter indicates. An inch error in the altimeter row to locate the height above the airport/reporting
setting equals 1,000 feet of altitude. To quote an old station (i.e., subtract the airport/ reporting elevation
saying: GOING FROM A HIGH TO A LOW, from the intended flight altitude). The intersection of
LOOK OUT BELOW. the column and row is how much lower the aircraft
may actually be as a result of the possible cold
c. Temperature also has an effect on the accuracy temperature induced error.
of altimeters and your altitude. The crucial values to
consider are standard temperature versus the ambient e. Pilots are responsible to compensate for cold
(at altitude) temperature and the elevation above the temperature altimetry errors when operating into an
altitude setting reporting source. It is these airport with any published cold temperature
differences that cause the error in indicated restriction and a reported airport temperature at or
altitude. When the column of air is warmer than below the published temperature restriction. Pilots
standard, you are higher than your altimeter indicates. must ensure compensating aircraft are correcting on
Subsequently, when the column of air is colder than the proper segment or segments of the approach.
standard, you are lower than indicated. It is the Manually correct if compensating aircraft system is
magnitude of these differences that determine the inoperable. Pilots manually correcting, are respons-
magnitude of the error. When flying into a cooler air ible to calculate and apply a cold temperature altitude
mass while maintaining a constant indicated altitude, correction derived from TBL 723 to the affected
you are losing true altitude. However, flying into a approach segment or segments. Pilots must advise the
cooler air mass does not necessarily mean you will be cold temperature altitude correction to Air Traffic
lower than indicated if the difference is still on the Control (ATC). Pilots are not required to advise ATC
plus side. For example, while flying at 10,000 feet of a cold temperature altitude correction inside of the
(where STANDARD temperature is 5 degrees final approach fix.
TBL 723
ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table
Height Above Airport in Feet
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
+10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 20 20 30 40 60 80 90
30 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950
40 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1210
50 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 1190 1500
EXAMPLE
Temperature10 degrees Celsius, and the aircraft altitude is 1,000 feet above the airport elevation. The chart shows that
the reported current altimeter setting may place the aircraft as much as 100 feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter.
724. High Barometric Pressure 2. Departures. Advise pilots to set 31.00 inch-
es prior to reaching any mandatory/crossing altitude
a. Cold, dry air masses may produce barometric
or 1,500 feet, whichever is lower.
pressures in excess of 31.00 inches of Mercury, and
many altimeters do not have an accurate means of c. The altimeter error caused by the high pressure
being adjusted for settings of these levels. When the will be in the opposite direction to the error caused by
altimeter cannot be set to the higher pressure setting, the cold temperature.
the aircraft actual altitude will be higher than the
altimeter indicates. 725. Low Barometric Pressure
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 723 , Altimeter Errors. When abnormally low barometric pressure condi-
tions occur (below 28.00), flight operations by
b. When the barometric pressure exceeds
aircraft unable to set the actual altimeter setting are
31.00 inches, air traffic controllers will issue the
not recommended.
actual altimeter setting, and:
NOTE
1. En Route/Arrivals. Advise pilots to remain The true altitude of the aircraft is lower than the indicated
set on 31.00 inches until reaching the final approach altitude if the pilot is unable to set the actual altimeter
segment. setting.
2. Counter control is usually effective and wake location and thereby take avoidance precau-
induced roll minimal in cases where the wingspan tions.
and ailerons of the encountering aircraft extend
beyond the rotational flow field of the vortex. It is 1. An aircraft generates vortices from the
more difficult for aircraft with short wingspan moment it rotates on takeoff to touchdown, since
(relative to the generating aircraft) to counter the trailing vortices are a byproduct of wing lift. Prior to
imposed roll induced by vortex flow. Pilots of short takeoff or touchdown pilots should note the rotation
span aircraft, even of the high performance type, must or touchdown point of the preceding aircraft. (See
be especially alert to vortex encounters. FIG 733.)
(See FIG 732.) 2. The vortex circulation is outward, upward
and around the wing tips when viewed from either
FIG 732 ahead or behind the aircraft. Tests with large aircraft
Wake Encounter Counter Control have shown that the vortices remain spaced a bit less
than a wingspan apart, drifting with the wind, at
altitudes greater than a wingspan from the ground. In
COUNTER
CONTROL
view of this, if persistent vortex turbulence is
encountered, a slight change of altitude and lateral
position (preferably upwind) will provide a flight
path clear of the turbulence.
3. Flight tests have shown that the vortices from
larger (transport category) aircraft sink at a rate of
several hundred feet per minute, slowing their
descent and diminishing in strength with time and
distance behind the generating aircraft. Atmospheric
turbulence hastens breakup. Pilots should fly at or
above the preceding aircrafts flight path, altering
course as necessary to avoid the area behind and
3. The wake of larger aircraft requires the below the generating aircraft. (See FIG 734.)
respect of all pilots. However, vertical separation of 1,000 feet may be
considered safe.
734. Vortex Behavior 4. When the vortices of larger aircraft sink close
to the ground (within 100 to 200 feet), they tend to
a. Trailing vortices have certain behavioral move laterally over the ground at a speed of 2 or
characteristics which can help a pilot visualize the 3 knots. (See FIG 735.)
FIG 733
Wake Ends/Wake Begins
Touchdown Rotation
FIG 734
Vortex Flow Field
AVOID
Nominally 500-1000 Ft.
Sink Rate
Several Hundred Ft.,/Min.
FIG 735
Vortex Movement Near Ground No Wind
3K 3K
No Wind
FIG 736
Vortex Movement Near Ground with Cross Winds
3K Wind
6K 0 (3K - 3K)
(3K + 3K)
5. There is a small segment of the aviation vortex encounters when conducting approach and
community that have become convinced that wake landing operations. The pilot has the ultimate
vortices may bounce up to twice their nominal responsibility for ensuring appropriate separations
steady state height. With a 200foot span aircraft, the and positioning of the aircraft in the terminal area to
bounce height could reach approximately 200 feet avoid the wake turbulence created by a preceding
AGL. This conviction is based on a single aircraft.
unsubstantiated report of an apparent coherent
vortical flow that was seen in the volume scan of a b. A crosswind will decrease the lateral movement
research sensor. No one can say what conditions of the upwind vortex and increase the movement of
cause vortex bouncing, how high they bounce, at the downwind vortex. Thus a light wind with a cross
what angle they bounce, or how many times a vortex runway component of 1 to 5 knots could result in the
may bounce. On the other hand, no one can say for upwind vortex remaining in the touchdown zone for
certain that vortices never bounce. Test data have a period of time and hasten the drift of the downwind
shown that vortices can rise with the air mass in which vortex toward another runway. (See FIG 736.)
they are embedded. Wind shear, particularly, can Similarly, a tailwind condition can move the vortices
cause vortex flow field tilting. Also, ambient of the preceding aircraft forward into the touchdown
thermal lifting and orographic effects (rising terrain zone. THE LIGHT QUARTERING TAILWIND
or tree lines) can cause a vortex flow field to rise. REQUIRES MAXIMUM CAUTION. Pilots should
Notwithstanding the foregoing, pilots are reminded be alert to large aircraft upwind from their approach
that they should be alert at all times for possible wake and takeoff flight paths. (See FIG 737.)
FIG 737
Vortex Movement in Ground Effect Tailwind
Tail Wind
Light Quartering
Tailwind Touchdown Point
below the larger aircrafts flight path. Abandon the fixed wing aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft should use
approach unless a landing is ensured well before caution when operating behind or crossing behind
reaching the intersection. landing and departing helicopters.
6. Departing behind a larger aircraft. Note 738. Pilot Responsibility
the larger aircrafts rotation point and rotate prior to
the larger aircrafts rotation point. Continue climbing a. Government and industry groups are making
above the larger aircrafts climb path until turning concerted efforts to minimize or eliminate the
clear of the larger aircrafts wake. Avoid subsequent hazards of trailing vortices. However, the flight
headings which will cross below and behind a larger disciplines necessary to ensure vortex avoidance
aircraft. Be alert for any critical takeoff situation during VFR operations must be exercised by the pilot.
which could lead to a vortex encounter. Vortex visualization and avoidance procedures
should be exercised by the pilot using the same degree
7. Intersection takeoffs same runway. Be of concern as in collision avoidance.
alert to adjacent larger aircraft operations, particular- b. Wake turbulence may be encountered by
ly upwind of your runway. If intersection takeoff aircraft in flight as well as when operating on the
clearance is received, avoid subsequent heading airport movement area.
which will cross below a larger aircrafts path.
REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Wake Turbulence.
8. Departing or landing after a larger
aircraft executing a low approach, missed c. Pilots are reminded that in operations conducted
approach, or touchandgo landing. Because behind all aircraft, acceptance of instructions from
vortices settle and move laterally near the ground, the ATC in the following situations is an acknowledg-
vortex hazard may exist along the runway and in your ment that the pilot will ensure safe takeoff and
flight path after a larger aircraft has executed a low landing intervals and accepts the responsibility for
approach, missed approach, or a touchandgo providing wake turbulence separation.
landing, particular in light quartering wind condi- 1. Traffic information.
tions. You should ensure that an interval of at least 2. Instructions to follow an aircraft; and
2 minutes has elapsed before your takeoff or landing.
3. The acceptance of a visual approach
9. En route VFR (thousandfoot altitude plus clearance.
500 feet). Avoid flight below and behind a large d. For operations conducted behind super or
aircrafts path. If a larger aircraft is observed above on heavy aircraft, ATC will specify the word super or
the same track (meeting or overtaking) adjust your heavy as appropriate, when this information is
position laterally, preferably upwind. known. Pilots of super or heavy aircraft should
always use the word super or heavy in radio
737. Helicopters communications.
In a slow hover taxi or stationary hover near the e. Super, heavy, and large jet aircraft operators
surface, helicopter main rotor(s) generate downwash should use the following procedures during an
producing high velocity outwash vortices to a approach to landing. These procedures establish a
distance approximately three times the diameter of dependable baseline from which pilots of intrail,
the rotor. When rotor downwash hits the surface, the lighter aircraft may reasonably expect to make
resulting outwash vortices have behavioral character- effective flight path adjustments to avoid serious
istics similar to wing tip vortices produced by fixed wake vortex turbulence.
wing aircraft. However, the vortex circulation is 1. Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake
outward, upward, around, and away from the main vortices should make every attempt to fly on the
rotor(s) in all directions. Pilots of small aircraft established glidepath, not above it; or, if glidepath
should avoid operating within three rotor diameters guidance is not available, to fly as closely as possible
of any helicopter in a slow hover taxi or stationary to a 31 glidepath, not above it.
hover. In forward flight, departing or landing EXAMPLE
helicopters produce a pair of strong, highspeed Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at 5
trailing vortices similar to wing tip vortices of larger miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown.
2. Pilots of aircraft that produce strong wake respect to heavier preceding aircraft, especially when
vortices should fly as closely as possible to the there is any question of safe separation from wake
approach course centerline or to the extended turbulence.
centerline of the runway of intended landing as
appropriate to conditions. 739. Air Traffic Wake Turbulence
Separations
f. Pilots operating lighter aircraft on visual
approaches intrail to aircraft producing strong wake a. Because of the possible effects of wake
vortices should use the following procedures to assist turbulence, controllers are required to apply no less
in avoiding wake turbulence. These procedures apply than specified minimum separation to all IFR aircraft,
only to those aircraft that are on visual approaches. to all VFR aircraft receiving Class B or Class C
airspace services when operating behind super or
1. Pilots of lighter aircraft should fly on or heavy aircraft, and to small aircraft operating behind
above the glidepath. Glidepath reference may be a B757.
furnished by an ILS, by a visual approach slope 1. Separation is applied to aircraft operating
system, by other groundbased approach slope directly behind a super or heavy at the same altitude
guidance systems, or by other means. In the absence or less than 1,000 feet below, and to small aircraft
of visible glidepath guidance, pilots may very nearly operating directly behind a B757 at the same altitude
duplicate a 3degree glideslope by adhering to the or less than 500 feet below:
3 to 1 glidepath principle.
(a) Heavy behind super 6 miles.
EXAMPLE
Fly 3,000 feet at 10 miles from touchdown, 1,500 feet at (b) Large behind super 7 miles.
5 miles, 1,200 feet at 4 miles, and so on to touchdown. (c) Small behind super 8 miles.
2. If the pilot of the lighter following aircraft has (d) Heavy behind heavy 4 miles.
visual contact with the preceding heavier aircraft and (e) Small/large behind heavy 5 miles.
also with the runway, the pilot may further adjust for
(f) Small behind B757 4 miles.
possible wake vortex turbulence by the following
practices: 2. Also, separation, measured at the time the
preceding aircraft is over the landing threshold, is
(a) Pick a point of landing no less than provided to small aircraft:
1,000 feet from the arrival end of the runway.
(a) Small landing behind heavy 6 miles.
(b) Establish a lineofsight to that landing (b) Small landing behind large, nonB757
point that is above and in front of the heavier 4 miles.
preceding aircraft. REFERENCE
Pilot/Controller Glossary Term Aircraft Classes.
(c) When possible, note the point of landing
of the heavier preceding aircraft and adjust point of 3. Additionally, appropriate time or distance
intended landing as necessary. intervals are provided to departing aircraft when the
departure will be from the same threshold, a parallel
EXAMPLE runway separated by less than 2,500 feet with less
A puff of smoke may appear at the 1,000foot markings of than 500 feet threshold stagger, or on a crossing
the runway, showing that touchdown was that point;
runway and projected flight paths will cross:
therefore, adjust point of intended landing to the
1,500foot markings. (a) Three minutes or the appropriate radar
separation when takeoff will be behind a super
(d) Maintain the lineofsight to the point of
aircraft;
intended landing above and ahead of the heavier
preceding aircraft; maintain it to touchdown. (b) Two minutes or the appropriate radar
separation when takeoff will be behind a heavy
(e) Land beyond the point of landing of the aircraft.
preceding heavier aircraft.
(c) Two minutes or the appropriate radar
3. During visual approaches pilots may ask ATC separation when a small aircraft will takeoff behind
for updates on separation and groundspeed with a B757.
742. Reducing Bird Strike Risks If you observe birds or other animals on or near the
runway, request airport management to disperse the
a. The most serious strikes are those involving wildlife before taking off. Also contact the nearest
ingestion into an engine (turboprops and turbine jet FAA ARTCC, FSS, or tower (including nonFederal
engines) or windshield strikes. These strikes can towers) regarding large flocks of birds and report the:
result in emergency situations requiring prompt
action by the pilot. a. Geographic location.
b. Engine ingestions may result in sudden loss of b. Bird type (geese, ducks, gulls, etc.).
power or engine failure. Review engine out c. Approximate numbers.
procedures, especially when operating from airports
d. Altitude.
with known bird hazards or when operating near high
bird concentrations. e. Direction of bird flight path.
Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests 741
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
5/26/16
12/10/15
745. Pilot Advisories on Bird and Other Lakeshores, Recreation Areas and Scenic Riverways
Wildlife Hazards administered by the National Park Service, National
Wildlife Refuges, Big Game Refuges, Game Ranges
Many airports advise pilots of other wildlife hazards
and Wildlife Ranges administered by the U.S. Fish
caused by large animals on the runway through the
and Wildlife Service, and Wilderness and Primitive
Chart Supplement U.S. and the NOTAM system.
areas administered by the U.S. Forest Service.
Collisions of landing and departing aircraft and
animals on the runway are increasing and are not NOTE
limited to rural airports. These accidents have also FAA Advisory Circular AC 9136, Visual Flight
Rules (VFR) Flight Near Noise-Sensitive Areas, defines
occurred at several major airports. Pilots should
the surface of a national park area (including parks,
exercise extreme caution when warned of the forests, primitive areas, wilderness areas, recreational
presence of wildlife on and in the vicinity of airports. areas, national seashores, national monuments, national
If you observe deer or other large animals in close lakeshores, and national wildlife refuge and range areas)
proximity to movement areas, advise the FSS, tower, as: the highest terrain within 2,000 feet laterally of the
or airport management. route of flight, or the upper-most rim of a canyon or valley.
c. Federal statutes prohibit certain types of flight
746. Flights Over Charted U.S. Wildlife activity and/or provide altitude restrictions over
Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas designated U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest
a. The landing of aircraft is prohibited on lands or Service Areas. These designated areas, for example:
Boundary Waters Canoe Wilderness Areas,
waters administered by the National Park Service,
Minnesota; Haleakala National Park, Hawaii;
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, or U.S. Forest Service
without authorization from the respective agency. Yosemite National Park, California; and Grand
Canyon National Park, Arizona, are charted on
Exceptions include:
Sectional Charts.
1. When forced to land due to an emergency
d. Federal regulations also prohibit airdrops by
beyond the control of the operator;
parachute or other means of persons, cargo, or objects
2. At officially designated landing sites; or from aircraft on lands administered by the three
3. An approved official business of the Federal agencies without authorization from the respective
Government. agency. Exceptions include:
1. Emergencies involving the safety of human
b. Pilots are requested to maintain a minimum
life; or
altitude of 2,000 feet above the surface of the
following: National Parks, Monuments, Seashores, 2. Threat of serious property loss.
742 Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests
12/10/15 AIM
751. Accident Cause Factors entitled. It is a lot safer to pursue the right-of-way
angle after you have completed your flight.
a. The 10 most frequent cause factors for general
aviation accidents that involve the pilot-in-command
are: 752. VFR in Congested Areas
A high percentage of near midair collisions occur
1. Inadequate preflight preparation and/or
below 8,000 feet AGL and within 30 miles of an
planning.
airport. When operating VFR in these highly
2. Failure to obtain and/or maintain flying congested areas, whether you intend to land at an
speed. airport within the area or are just flying through, it is
recommended that extra vigilance be maintained and
3. Failure to maintain direction control. that you monitor an appropriate control frequency.
4. Improper level off. Normally the appropriate frequency is an approach
control frequency. By such monitoring action you can
5. Failure to see and avoid objects or get the picture of the traffic in your area. When the
obstructions. approach controller has radar, radar traffic advisories
may be given to VFR pilots upon request.
6. Mismanagement of fuel.
REFERENCE
AIM, Paragraph 4115 , Radar Traffic Information Service
7. Improper inflight decisions or planning.
8. Misjudgment of distance and speed. 753. Obstructions To Flight
9. Selection of unsuitable terrain. a. General. Many structures exist that could
significantly affect the safety of your flight when
10. Improper operation of flight controls. operating below 500 feet AGL, and particularly
b. This list remains relatively stable and points out below 200 feet AGL. While 14 CFR Part 91.119
the need for continued refresher training to establish allows flight below 500 AGL when over sparsely
a higher level of flight proficiency for all pilots. A populated areas or open water, such operations are
part of the FAAs continuing effort to promote very dangerous. At and below 200 feet AGL there are
increased aviation safety is the Aviation Safety numerous power lines, antenna towers, etc., that are
Program. For information on Aviation Safety not marked and lighted as obstructions and; therefore,
Program activities contact your nearest Flight may not be seen in time to avoid a collision. Notices
Standards District Office. to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued on those lighted
structures experiencing temporary light outages.
c. Alertness. Be alert at all times, especially However, some time may pass before the FAA is
when the weather is good. Most pilots pay attention notified of these outages, and the NOTAM issued,
to business when they are operating in full IFR thus pilot vigilance is imperative.
weather conditions, but strangely, air collisions
almost invariably have occurred under ideal weather b. Antenna Towers. Extreme caution should be
conditions. Unlimited visibility appears to encourage exercised when flying less than 2,000 feet AGL
a sense of security which is not at all justified. because of numerous skeletal structures, such as radio
Considerable information of value may be obtained and television antenna towers, that exceed 1,000 feet
by listening to advisories being issued in the terminal AGL with some extending higher than 2,000 feet
area, even though controller workload may prevent a AGL. Most skeletal structures are supported by guy
pilot from obtaining individual service. wires which are very difficult to see in good weather
and can be invisible at dusk or during periods of
d. Giving Way. If you think another aircraft is too reduced visibility. These wires can extend about
close to you, give way instead of waiting for the other 1,500 feet horizontally from a structure; therefore, all
pilot to respect the right-of-way to which you may be skeletal structures should be avoided horizontally by
at least 2,000 feet. Additionally, new towers may not should remain well clear of all unmanned free
be on your current chart because the information was balloons and flight below them should be avoided at
not received prior to the printing of the chart. all times.
c. Overhead Wires. Overhead transmission and b. Pilots are urged to report any unmanned free
utility lines often span approaches to runways, balloons sighted to the nearest FAA ground facility
natural flyways such as lakes, rivers, gorges, and with which communication is established. Such
canyons, and cross other landmarks pilots frequently information will assist FAA ATC facilities to identify
follow such as highways, railroad tracks, etc. As with and flight follow unmanned free balloons operating
antenna towers, these high voltage/power lines or the in the airspace.
supporting structures of these lines may not always be
readily visible and the wires may be virtually
755. Unmanned Aircraft Systems
impossible to see under certain conditions. In some
locations, the supporting structures of overhead a. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), formerly
transmission lines are equipped with unique sequence referred to as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
flashing white strobe light systems to indicate that or drones, are having an increasing operational
there are wires between the structures. However, presence in the NAS. Once the exclusive domain of
many power lines do not require notice to the FAA the military, UAS are now being operated by various
and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. Many entities. Although these aircraft are unmanned,
of those that do require notice do not exceed 200 feet UAS are flown by a remotely located pilot and crew.
AGL or meet the Obstruction Standard of 14 CFR Physical and performance characteristics of un-
Part 77 and, therefore, are not marked and/or lighted. manned aircraft (UA) vary greatly and unlike model
All pilots are cautioned to remain extremely vigilant aircraft that typically operate lower than 400 feet
for these power lines or their supporting structures AGL, UA may be found operating at virtually any
when following natural flyways or during the altitude and any speed. Sizes of UA can be as small
approach and landing phase. This is particularly as several pounds to as large as a commercial
important for seaplane and/or float equipped aircraft transport aircraft. UAS come in various categories
when landing on, or departing from, unfamiliar lakes including airplane, rotorcraft, poweredlift (tilt
or rivers. rotor), and lighterthanair. Propulsion systems of
UAS include a broad range of alternatives from
d. Other Objects/Structures. There are other
piston powered and turbojet engines to battery and
objects or structures that could adversely affect your
solarpowered electric motors.
flight such as construction cranes near an airport,
newly constructed buildings, new towers, etc. Many b. To ensure segregation of UAS operations from
of these structures do not meet charting requirements other aircraft, the military typically conducts UAS
or may not yet be charted because of the charting operations within restricted or other special use
cycle. Some structures do not require obstruction airspace. However, UAS operations are now being
marking and/or lighting and some may not be marked approved in the NAS outside of special use airspace
and lighted even though the FAA recommended it. through the use of FAAissued Certificates of Waiver
or Authorization (COA) or through the issuance of a
754. Avoid Flight Beneath Unmanned special airworthiness certificate. COA and special
Balloons airworthiness approvals authorize UAS flight
operations to be contained within specific geographic
a. The majority of unmanned free balloons boundaries and altitudes, usually require coordina-
currently being operated have, extending below tion with an ATC facility, and typically require the
them, either a suspension device to which the payload issuance of a NOTAM describing the operation to be
or instrument package is attached, or a trailing wire conducted. UAS approvals also require observers to
antenna, or both. In many instances these balloon provide seeandavoid capability to the UAS crew
subsystems may be invisible to the pilot until the and to provide the necessary compliance with 14 CFR
aircraft is close to the balloon, thereby creating a Section 91.113. For UAS operations approved at or
potentially dangerous situation. Therefore, good above FL180, UAS operate under the same
judgment on the part of the pilot dictates that aircraft requirements as that of manned aircraft (i.e., flights
are operated under instrument flight rules, are in 756. Mountain Flying
communication with ATC, and are appropriately
equipped). a. Your first experience of flying over mountain-
ous terrain (particularly if most of your flight time has
c. UAS operations may be approved at either been over the flatlands of the midwest) could be a
controlled or uncontrolled airports and are typically never-to-be-forgotten nightmare if proper planning is
disseminated by NOTAM. In all cases, approved not done and if you are not aware of the potential
UAS operations must comply with all applicable hazards awaiting. Those familiar section lines are not
regulations and/or special provisions specified in the present in the mountains; those flat, level fields for
COA or in the operating limitations of the special forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt
airworthiness certificate. At uncontrolled airports, changes in wind direction and velocity occur; severe
UAS operations are advised to operate well clear of updrafts and downdrafts are common, particularly
all known manned aircraft operations. Pilots of near or above abrupt changes of terrain such as cliffs
manned aircraft are advised to follow normal or rugged areas; even the clouds look different and
operating procedures and are urged to monitor the can build up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying
CTAF for any potential UAS activity. At controlled need not be hazardous if you follow the recommenda-
airports, local ATC procedures may be in place to tions below.
handle UAS operations and should not require any
special procedures from manned aircraft entering or b. File a Flight Plan. Plan your route to avoid
departing the traffic pattern or operating in the topography which would prevent a safe forced
vicinity of the airport. landing. The route should be over populated areas and
well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude
d. In addition to approved UAS operations should be maintained to permit gliding to a safe
described above, a recently approved agreement landing in the event of engine failure.
between the FAA and the Department of Defense
c. Dont fly a light aircraft when the winds aloft, at
authorizes small UAS operations wholly contained
your proposed altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour.
within Class G airspace, and in no instance, greater
Expect the winds to be of much greater velocity over
than 1200 feet AGL over military owned or leased
mountain passes than reported a few miles from them.
property. These operations do not require any special
Approach mountain passes with as much altitude as
authorization as long as the UA remains within the
possible. Downdrafts of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet per
lateral boundaries of the military installation as well
minute are not uncommon on the leeward side.
as other provisions including the issuance of a
NOTAM. Unlike special use airspace, these areas d. Dont fly near or above abrupt changes in
may not be depicted on an aeronautical chart. terrain. Severe turbulence can be expected, especially
in high wind conditions.
e. There are several factors a pilot should consider
regarding UAS activity in an effort to reduce e. Understand Mountain Obscuration. The
potential flight hazards. Pilots are urged to exercise term Mountain Obscuration (MTOS) is used to
increased vigilance when operating in the vicinity of describe a visibility condition that is distinguished
restricted or other special use airspace, military from IFR because ceilings, by definition, are
operations areas, and any military installation. Areas described as above ground level (AGL). In
with a preponderance of UAS activity are typically mountainous terrain clouds can form at altitudes
noted on sectional charts advising pilots of this significantly higher than the weather reporting
activity. Since the size of a UA can be very small, they station and at the same time nearby mountaintops
may be difficult to see and track. If a UA is may be obscured by low visibility. In these areas the
encountered during flight, as with manned aircraft, ground level can also vary greatly over a small area.
never assume that the pilot or crew of the UAS can see Beware if operating VFRontop. You could be
you, maintain increased vigilance with the UA and operating closer to the terrain than you think because
always be prepared for evasive action if necessary. the tops of mountains are hidden in a cloud deck
Always check NOTAMs for potential UAS activity below. MTOS areas are identified daily on The
along the intended route of flight and exercise Aviation Weather Center located at:
increased vigilance in areas specified in the NOTAM. http://www.aviationweather.gov.
f. Some canyons run into a dead end. Dont fly so decreases with altitude. As air density decreases,
far up a canyon that you get trapped. ALWAYS BE density altitude increases. The further effects of high
ABLE TO MAKE A 180 DEGREE TURN! temperature and high humidity are cumulative,
resulting in an increasing high density altitude
g. VFR flight operations may be conducted at
condition. High density altitude reduces all aircraft
night in mountainous terrain with the application of
performance parameters. To the pilot, this means that
sound judgment and common sense. Proper pre-flight
the normal horsepower output is reduced, propeller
planning, giving ample consideration to winds and
efficiency is reduced and a higher true airspeed is
weather, knowledge of the terrain and pilot
required to sustain the aircraft throughout its
experience in mountain flying are prerequisites for
operating parameters. It means an increase in runway
safety of flight. Continuous visual contact with the
length requirements for takeoff and landings, and
surface and obstructions is a major concern and flight
decreased rate of climb. An average small airplane,
operations under an overcast or in the vicinity of
for example, requiring 1,000 feet for takeoff at sea
clouds should be approached with extreme caution.
level under standard atmospheric conditions will
h. When landing at a high altitude field, the same require a takeoff run of approximately 2,000 feet at an
indicated airspeed should be used as at low elevation operational altitude of 5,000 feet.
fields. Remember: that due to the less dense air at NOTE
altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually results A turbo-charged aircraft engine provides some slight
in higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and advantage in that it provides sea level horsepower up to a
more important, a longer landing distance. During specified altitude above sea level.
gusty wind conditions which often prevail at high 1. Density Altitude Advisories. At airports
altitude fields, a power approach and power landing with elevations of 2,000 feet and higher, control
is recommended. Additionally, due to the faster towers and FSSs will broadcast the advisory Check
groundspeed, your takeoff distance will increase Density Altitude when the temperature reaches a
considerably over that required at low altitudes. predetermined level. These advisories will be
i. Effects of Density Altitude. Performance broadcast on appropriate tower frequencies or, where
figures in the aircraft owners handbook for length of available, ATIS. FSSs will broadcast these advisories
takeoff run, horsepower, rate of climb, etc., are as a part of Local Airport Advisory, and on TWEB.
generally based on standard atmosphere conditions 2. These advisories are provided by air traffic
(59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees Celsius), pressure facilities, as a reminder to pilots that high
29.92 inches of mercury) at sea level. However, temperatures and high field elevations will cause
inexperienced pilots, as well as experienced pilots, significant changes in aircraft characteristics. The
may run into trouble when they encounter an pilot retains the responsibility to compute density
altogether different set of conditions. This is altitude, when appropriate, as a part of preflight
particularly true in hot weather and at higher duties.
elevations. Aircraft operations at altitudes above sea
level and at higher than standard temperatures are NOTE
commonplace in mountainous areas. Such operations All FSSs will compute the current density altitude upon
request.
quite often result in a drastic reduction of aircraft
performance capabilities because of the changing air j. Mountain Wave. Many pilots go all their lives
density. Density altitude is a measure of air density. without understanding what a mountain wave is.
It is not to be confused with pressure altitude, true Quite a few have lost their lives because of this lack
altitude or absolute altitude. It is not to be used as a of understanding. One need not be a licensed
height reference, but as a determining criteria in the meteorologist to understand the mountain wave
performance capability of an aircraft. Air density phenomenon.
1. Mountain waves occur when air is being condition and slope, elevation, aircraft weight, wind,
blown over a mountain range or even the ridge of a and temperature), typical takeoff acceleration should
sharp bluff area. As the air hits the upwind side of the allow the airplane to reach 70 percent of liftoff
range, it starts to climb, thus creating what is airspeed by the midpoint of the runway. The rule of
generally a smooth updraft which turns into a thumb is that should airplane acceleration not allow
turbulent downdraft as the air passes the crest of the the airspeed to reach this value by the midpoint, the
ridge. From this point, for many miles downwind, takeoff should be aborted, as it may not be possible to
there will be a series of downdrafts and updrafts. liftoff in the remaining runway.
Satellite photos of the Rockies have shown mountain
waves extending as far as 700 miles downwind of the Several points are important when considering using
range. Along the east coast area, such photos of the this rule of thumb:
Appalachian chain have picked up the mountain
wave phenomenon over a hundred miles eastward. a. Airspeed indicators in small airplanes are not
All it takes to form a mountain wave is wind blowing required to be evaluated at speeds below stalling, and
across the range at 15 knots or better at an intersection may not be usable at 70 percent of liftoff airspeed.
angle of not less than 30 degrees.
b. This rule of thumb is based on a uniform
surface condition. Puddles, soft spots, areas of tall
2. Pilots from flatland areas should understand
and/or wet grass, loose gravel, etc., may impede
a few things about mountain waves in order to stay
acceleration or even cause deceleration. Even if the
out of trouble. When approaching a mountain range
airplane achieves 70 percent of liftoff airspeed by the
from the upwind side (generally the west), there will
midpoint, the condition of the remainder of the runway
usually be a smooth updraft; therefore, it is not quite
may not allow further acceleration. The entire length
as dangerous an area as the lee of the range. From the
of the runway should be inspected prior to takeoff to
leeward side, it is always a good idea to add an extra
ensure a usable surface.
thousand feet or so of altitude because downdrafts
can exceed the climb capability of the aircraft. Never c. This rule of thumb applies only to runway
expect an updraft when approaching a mountain required for actual liftoff. In the event that obstacles
chain from the leeward. Always be prepared to cope affect the takeoff climb path, appropriate distance
with a downdraft and turbulence. must be available after liftoff to accelerate to best angle
of climb speed and to clear the obstacles. This will, in
3. When approaching a mountain ridge from the effect, require the airplane to accelerate to a higher
downwind side, it is recommended that the ridge be speed by midpoint, particularly if the obstacles are
approached at approximately a 45 degree angle to the close to the end of the runway. In addition, this
horizontal direction of the ridge. This permits a safer technique does not take into account the effects of
retreat from the ridge with less stress on the aircraft upslope or tailwinds on takeoff performance. These
should severe turbulence and downdraft be experi- factors will also require greater acceleration than
enced. If severe turbulence is encountered, normal and, under some circumstances, prevent
simultaneously reduce power and adjust pitch until takeoff entirely.
aircraft approaches maneuvering speed, then adjust
power and trim to maintain maneuvering speed and d. Use of this rule of thumb does not alleviate the
fly away from the turbulent area. pilots responsibility to comply with applicable
Federal Aviation Regulations, the limitations and
performance data provided in the FAA approved
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), or, in the absence of
757. Use of Runway Halfway Signs at an FAA approved AFM, other data provided by the
Unimproved Airports aircraft manufacturer.
When installed, runway halfway signs provide the In addition to their use during takeoff, runway
pilot with a reference point to judge takeoff halfway signs offer the pilot increased awareness of
acceleration trends. Assuming that the runway length his or her position along the runway during landing
is appropriate for takeoff (considering runway operations.
TBL 751 passengers can easily don and wear inflatable life
Jurisdictions Controlling Navigable Bodies of Water vests (when not inflated) provides maximum
Authority to Consult For Use of a Body of Water
effectiveness and allows for unrestricted movement.
It is imperative that passengers are briefed on the
Location Authority Contact
location and proper use of available PFDs prior to
Wilderness Area U.S. Department Local forest ranger leaving the dock.
of Agriculture,
Forest Service f. The FAA recommends that seaplane owners and
National Forest USDA Forest Local forest ranger operators obtain Advisory Circular (AC) 9169,
Service Seaplane Safety for 14 CFR Part 91 Operations, free
National Park U.S. Department Local park ranger from the U.S. Department of Transportation,
of the Interior,
National Park Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC121.23, Ard-
Service more East Business Center, 3341 Q 75th Avenue,
Indian Reservation USDI, Bureau of Local Bureau Landover, MD 20785; fax: (301) 3865394. The
Indian Affairs office USCG Navigation Rules InternationalInland
State Park State government Local state (COMDTINSTM 16672.2B) is available for a fee
or state forestry or aviation office for from the Government Printing Office by facsimile
park service further request to (202) 5122250, and can be ordered using
information
Mastercard or Visa.
Canadian National Supervised and Park
and Provincial restricted on an Superintendent in
Parks individual basis an emergency 759. Flight Operations in Volcanic Ash
from province to
province and by a. Severe volcanic eruptions which send ash and
different sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas into the upper atmosphere
departments of the
Canadian
occur somewhere around the world several times
government; each year. Flying into a volcanic ash cloud can be
consult Canadian exceedingly dangerous. A B747200 lost all four
Flight Information engines after such an encounter and a B747400 had
Manual and/or
Water Aerodrome the same nearly catastrophic experience. Piston
Supplement powered aircraft are less likely to lose power but
severe damage is almost certain to ensue after an
e. The FAA recommends that each seaplane owner encounter with a volcanic ash cloud which is only a
or operator provide flotation gear for occupants any few hours old.
time a seaplane operates on or near water. 14 CFR
b. Most important is to avoid any encounter with
Section 91.205(b)(12) requires approved flotation
volcanic ash. The ash plume may not be visible,
gear for aircraft operated for hire over water and
especially in instrument conditions or at night; and
beyond power-off gliding distance from shore.
even if visible, it is difficult to distinguish visually
FAA-approved gear differs from that required for
between an ash cloud and an ordinary weather cloud.
navigable waterways under USCG rules. FAA-ap-
Volcanic ash clouds are not displayed on airborne or
proved life vests are inflatable designs as compared
ATC radar. The pilot must rely on reports from air
to the USCGs noninflatable PFDs that may consist
traffic controllers and other pilots to determine the
of solid, bulky material. Such USCG PFDs are
location of the ash cloud and use that information to
impractical for seaplanes and other aircraft because
remain well clear of the area. Additionally, the
they may block passage through the relatively narrow
presence of a sulphur-like odor throughout the cabin
exits available to pilots and passengers. Life vests
may indicate the presence of SO2 emitted by volcanic
approved under Technical Standard Order (TSO)
activity, but may or may not indicate the presence of
TSOC13E contain fully inflatable compartments.
volcanic ash. Every attempt should be made to remain
The wearer inflates the compartments (AFTER
on the upwind side of the volcano.
exiting the aircraft) primarily by independent CO2
cartridges, with an oral inflation tube as a backup. The c. It is recommended that pilots encountering an
flotation gear also contains a water-activated, ash cloud should immediately reduce thrust to idle
self-illuminating signal light. The fact that pilots and (altitude permitting), and reverse course in order to
escape from the cloud. Ash clouds may extend for action. Wet ash on the runway may also reduce
hundreds of miles and pilots should not attempt to fly effectiveness of braking. It is recommended that
through or climb out of the cloud. In addition, the reverse thrust be limited to minimum practical to
following procedures are recommended: reduce the possibility of reduced visibility and engine
ingestion of airborne ash.
1. Disengage the autothrottle if engaged. This
will prevent the autothrottle from increasing engine h. When departing from airports where volcanic
thrust; ash has been deposited, it is recommended that pilots
avoid operating in visible airborne ash. Allow ash to
2. Turn on continuous ignition; settle before initiating takeoff roll. It is also
3. Turn on all accessory airbleeds including all recommended that flap extension be delayed until
air conditioning packs, nacelles, and wing anti-ice. initiating the before takeoff checklist and that a
This will provide an additional engine stall margin by rolling takeoff be executed to avoid blowing ash back
reducing engine pressure. into the air.
d. The following has been reported by flightcrews
who have experienced encounters with volcanic dust 7510. Emergency Airborne Inspection of
clouds: Other Aircraft
1. Smoke or dust appearing in the cockpit. a. Providing airborne assistance to another aircraft
may involve flying in very close proximity to that
2. An acrid odor similar to electrical smoke. aircraft. Most pilots receive little, if any, formal
3. Multiple engine malfunctions, such as training or instruction in this type of flying activity.
compressor stalls, increasing EGT, torching from Close proximity flying without sufficient time to plan
tailpipe, and flameouts. (i.e., in an emergency situation), coupled with the
stress involved in a perceived emergency can be
4. At night, St. Elmos fire or other static hazardous.
discharges accompanied by a bright orange glow in
b. The pilot in the best position to assess the
the engine inlets.
situation should take the responsibility of coordinat-
5. A fire warning in the forward cargo area. ing the airborne intercept and inspection, and take
into account the unique flight characteristics and
e. It may become necessary to shut down and then
differences of the category(s) of aircraft involved.
restart engines to prevent exceeding EGT limits.
Volcanic ash may block the pitot system and result in c. Some of the safety considerations are:
unreliable airspeed indications. 1. Area, direction and speed of the intercept;
f. If you see a volcanic eruption and have not been 2. Aerodynamic effects (i.e., rotorcraft down-
previously notified of it, you may have been the first wash);
person to observe it. In this case, immediately contact
ATC and alert them to the existence of the eruption. 3. Minimum safe separation distances;
If possible, use the Volcanic Activity Reporting form 4. Communications requirements, lost commu-
(VAR) depicted in Appendix 2 of this manual. nications procedures, coordination with ATC;
Items 1 through 8 of the VAR should be transmitted
immediately. The information requested in 5. Suitability of diverting the distressed aircraft
items 9 through 16 should be passed after landing. If to the nearest safe airport; and
a VAR form is not immediately available, relay 6. Emergency actions to terminate the intercept.
enough information to identify the position and
d. Close proximity, inflight inspection of another
nature of the volcanic activity. Do not become
aircraft is uniquely hazardous. The pilotin
unnecessarily alarmed if there is merely steam or very
command of the aircraft experiencing the
low-level eruptions of ash.
problem/emergency must not relinquish control of
g. When landing at airports where volcanic ash has the situation and/or jeopardize the safety of their
been deposited on the runway, be aware that even a aircraft. The maneuver must be accomplished with
thin layer of dry ash can be detrimental to braking minimum risk to both aircraft.
Sufficient dischargers must be provided to allow for e. Pilots should report laser illumination activity to
currentcarrying capacity which will maintain the controlling Air Traffic Control facilities, Federal
airframe potential below the corona threshold of the Contract Towers or Flight Service Stations as soon as
trailing edges. possible after the event. The following information
should be included:
h. In order to achieve full performance of avionic
equipment, the static discharge system will require 1. UTC Date and Time of Event.
periodic maintenance. A pilot knowledgeable of
Pstatic causes and effects is an important element in 2. Call Sign or Aircraft Registration Number.
assuring optimum performance by early recognition 3. Type Aircraft.
of these types of problems.
4. Nearest Major City.
7512. Light Amplification by Stimulated 5. Altitude.
Emission of Radiation (Laser) Operations
and Reporting Illumination of Aircraft 6. Location of Event (Latitude/Longitude and/
or Fixed Radial Distance (FRD)).
a. Lasers have many applications. Of concern to
users of the National Airspace System are those laser 7. Brief Description of the Event and any other
events that may affect pilots, e.g., outdoor laser light Pertinent Information.
shows or demonstrations for entertainment and f. Pilots are also encouraged to complete the
advertisements at special events and theme parks. Laser Beam Exposure Questionnaire located
Generally, the beams from these events appear as on the FAA Laser Safety Initiative web site at
bright bluegreen in color; however, they may be red, http://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/lasers/
yellow, or white. However, some laser systems and submit electronically per the directions on the
produce light which is invisible to the human eye. questionnaire, as soon as possible after landing.
b. FAA regulations prohibit the disruption of g. When a laser event is reported to an air traffic
aviation activity by any person on the ground or in the facility, a general caution warning will be broad-
air. The FAA and the Food and Drug Administration casted on all appropriate frequencies every
(the Federal agency that has the responsibility to five minutes for 20 minutes and broadcasted on the
enforce compliance with Federal requirements for ATIS for one hour following the report.
laser systems and laser light show products) are
working together to ensure that operators of these PHRASEOLOGY
UNAUTHORIZED LASER ILLUMINATION EVENT,
devices do not pose a hazard to aircraft operators.
(UTC time), (location), (altitude), (color), (direction).
c. Pilots should be aware that illumination from EXAMPLE
these laser operations are able to create temporary Unauthorized laser illumination event, at 0100z, 8 mile
vision impairment miles from the actual location. In final runway 18R at 3,000 feet, green laser from the
addition, these operations can produce permanent eye southwest.
damage. Pilots should make themselves aware of REFERENCE
where these activities are being conducted and avoid FAA Order 7110.65, Paragraph 10214, Unauthorized Laser
Illumination of Aircraft
these areas if possible. FAA Order 7210.3, Paragraph 2127, Reporting Unauthorized Laser
Illumination of Aircraft
d. Recent and increasing incidents of unautho-
rized illumination of aircraft by lasers, as well as the h. When these activities become known to the
proliferation and increasing sophistication of laser FAA, Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) are issued to
devices available to the general public, dictates that inform the aviation community of the events. Pilots
the FAA, in coordination with other government should consult NOTAMs or the Special Notices
agencies, take action to safeguard flights from these section of the Chart Supplement U.S. for information
unauthorized illuminations. regarding these activities.
7513. Flying in Flat Light and White Out d. Never take off in a white out situation.
Conditions 1. Realize that in flat light conditions it may be
possible to depart but not to return to that site. During
a. Flat Light. Flat light is an optical illusion, also takeoff, make sure you have a reference point. Do not
known as sector or partial white out. It is not as lose sight of it until you have a departure reference
severe as white out but the condition causes pilots point in view. Be prepared to return to the takeoff
to lose their depthoffield and contrast in vision. reference if the departure reference does not come
Flat light conditions are usually accompanied by into view.
overcast skies inhibiting any visual clues. Such 2. Flat light is common to snow skiers. One way
conditions can occur anywhere in the world, to compensate for the lack of visual contrast and
primarily in snow covered areas but can occur in dust, depthoffield loss is by wearing amber tinted lenses
sand, mud flats, or on glassy water. Flat light can (also known as blue blockers). Special note of
completely obscure features of the terrain, creating an caution: Eyewear is not ideal for every pilot. Take
inability to distinguish distances and closure rates. into consideration personal factors age, light
As a result of this reflected light, it can give pilots the sensitivity, and ambient lighting conditions.
illusion that they are ascending or descending when
3. So what should a pilot do when all visual
they may actually be flying level. However, with
references are lost?
good judgment and proper training and planning, it is
possible to safely operate an aircraft in flat light (a) Trust the cockpit instruments.
conditions. (b) Execute a 180 degree turnaround and start
looking for outside references.
b. White Out. As defined in meteorological (c) Above all fly the aircraft.
terms, white out occurs when a person becomes
engulfed in a uniformly white glow. The glow is a e. Landing in Low Light Conditions. When
result of being surrounded by blowing snow, dust, landing in a low light condition use extreme
sand, mud or water. There are no shadows, no horizon caution. Look for intermediate reference points, in
or clouds and all depthoffield and orientation are addition to checkpoints along each leg of the route for
lost. A white out situation is severe in that there are course confirmation and timing. The lower the
no visual references. Flying is not recommended in ambient light becomes, the more reference points a
any white out situation. Flat light conditions can lead pilot should use.
to a white out environment quite rapidly, and both f. Airport Landings.
atmospheric conditions are insidious; they sneak up 1. Look for features around the airport or
on you as your visual references slowly begin to approach path that can be used in determining depth
disappear. White out has been the cause of several perception. Buildings, towers, vehicles or other
aviation accidents. aircraft serve well for this measurement. Use
something that will provide you with a sense of height
c. Self Induced White Out. This effect typically above the ground, in addition to orienting you to the
occurs when a helicopter takes off or lands on a runway.
snowcovered area. The rotor down wash picks up 2. Be cautious of snowdrifts and snow banks
particles and recirculates them through the rotor anything that can distinguish the edge of the runway.
down wash. The effect can vary in intensity Look for subtle changes in snow texture or shading to
depending upon the amount of light on the surface. identify ridges or changes in snow depth.
This can happen on the sunniest, brightest day with
good contrast everywhere. However, when it g. OffAirport Landings.
happens, there can be a complete loss of visual clues. 1. In the event of an offairport landing, pilots
If the pilot has not prepared for this immediate loss of have used a number of different visual cues to gain
visibility, the results can be disastrous. Good reference. Use whatever you must to create the
planning does not prevent one from encountering flat contrast you need. Natural references seem to work
light or white out conditions. best (trees, rocks, snow ribs, etc.)
As with mountain wave turbulence or clear air The best available information on this phenomenon
turbulence, an invisible plume may be encountered must come from pilots via the PIREP reporting
unexpectedly. Cooling towers, power plant stacks, procedures. All pilots encountering hazardous
exhaust fans, and other similar structures are depicted plume conditions are urgently requested to report
in FIG 752. time, location, and intensity (light, moderate, severe,
Pilots are encouraged to exercise caution when flying or extreme) of the element to the FAA facility with
in the vicinity of exhaust plumes. Pilots are also which they are maintaining radio contact. If time and
encouraged to reference the Chart Supplement U.S. conditions permit, elements should be reported
where amplifying notes may caution pilots and according to the standards for other PIREPs and
identify the location of structure(s) emitting exhaust position reports (AIM Paragraph 7122, PIREPS
plumes. Relating to Turbulence).
FIG 752
Plumes
761. Aviation Safety Reporting Program described in AC 0046, Aviation Safety Reporting
Program.
a. The FAA has established a voluntary Aviation
Safety Reporting Program designed to stimulate the
762. Aircraft Accident and Incident
free and unrestricted flow of information concerning
Reporting
deficiencies and discrepancies in the aviation system.
This is a positive program intended to ensure the a. Occurrences Requiring Notification. The
safest possible system by identifying and correcting operator of an aircraft must immediately, and by the
unsafe conditions before they lead to accidents. The most expeditious means available, notify the nearest
primary objective of the program is to obtain National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) Field
information to evaluate and enhance the safety and Office when:
efficiency of the present system.
1. An aircraft accident or any of the following
b. This cooperative safety reporting program listed incidents occur:
invites pilots, controllers, flight attendants, mainte- (a) Flight control system malfunction or
nance personnel and other users of the airspace failure.
system, or any other person, to file written reports of
actual or potential discrepancies and deficiencies (b) Inability of any required flight crew
involving the safety of aviation operations. The member to perform their normal flight duties as a
operations covered by the program include departure, result of injury or illness.
en route, approach, and landing operations and (c) Failure of structural components of a
procedures, air traffic control procedures and turbine engine excluding compressor and turbine
equipment, crew and air traffic control communica- blades and vanes.
tions, aircraft cabin operations, aircraft movement on
the airport, near midair collisions, aircraft mainte- (d) Inflight fire.
nance and record keeping and airport conditions or (e) Aircraft collide in flight.
services.
(f) Damage to property, other than the
c. The report should give the date, time, location, aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair
persons and aircraft involved (if applicable), nature (including materials and labor) or fair market value in
of the event, and all pertinent details. the event of total loss, whichever is less.
d. To ensure receipt of this information, the (g) For large multi-engine aircraft (more than
program provides for the waiver of certain 12,500 pounds maximum certificated takeoff
disciplinary actions against persons, including pilots weight):
and air traffic controllers, who file timely written (1) Inflight failure of electrical systems
reports concerning potentially unsafe incidents. To be which requires the sustained use of an emergency bus
considered timely, reports must be delivered or powered by a back-up source such as a battery,
postmarked within 10 days of the incident unless that auxiliary power unit, or air-driven generator to retain
period is extended for good cause. Reports should be flight control or essential instruments;
submitted on NASA ARC Forms 277, which are
available free of charge, postage prepaid, at FAA (2) Inflight failure of hydraulic systems
Flight Standards District Offices and Flight Service that results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining
Stations, and from NASA, ASRS, PO Box 189, hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of
Moffet Field, CA 94035. flight control surfaces;
(3) Sustained loss of the power or thrust
e. The FAA utilizes the National Aeronautics and
produced by two or more engines; and
Space Administration (NASA) to act as an
independent third party to receive and analyze reports (4) An evacuation of aircraft in which an
submitted under the program. This program is emergency egress system is utilized.
2. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have (c) A report on an incident for which
been involved in an accident. notification is required as described in subpara-
graph a(1) must be filed only as requested by an
b. Manner of Notification. authorized representative of the NTSB.
1. The most expeditious method of notification 2. Each crewmember, if physically able at the
to the NTSB by the operator will be determined by the time the report is submitted, must attach a statement
circumstances existing at that time. The NTSB has setting forth the facts, conditions, and circumstances
advised that any of the following would be relating to the accident or incident as they appeared.
considered examples of the type of notification that If the crewmember is incapacitated, a statement must
would be acceptable: be submitted as soon as physically possible.
(a) Direct telephone notification. e. Where to File the Reports.
(b) Telegraphic notification. 1. The operator of an aircraft must file with the
NTSB Field Office nearest the accident or incident
(c) Notification to the FAA who would in turn any report required by this section.
notify the NTSB by direct communication; i.e., dis-
patch or telephone. 2. The NTSB Field Offices are listed under U.S.
Government in the telephone directories in the
c. Items to be Included in Notification. The following cities: Anchorage, AK; Atlanta, GA;
notification required above must contain the Chicago, IL; Denver, CO; Fort Worth, TX;
following information, if available: Los Angeles, CA; Miami, FL; Parsippany, NJ;
1. Type, nationality, and registration marks of Seattle, WA.
the aircraft.
763. Near Midair Collision Reporting
2. Name of owner and operator of the aircraft.
a. Purpose and Data Uses. The primary purpose
3. Name of the pilot-in-command. of the Near Midair Collision (NMAC) Reporting
Program is to provide information for use in
4. Date and time of the accident, or incident. enhancing the safety and efficiency of the National
5. Last point of departure, and point of intended Airspace System. Data obtained from NMAC reports
landing of the aircraft. are used by the FAA to improve the quality of FAA
services to users and to develop programs, policies,
6. Position of the aircraft with reference to some and procedures aimed at the reduction of NMAC
easily defined geographical point. occurrences. All NMAC reports are thoroughly
7. Number of persons aboard, number killed, investigated by Flight Standards Facilities in
and number seriously injured. coordination with Air Traffic Facilities. Data from
these investigations are transmitted to FAA Head-
8. Nature of the accident, or incident, the quarters in Washington, DC, where they are compiled
weather, and the extent of damage to the aircraft so far and analyzed, and where safety programs and
as is known; and recommendations are developed.
9. A description of any explosives, radioactive b. Definition. A near midair collision is defined
materials, or other dangerous articles carried. as an incident associated with the operation of an
aircraft in which a possibility of collision occurs as a
d. Followup Reports. result of proximity of less than 500 feet to another
1. The operator must file a report on NTSB aircraft, or a report is received from a pilot or a flight
Form 6120.1 or 6120.2, available from NTSB Field crew member stating that a collision hazard existed
Offices or from the NTSB, Washington, DC, 20594: between two or more aircraft.
ATC will not interpret a casual remark to mean that involved aircraft was provided ATC service. Both
a NMAC is being reported. The pilot should state I flight and ATC procedures will be evaluated. When
wish to report a near midair collision. the investigation reveals a violation of an FAA
regulation, enforcement action will be pursued.
d. Where to File Reports. Pilots and/or flight
crew members involved in NMAC occurrences are
urged to report each incident immediately: 764. Unidentified Flying Object (UFO)
Reports
1. By radio or telephone to the nearest FAA ATC
facility or FSS. a. Persons wanting to report UFO/unexplained
phenomena activity should contact a UFO/unex-
2. In writing, in lieu of the above, to the nearest plained phenomena reporting data collection center,
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO). such as the National UFO Reporting Center, etc.
e. Items to be Reported. b. If concern is expressed that life or property
1. Date and time (UTC) of incident. might be endangered, report the activity to the local
law enforcement department.
2. Location of incident and altitude.
3. Identification and type of reporting aircraft, 765. Safety Alerts For Operators (SAFO)
aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. and Information For Operators (InFO)
4. Identification and type of other aircraft, a. SAFOs contain important safety information
aircrew destination, name and home base of pilot. that is often time-critical. A SAFO may contain
5. Type of flight plans; station altimeter setting information and/or recommended (non-regulatory)
used. action to be taken by the respective operators or
parties identified in the SAFO. The audience for
6. Detailed weather conditions at altitude or SAFOs varies with each subject and may include: Air
flight level. carrier certificate holders, air operator certificate
7. Approximate courses of both aircraft: holders, general aviation operators, directors of
indicate if one or both aircraft were climbing or safety, directors of operations, directors of mainten-
descending. ance, fractional ownership program managers,
training center managers, accountable managers at
8. Reported separation in distance at first
repair stations, and other parties as applicable.
sighting, proximity at closest point horizontally and
vertically, and length of time in sight prior to evasive b. InFOs are similar to SAFOs, but contain
action. valuable information for operators that should help
them meet administrative requirements or certain
9. Degree of evasive action taken, if any (from
regulatory requirements with relatively low urgency
both aircraft, if possible).
or impact in safety.
10. Injuries, if any.
c. The SAFO and InFO system provides a means
f. Investigation. The FSDO in whose area the to rapidly distribute this information to operators and
incident occurred is responsible for the investigation can be found at:
and reporting of NMACs. http://www.faa.gov/other_visit/aviation_industry/
g. Existing radar, communication, and weather airline_operators/airline_safety/safo and
data will be examined in the conduct of the http://www.faa.gov/other_visit/aviation_industry/
investigation. When possible, all cockpit crew airline_operators/airline_safety/info
members will be interviewed regarding factors or search keyword FAA SAFO or FAA INFO. Free
involving the NMAC incident. Air traffic controllers electronic subscription is available on the ALL
will be interviewed in cases where one or more of the SAFOs or ALL InFOs page of the web site.
3. Student pilots should visit an Aviation 2. The CFRs prohibit pilots from performing
Medical Examiner as soon as possible in their flight crewmember duties while using any medication that
training in order to avoid unnecessary training affects the faculties in any way contrary to safety. The
expenses should they not meet the medical standards. safest rule is not to fly as a crewmember while taking
For the same reason, the student pilot who plans to any medication, unless approved to do so by the FAA.
enter commercial aviation should apply for the d. Alcohol.
highest class of medical certificate that might be 1. Extensive research has provided a number of
necessary in the pilots career. facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and
flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of
CAUTION
The CFRs prohibit a pilot who possesses a current beer or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills,
medical certificate from performing crewmember duties with the alcohol consumed in these drinks being
while the pilot has a known medical condition or increase detectable in the breath and blood for at least 3 hours.
of a known medical condition that would make the pilot Even after the body completely destroys a moderate
unable to meet the standards for the medical certificate. amount of alcohol, a pilot can still be severely
impaired for many hours by hangover. There is ment and lack of concentration. There are many
simply no way of increasing the destruction of available treatments which can reverse the day time
alcohol or alleviating a hangover. Alcohol also symptoms and reduce the chance of an accident. OSA
renders a pilot much more susceptible to disorienta- can be easily treated. Most treatments are acceptable
tion and hypoxia. for medical certification upon demonstrating effect-
ive treatment. If you have any symptoms described
2. A consistently high alcohol related fatal above, or neck size over 17 inches in men or 16 inches
aircraft accident rate serves to emphasize that alcohol in women, or a body mass index greater than 30 you
and flying are a potentially lethal combination. The should be evaluated for sleep apnea by a sleep
CFRs prohibit pilots from performing crewmember medicine specialist.
duties within 8 hours after drinking any alcoholic (http://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/
beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. bmi/adult_bmi/english_bmi_calculator/bmi_calc
However, due to the slow destruction of alcohol, a ulator.html) With treatment you can avoid or delay
pilot may still be under influence 8 hours after the onset of these chronic illnesses and prolong a
drinking a moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an quality life.
excellent rule is to allow at least 12 to 24 hours
between bottle and throttle, depending on the f. Stress.
amount of alcoholic beverage consumed. 1. Stress from the pressures of everyday living
e. Fatigue. can impair pilot performance, often in very subtle
ways. Difficulties, particularly at work, can occupy
1. Fatigue continues to be one of the most thought processes enough to markedly decrease
treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be alertness. Distraction can so interfere with judgment
apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. that unwarranted risks are taken, such as flying into
Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term) deteriorating weather conditions to keep on schedule.
or chronic (long-term). Stress and fatigue (see above) can be an extremely
hazardous combination.
2. A normal occurrence of everyday living,
acute fatigue is the tiredness felt after long periods of 2. Most pilots do not leave stress on the
physical and mental strain, including strenuous ground. Therefore, when more than usual difficul-
muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, ties are being experienced, a pilot should consider
strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfac-
sleep. Consequently, coordination and alertness, so torily resolved.
vital to safe pilot performance, can be reduced. Acute g. Emotion.
fatigue is prevented by adequate rest and sleep, as
well as by regular exercise and proper nutrition. Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a
serious argument, death of a family member,
3. Chronic fatigue occurs when there is not separation or divorce, loss of job, and financial
enough time for full recovery between episodes of catastrophe, can render a pilot unable to fly an aircraft
acute fatigue. Performance continues to fall off, and safely. The emotions of anger, depression, and
judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted anxiety from such events not only decrease alertness
risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue but also may lead to taking risks that border on
requires a prolonged period of rest. self-destruction. Any pilot who experiences an
emotionally upsetting event should not fly until
4. OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA (OSA).
satisfactorily recovered from it.
OSA is now recognized as an important preventable
factor identified in transportation accidents. OSA h. Personal Checklist. Aircraft accident statis-
interrupts the normal restorative sleep necessary for tics show that pilots should be conducting preflight
normal functioning and is associated with chronic checklists on themselves as well as their aircraft for
illnesses such as hypertension, heart attack, stroke, pilot impairment contributes to many more accidents
obesity, and diabetes. Symptoms include snoring, than failures of aircraft systems. A personal checklist,
excessive daytime sleepiness, intermittent prolonged which includes all of the categories of pilot
breathing pauses while sleeping, memory impair- impairment as discussed in this section, that can be
easily committed to memory is being distributed by 5 to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet, followed soon
the FAA in the form of a wallet-sized card. thereafter by unconsciousness.
i. PERSONAL CHECKLIST. Im physically 4. The altitude at which significant effects of
and mentally safe to fly; not being impaired by: hypoxia occur can be lowered by a number of factors.
Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking or from
exhaust fumes, lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and
Illness certain medications can reduce the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the blood to the degree that the amount of
Medication oxygen provided to body tissues will already be
equivalent to the oxygen provided to the tissues when
exposed to a cabin pressure altitude of several
Stress thousand feet. Small amounts of alcohol and low
doses of certain drugs, such as antihistamines,
Alcohol tranquilizers, sedatives and analgesics can, through
their depressant action, render the brain much more
Fatigue susceptible to hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever,
and anxiety increase the bodys demand for oxygen,
Emotion and hence its susceptibility to hypoxia.
5. The effects of hypoxia are usually quite
difficult to recognize, especially when they occur
812. Effects of Altitude gradually. Since symptoms of hypoxia do not vary in
an individual, the ability to recognize hypoxia can be
a. Hypoxia. greatly improved by experiencing and witnessing the
1. Hypoxia is a state of oxygen deficiency in the effects of hypoxia during an altitude chamber
body sufficient to impair functions of the brain and flight. The FAA provides this opportunity through
other organs. Hypoxia from exposure to altitude is aviation physiology training, which is conducted at
due only to the reduced barometric pressures the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and at many
encountered at altitude, for the concentration of military facilities across the U.S. To attend the
oxygen in the atmosphere remains about 21 percent Physiological Training Program at the Civil
from the ground out to space. Aeromedical Institute, Mike Monroney Aeronautical
Center, Oklahoma City, OK, contact by telephone
2. Although a deterioration in night vision (405) 9546212, or by writing Aerospace Medical
occurs at a cabin pressure altitude as low as Education Division, AAM400, CAMI, Mike
5,000 feet, other significant effects of altitude Monroney Aeronautical Center, P.O. Box 25082,
hypoxia usually do not occur in the normal healthy Oklahoma City, OK 73125.
pilot below 12,000 feet. From 12,000 to 15,000 feet NOTE
of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness, coordina- To attend the physiological training program at one of the
tion and ability to make calculations are impaired, military installations having the training capability, an
and headache, drowsiness, dizziness and either a application form and a fee must be submitted. Full
sense of well-being (euphoria) or belligerence occur. particulars about location, fees, scheduling procedures,
The effects appear following increasingly shorter course content, individual requirements, etc., are con-
periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In fact, tained in the Physiological Training Application, Form
Number AC 31507, which is obtained by contacting the
pilot performance can seriously deteriorate within
accident prevention specialist or the office forms manager
15 minutes at 15,000 feet. in the nearest FAA office.
3. At cabin pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet, 6. Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that
the periphery of the visual field grays out to a point reduce tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired
where only central vision remains (tunnel vision). A air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen system,
blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin
develops. The ability to take corrective and protective pressure altitude. For optimum protection, pilots are
action is lost in 20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and encouraged to use supplemental oxygen above
10,000 feet during the day, and above 5,000 feet at 1. During ascent and descent, air pressure in the
night. The CFRs require that at the minimum, flight sinuses equalizes with the aircraft cabin pressure
crew be provided with and use supplemental oxygen through small openings that connect the sinuses to the
after 30 minutes of exposure to cabin pressure nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection,
altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000 feet and such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition
immediately on exposure to cabin pressure altitudes can produce enough congestion around an opening to
above 14,000 feet. Every occupant of the aircraft slow equalization, and as the difference in pressure
must be provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin between the sinus and cabin mounts, eventually plug
pressure altitudes above 15,000 feet. the opening. This sinus block occurs most
frequently during descent.
b. Ear Block.
2. A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses,
1. As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases located above each eyebrow, or in the maxillary
during ascent, the expanding air in the middle ear sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will usually
pushes the eustachian tube open, and by escaping produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A
down it to the nasal passages, equalizes in pressure maxillary sinus block can also make the upper teeth
with the cabin pressure. But during descent, the pilot ache. Bloody mucus may discharge from the nasal
must periodically open the eustachian tube to passages.
equalize pressure. This can be accomplished by
swallowing, yawning, tensing muscles in the throat, 3. A sinus block is prevented by not flying with
or if these do not work, by a combination of closing an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic
the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting condition. Adequate protection is usually not
to blow through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver). provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce
congestion around the sinus openings. Oral decon-
2. Either an upper respiratory infection, such as gestants have side effects that can impair pilot
a cold or sore throat, or a nasal allergic condition can performance.
produce enough congestion around the eustachian
4. If a sinus block does not clear shortly after
tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the
landing, a physician should be consulted.
difference in pressure between the middle ear and
aircraft cabin can build up to a level that will hold the d. Decompression Sickness After Scuba
eustachian tube closed, making equalization difficult Diving.
if not impossible. The problem is commonly referred
to as an ear block. 1. A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after
scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to
3. An ear block produces severe ear pain and rid itself of excess nitrogen absorbed during diving.
loss of hearing that can last from several hours to If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can
several days. Rupture of the ear drum can occur in occur during exposure to low altitude and create a
flight or after landing. Fluid can accumulate in the serious inflight emergency.
middle ear and become infected.
2. The recommended waiting time before going
4. An ear block is prevented by not flying with to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least
an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic 12 hours after diving which has not required
condition. Adequate protection is usually not controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving),
provided by decongestant sprays or drops to reduce and at least 24 hours after diving which has required
congestion around the eustachian tubes. Oral controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The
decongestants have side effects that can significantly waiting time before going to flight altitudes above
impair pilot performance. 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after any
SCUBA dive. These recommended altitudes are
5. If an ear block does not clear shortly after actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL)
landing, a physician should be consulted. and not pressurized cabin altitudes. This takes into
consideration the risk of decompression of the
c. Sinus Block. aircraft during flight.
in a nose up attitude. The disoriented pilot will push risk of leveling out high and landing hard or
the aircraft into a nose low, or dive attitude. A rapid overshooting the runway.
deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttles can (c) Runway and terrain slopes illusion. An
have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot upsloping runway, upsloping terrain, or both, can
pulling the aircraft into a nose up, or stall attitude. create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
(e) Inversion illusion. An abrupt change altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
from climb to straight and level flight can create the recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A
illusion of tumbling backwards. The disoriented pilot downsloping runway, downsloping approach terrain,
will push the aircraft abruptly into a nose low attitude, or both, can have the opposite effect.
possibly intensifying this illusion. (d) Featureless terrain illusion. An
(f) Elevator illusion. An abrupt upward absence of ground features, as when landing over
vertical acceleration, usually by an updraft, can create water, darkened areas, and terrain made featureless
the illusion of being in a climb. The disoriented pilot by snow, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at
will push the aircraft into a nose low attitude. An a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does
abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually by a not recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach.
downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the (e) Atmospheric illusions. Rain on the
disoriented pilot pulling the aircraft into a nose up windscreen can create the illusion of greater height,
attitude. and atmospheric haze the illusion of being at a greater
distance from the runway. The pilot who does not
(g) False horizon. Sloping cloud forma-
recognize these illusions will fly a lower approach.
tions, an obscured horizon, a dark scene spread with
Penetration of fog can create the illusion of pitching
ground lights and stars, and certain geometric
up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will
patterns of ground light can create illusions of not
steepen the approach, often quite abruptly.
being aligned correctly with the actual horizon. The
disoriented pilot will place the aircraft in a dangerous (f) Ground lighting illusions. Lights along
attitude. a straight path, such as a road, and even lights on
moving trains can be mistaken for runway and
(h) Autokinesis. In the dark, a static light approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting
will appear to move about when stared at for many systems, especially where few lights illuminate the
seconds. The disoriented pilot will lose control of the surrounding terrain, may create the illusion of less
aircraft in attempting to align it with the light. distance to the runway. The pilot who does not
3. Illusions Leading to Landing Errors. recognize this illusion will fly a higher approach.
Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which has few
(a) Various surface features and atmospheric lights to provide height cues may make a lower than
conditions encountered in landing can create illusions normal approach.
of incorrect height above and distance from the
runway threshold. Landing errors from these 816. Vision in Flight
illusions can be prevented by anticipating them
during approaches, aerial visual inspection of a. Introduction. Of the body senses, vision is the
unfamiliar airports before landing, using electronic most important for safe flight. Major factors that
glide slope or VASI systems when available, and determine how effectively vision can be used are the
maintaining optimum proficiency in landing level of illumination and the technique of scanning
procedures. the sky for other aircraft.
(b) Runway width illusion. A narrower- b. Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination.
than-usual runway can create the illusion that the 1. Under conditions of dim illumination, small
aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The print and colors on aeronautical charts and aircraft
pilot who does not recognize this illusion will fly a instruments become unreadable unless adequate
lower approach, with the risk of striking objects along cockpit lighting is available. Moreover, another
the approach path or landing short. A wider-than- aircraft must be much closer to be seen unless its
usual runway can have the opposite effect, with the navigation lights are on.
2. In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to 2. While the eyes can observe an approximate
light, a process called dark adaptation. Although 200 degree arc of the horizon at one glance, only a
exposure to total darkness for at least 30 minutes is very small center area called the fovea, in the rear of
required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can the eye, has the ability to send clear, sharply focused
achieve a moderate degree of dark adaptation within messages to the brain. All other visual information
20 minutes under dim red cockpit lighting. Since red that is not processed directly through the fovea will be
light severely distorts colors, especially on aeronauti- of less detail. An aircraft at a distance of 7 miles
cal charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing which appears in sharp focus within the foveal center
the eyes on objects inside the aircraft, its use is of vision would have to be as close as 7/10 of a mile
advisable only where optimum outside night vision in order to be recognized if it were outside of foveal
capability is necessary. Even so, white cockpit vision. Because the eyes can focus only on this
lighting must be available when needed for map and narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accom-
instrument reading, especially under IFR conditions. plished with a series of short, regularly spaced eye
Dark adaptation is impaired by exposure to cabin movements that bring successive areas of the sky into
pressure altitudes above 5,000 feet, carbon monoxide the central visual field. Each movement should not
inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes, exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed
deficiency of Vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged for at least 1 second to enable detection. Although
exposure to bright sunlight. Since any degree of dark horizontal back-and-forth eye movements seem
adaptation is lost within a few seconds of viewing a preferred by most pilots, each pilot should develop a
bright light, a pilot should close one eye when using scanning pattern that is most comfortable and then
a light to preserve some degree of night vision. adhere to it to assure optimum scanning.
3. Studies show that the time a pilot spends on
3. Excessive illumination, especially from light visual tasks inside the cabin should represent no more
reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, that 1/4 to 1/3 of the scan time outside, or no more than
clouds, water, snow, and desert terrain, can produce 4 to 5 seconds on the instrument panel for every
glare, with uncomfortable squinting, watering of the 16 seconds outside. Since the brain is already trained
eyes, and even temporary blindness. Sunglasses for to process sight information that is presented from
protection from glare should absorb at least left to right, one may find it easier to start scanning
85 percent of visible light (15 percent transmittance) over the left shoulder and proceed across the
and all colors equally (neutral transmittance), with windshield to the right.
negligible image distortion from refractive and
prismatic errors. 4. Pilots should realize that their eyes may
require several seconds to refocus when switching
c. Scanning for Other Aircraft. views between items in the cockpit and distant
objects. The eyes will also tire more quickly when
1. Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key forced to adjust to distances immediately after
factor in collision avoidance. It should be used close-up focus, as required for scanning the
continuously by the pilot and copilot (or right seat instrument panel. Eye fatigue can be reduced by
passenger) to cover all areas of the sky visible from looking from the instrument panel to the left wing
the cockpit. Although pilots must meet specific visual past the wing tip to the center of the first scan quadrant
acuity requirements, the ability to read an eye chart when beginning the exterior scan. After having
does not ensure that one will be able to efficiently spot scanned from left to right, allow the eyes to return to
other aircraft. Pilots must develop an effective the cabin along the right wing from its tip inward.
scanning technique which maximizes ones visual Once back inside, one should automatically com-
capabilities. The probability of spotting a potential mence the panel scan.
collision threat obviously increases with the time 5. Effective scanning also helps avoid empty-
spent looking outside the cockpit. Thus, one must use field myopia. This condition usually occurs when
timesharing techniques to efficiently scan the flying above the clouds or in a haze layer that
surrounding airspace while monitoring instruments provides nothing specific to focus on outside the
as well. aircraft. This causes the eyes to relax and seek a
comfortable focal distance which may range from pilot should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner
10 to 30 feet. For the pilot, this means looking prior to aerobatic training and be aware that poor
without seeing, which is dangerous. physical condition can reduce tolerance to accelera-
tive forces.
817. Aerobatic Flight f. The above information provides pilots with a
a. Pilots planning to engage in aerobatics should brief summary of the physiologic effects of G forces.
be aware of the physiological stresses associated with It does not address methods of counteracting these
accelerative forces during aerobatic maneuvers. effects. There are numerous references on the subject
Many prospective aerobatic trainees enthusiastically of G forces during aerobatics available to pilots.
enter aerobatic instruction but find their first Among these are G Effects on the Pilot During
experiences with G forces to be unanticipated and Aerobatics, FAAAM7228, and G Incapacita-
very uncomfortable. To minimize or avoid potential tion in Aerobatic Pilots: A Flight Hazard
adverse effects, the aerobatic instructor and trainee FAAAM8213. These are available from the
must have a basic understanding of the physiology of National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
G force adaptation. Virginia 22161.
REFERENCE
b. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over FAA AC 9161, A Hazard in Aerobatics: Effects of Gforces on Pilots.
maneuver result in the blood and body organs being
displaced toward the head. Depending on forces
818. Judgment Aspects of Collision
involved and individual tolerance, a pilot may
Avoidance
experience discomfort, headache, red-out, and
even unconsciousness. a. Introduction. The most important aspects of
c. Forces experienced with a rapid pull-up vision and the techniques to scan for other aircraft are
maneuver result in the blood and body organ described in paragraph 816, Vision in Flight. Pilots
displacement toward the lower part of the body away should also be familiar with the following informa-
from the head. Since the brain requires continuous tion to reduce the possibility of mid-air collisions.
blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply, b. Determining Relative Altitude. Use the
there is a physiologic limit to the time the pilot can horizon as a reference point. If the other aircraft is
tolerate higher forces before losing consciousness. above the horizon, it is probably on a higher flight
As the blood circulation to the brain decreases as a path. If the aircraft appears to be below the horizon,
result of forces involved, a pilot will experience it is probably flying at a lower altitude.
narrowing of visual fields, gray-out, black-
out, and unconsciousness. Even a brief loss of c. Taking Appropriate Action. Pilots should be
consciousness in a maneuver can lead to improper familiar with rules on right-of-way, so if an aircraft is
control movement causing structural failure of the on an obvious collision course, one can take
aircraft or collision with another object or terrain. immediate evasive action, preferably in compliance
with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations.
d. In steep turns, the centrifugal forces tend to
push the pilot into the seat, thereby resulting in blood d. Consider Multiple Threats. The decision to
and body organ displacement toward the lower part of climb, descend, or turn is a matter of personal
the body as in the case of rapid pull-up maneuvers and judgment, but one should anticipate that the other
with the same physiologic effects and symptoms. pilot may also be making a quick maneuver. Watch
the other aircraft during the maneuver and begin your
e. Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to scanning again immediately since there may be other
imposed strains and stress, and with practice, any aircraft in the area.
maneuver will have decreasing effect. Tolerance to
G forces is dependent on human physiology and the e. Collision Course Targets. Any aircraft that
individual pilot. These factors include the skeletal appears to have no relative motion and stays in one
anatomy, the cardiovascular architecture, the nervous scan quadrant is likely to be on a collision course.
system, the quality of the blood, the general physical Also, if a target shows no lateral or vertical motion,
state, and experience and recency of exposure. The but increases in size, take evasive action.
FIG 911
Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for the Conterminous U.S.,
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands
FIG 912
Sectional and VFR Terminal Area Charts for Alaska
5. Caribbean VFR Aeronautical Charts. lines, shaded relief, drainage patterns, and a selection
Caribbean 1 and 2 (CAC1 and CAC2) are designed of landmarks used for flight under VFR. Cultural
for visual navigation to assist familiarization of features include cities and towns, roads, railroads,
foreign aeronautical and topographic information. and other distinct landmarks. Scale 1 inch =
The aeronautical information includes visual and 13.7nm/1:1,000,000. CAC1, revised annually,
radio aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace, consists of two sides measuring 30 x 60 each.
specialuse airspace, obstructions, and related data. CAC2, revised biennially, consists of two sides
The topographic information consists of contour measuring 20 x 60 each. (See FIG 913.)
FIG 913
Caribbean VFR Aeronautical Charts
6. Helicopter Route Charts. A threecolor addition, pictorial symbols, roads, and easily
chart series which shows current aeronautical identified geographical features are portrayed.
information useful to helicopter pilots navigating in Helicopter charts have a longer life span than other
areas with high concentrations of helicopter activity. chart products and may be current for several years.
Information depicted includes helicopter routes, four Helicopter Route Charts are updated as requested by
classes of heliports with associated frequency and the FAA. Scale 1 inch = 1.71nm/1:125,000. 34 x 30
lighting capabilities, NAVAIDs, and obstructions. In inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. (See FIG 914.)
FIG 914
Helicopter Route Charts
FIG 915
En Route Low Altitude Instrument Charts for the Conterminous U.S. (Includes Area Charts)
FIG 916
Alaska En Route Low Altitude Chart
2. IFR En Route High Altitude Charts frequency, identification, channel, geographic coor-
(Conterminous U.S. and Alaska). En route high dinates; selected airports; reporting points. Scales
altitude charts are designed for navigation at or above vary from 1 inch = 45nm to 1 inch = 18nm. 55 x 20
18,000 feet MSL. This fourcolor chart series inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Revised every 56 days.
includes the jet route structure; VHF NAVAIDs with (See FIG 917 and FIG 918.)
FIG 917
En Route High Altitude Charts for the Conterminous U.S.
FIG 918
Alaskan En Route High Altitude Chart
3. U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication Included are IAP charts, DP charts, STAR charts,
(TPP). TPPs are published in 24 looseleaf or airport diagrams, radar minimums, and supplemen-
perfect bound volumes covering the conterminous tary support data such as IFR alternate minimums,
U.S., Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. A Change takeoff minimums, rate of descent tables, rate of
Notice is published at the midpoint between revisions climb tables and inoperative components tables.
in bound volume format and is available on the Volume is 53/8 x 81/4 inch top bound. Publication
internet for free download at the AIS web site. (See revised every 56 days with provisions for a Terminal
FIG 9115.) The TPPs include: Change Notice, as required.
(a) Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) c. Planning Charts.
Charts. IAP charts portray the aeronautical data that
is required to execute instrument approaches to 1. U.S. IFR/VFR Low Altitude Planning
airports. Each chart depicts the IAP, all related Chart. This chart is designed for prefight and
navigation data, communications information, and an en route flight planning for IFR/VFR flights.
airport sketch. Each procedure is designated for use Depiction includes low altitude airways and mileage,
with a specific electronic navigational aid, such as NAVAIDs, airports, special use airspace, cities, times
ILS, VOR, NDB, RNAV, etc. zones, major drainage, a directory of airports with
their airspace classification, and a mileage table
(b) Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) showing great circle distances between major
Charts. DP charts are designed to expedite airports. Scale 1 inch = 47nm/1:3,400,000. Chart
clearance delivery and to facilitate transition between revised annually, and is available either folded or
takeoff and en route operations. They furnish pilots unfolded for wall mounting. (See FIG 9110.)
departure routing clearance information in graphic
and textual form. 2. Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Planning
Chart. This is a VFR planning chart on the reverse
(c) Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) side of the Puerto Rico Virgin Islands VFR Terminal
Charts. STAR charts are designed to expedite ATC Area Chart. Information shown includes mileage
arrival procedures and to facilitate transition between between airports of entry, a selection of special use
en route and instrument approach operations. They airspace and a directory of airports with their
depict preplanned IFR ATC arrival procedures in available services. Scale 1 inch = 85nm/1:6,192,178.
graphic and textual form. Each STAR procedure is 60 x 20 inches folded to 5 x 10 inches. Chart revised
presented as a separate chart and may serve either a annually. (See FIG 9110.)
single airport or more than one airport in a given
geographic area. 3. Alaska VFR Wall Planning Chart. This
chart is designed for VFR preflight planning and
(d) Airport Diagrams. Full page airport
chart selection. It includes aeronautical and topo-
diagrams are designed to assist in the movement of
graphic information of the state of Alaska. The
ground traffic at locations with complex runway/taxi-
aeronautical information includes public and military
way configurations and provide information for
airports; radio aids to navigation; and Class B, Class
updating geodetic position navigational systems
C, TRSA and specialuse airspace. The topographic
aboard aircraft. Airport diagrams are available for
information includes city tint, populated places,
free download at the AIS web site.
principal roads, and shaded relief. Scale 1 inch =
4. Alaska Terminal Procedures Publication. 27.4nm/1:2,000,000. The one sided chart is 58.5 x
This publication contains all terminal flight proce- 40.75 inches and is designed for wall mounting. Chart
dures for civil and military aviation in Alaska. is revised biennially. (See FIG 919.)
FIG 919
Alaska VFR Wall Planning Chart
FIG 9110
Planning Charts
4. U.S. VFR Wall Planning Chart. This chart Islands. The Chart Supplement U.S. shows data that
is designed for VFR preflight planning and chart cannot be readily depicted in graphic form; for
selection. It includes aeronautical and topographic example, airport hours of operations, types of fuel
information of the conterminous U.S. The aeronauti- available, runway widths, lighting codes, etc. The
cal information includes airports, radio aids to Chart Supplement U.S. also provides a means for
navigation, Class B airspace and special use airspace. pilots to update visual charts between edition dates
The topographic information includes city tint, (The Chart Supplement U.S. is published every 56
populated places, principal roads, drainage patterns, days while Sectional Aeronautical and VFR Terminal
and shaded relief. Scale 1 inch = 43 nm/ 1:3,100,000. Area Charts are generally revised every six months).
The one-sided chart is 59 x 36 inches and ships The Aeronautical Chart Bulletins (VFR Chart Update
unfolded for wall mounting. Chart is revised Bulletins) are available for free download at the AIS
biennially. (See FIG 9111.) web site. Volumes are sidebound 53/8 x 81/4
inches. (See FIG 9114.)
FIG 9111
U.S. VFR Wall Planning Chart 2. Chart Supplement Alaska. This is a
civil/military flight information publication issued by
FAA every 56 days. It is a single volume booklet
designed for use with appropriate IFR or VFR charts.
The Chart Supplement Alaska contains airport
sketches, communications data, weather data
sources, airspace, listing of navigational facilities,
and special notices and procedures. Volume is
sidebound 53/8 x 81/4 inches.
3. Chart Supplement Pacific. This supple-
ment is designed for use with appropriate VFR or IFR
en route charts. Included in this onevolume booklet
are the chart supplement, communications data,
5. Charted VFR Flyway Planning Charts. weather data sources, airspace, navigational facili-
This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected ties, special notices, and Pacific area procedures. IAP
TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the charts, DP charts, STAR charts, airport diagrams,
associated TAC. Flyway planning charts depict flight radar minimums, and supporting data for the
paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass Hawaiian and Pacific Islands are included. The
high traffic areas. Ground references are provided as manual is published every 56 days. Volume is
a guide for visual orientation. Flyway planning charts sidebound 53/8 x 81/4 inches.
are designed for use in conjunction with TACs and
sectional charts and are not to be used for navigation. 4. North Atlantic Route Chart. Designed for
Chart scale 1 inch = 3.43nm/1:250,000. FAA controllers to monitor transatlantic flights, this
5color chart shows oceanic control areas, coastal
d. Supplementary Charts and Publications.
navigation aids, oceanic reporting points, and
1. Chart Supplement U.S. This 7volume NAVAID geographic coordinates. Full Size Chart:
booklet series contains data on airports, seaplane Scale 1 inch = 113.1nm/1:8,250,000. Chart is shipped
bases, heliports, NAVAIDs, communications data, flat only. Half Size Chart: Scale 1 inch =
weather data sources, airspace, special notices, and 150.8nm/1:11,000,000. Chart is 293/4 x
operational procedures. Coverage includes the 201/2 inches, shipped folded to 5 x 10 inches only.
conterminous U.S., Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Chart revised every 56 weeks. (See FIG 9112.)
The DACS individual data files are: standard, which can be used as a basis to support GPS
navigation. Initial data elements included are: Airport
ENHIGH.DAT: High altitude airways (contermi-
and Helicopter Records, VHF and NDB Navigation
nous U.S.)
aids, en route waypoints and airways. Additional data
ENLOW.DAT: Low altitude airways (conterminous
elements will be added in subsequent releases to
U.S.)
include: departure procedures, standard terminal
IAPFIX.DAT: Selected instrument approach proce-
arrivals, and GPS/RNAV instrument approach
dure NAVAID and fix data.
procedures. The database is updated every 28 days.
MTRFIX.DAT: Military training routes data.
The data is available by subscription only and is
ALHIGH.DAT: Alaska high altitude airways data.
distributed on CDROM or by ftp download.
ALLOW.DAT: Alaska low altitude airways data.
PR.DAT: Puerto Rico airways data.
3. digitalVisual Charts (dVC). These digi-
HAWAII.DAT: Hawaii airways data.
tal VFR charts are georeferenced images of FAA
BAHAMA.DAT: Bahamas routes data.
Sectional Aeronautical, TAC, and Helicopter Route
OCEANIC.DAT: Oceanic routes data.
charts. Additional digital data may easily be overlaid
STARS.DAT: Standard terminal arrivals data.
on the raster image using commonly available
DP.DAT: Instrument departure procedures data.
Geographic Information System software. Data such
LOPREF.DAT: Preferred low altitude IFR routes
as weather, temporary flight restrictions, obstacles, or
data.
other geospatial data can be combined with dVC
HIPREF.DAT: Preferred high altitude IFR routes
data to support a variety of needs. The file resolution
data.
is 300 dots per inch and the data is 8bit color. The
ARF.DAT: Air route radar facilities data.
data is provided as a GeoTIFF and distributed on
ASR.DAT: Airport surveillance radar facilities data.
DVDR media and on the AIS web site. The root
2. The Coded Instrument Flight Procedures mean square error of the transformation will not
(CIFP) (ARINC 424 [Ver 13 & 15]). The CIFP is a exceed two pixels. DigitalVC DVDs are updated
basic digital dataset, modeled to an international every 28 days and are available by subscription only.
FIG 9114
Chart Supplement U.S. Geographic Areas
FIG 9115
U.S. Terminal Publication Volumes
915. Where and How to Get Charts of Jet Navigation Charts (JNC) and Universal Jet
Foreign Areas Navigation Charts (JNU)
Jet Navigation Charts (JNCA)
a. National GeospatialIntelligence Agency
Aerospace Planning Charts (ASC)
(NGA) Products. For the latest information regard-
Oceanic Planning Charts (OPC)
ing publication availability visit the NGA web site:
Joint Operations Graphics Air (JOGA)
https://www.nga.mil/ProductsServices/Aeronau-
Standard Index Charts (SIC)
tical/Pages/default.aspx
Universal Plotting Sheet (VPOS)
1. Flight Information Publication (FLIP) Sight Reduction Tables for Air Navigation (PUB249)
Planning Documents. Plotting Sheets (VP30)
General Planning (GP) DialUp Electronic CHUM
Area Planning b. Canadian Charts. Information on available
Area Planning Special Use Airspace Canadian charts and publications may be obtained by
Planning Charts contacting the:
2. FLIP En Route Charts and Chart NAV CANADA
Supplements. Aeronautical Publications
Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica Sales and Distribution Unit
U.S. IFR and VFR Supplements P.O. Box 9840, Station T
Flight Information Handbook Ottawa, Ontario K1G 6S8 Canada
Caribbean and South America Low Altitude Telephone: 6137446393 or 18667317827
Caribbean and South America High Altitude Fax: 6137447120 or 18667409992
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East c. Mexican Charts. Information on available
Low Altitude Mexican charts and publications may be obtained by
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East contacting:
High Altitude
Africa Direccin de Navigacion Aereo
Eastern Europe and Asia Blvd. Puerto Aereo 485
Area Arrival Charts Zona Federal Del Aeropuerto Intl
15620 Mexico D.F.
3. FLIP Instrument Approach Procedures Mexico
(IAPs).
d. International Civil Aviation Organization
Africa (ICAO). A free ICAO Publications and Audio
Canada and North Atlantic Visual Training Aids Catalogue is available from:
Caribbean and South America
Eastern Europe and Asia International Civil Aviation Organization
Europe, North Africa, and Middle East ATTN: Document Sales Unit
Pacific, Australasia, and Antarctica 999 University Street
VFR Arrival/Departure Routes Europe and Korea Montreal, Quebec
U.S. H3C 5H7, Canada
Telephone: (514) 9548022
4. Miscellaneous DOD Charts and Products.
Fax: (514) 9546769
Aeronautical Chart Updating Manual (CHUM) Email: sales_unit@icao.org
DOD Weather Plotting Charts (WPC) Internet: http://www.icao.org/cgi/goto.pl?icao/en/
Tactical Pilotage Charts (TPC) sales.htm
Operational Navigation Charts (ONC) Sitatex: YULCAYA
Global Navigation and Planning Charts (GNC) Telex: 0524513
1011. Helicopter Flight Control Systems typically have a control panel for mode selection, and
system for indication of mode status. Autopilots may
a. The certification requirements for helicopters to or may not be installed with an associated Flight
operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are Director System (FD). Autopilots typically control
contained in 14 CFR Part 27, Airworthiness the helicopter about the roll and pitch axes (cyclic
Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, and 14 CFR control) but may also include yaw axis (pedal control)
Part 29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport and collective control servos.
Category Rotorcraft. To meet these requirements,
helicopter manufacturers usually utilize a set of 6. FDs, which provide visual guidance to the
stabilization and/or Automatic Flight Control pilot to fly specific selected lateral and vertical modes
Systems (AFCSs). of operation. The visual guidance is typically
provided as either a dual cue (commonly known as
b. Typically, these systems fall into the following a crosspointer) or single cue (commonly known
categories: as a veebar) presentation superimposed over the
1. Aerodynamic surfaces, which impart some attitude indicator. Some FDs also include a collective
stability or control capability not found in the basic cue. The pilot manipulates the helicopters controls to
VFR configuration. satisfy these commands, yielding the desired flight
path, or may couple the flight director to the autopilot
2. Trim systems, which provide a cyclic to perform automatic flight along the desired flight
centering effect. These systems typically involve a path. Typically, flight director mode control and
magnetic brake/spring device, and may also be indication is shared with the autopilot.
controlled by a fourway switch on the cyclic. This
is a system that supports hands on flying of the c. In order to be certificated for IFR operation, a
helicopter by the pilot. specific helicopter may require the use of one or more
of these systems, in any combination.
3. Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs),
which provide shortterm rate damping control d. In many cases, helicopters are certificated for
inputs to increase helicopter stability. Like trim IFR operations with either one or two pilots. Certain
systems, SAS supports hands on flying. equipment is required to be installed and functional
for two pilot operations, and typically, additional
4. Attitude Retention Systems (ATTs), which equipment is required for single pilot operation.
return the helicopter to a selected attitude after a These requirements are usually described in the
disturbance. Changes in desired attitude can be limitations section of the Rotorcraft Flight Manual
accomplished usually through a fourway beep (RFM).
switch, or by actuating a force trim switch on the
e. In addition, the RFM also typically defines
cyclic, setting the attitude manually, and releasing.
systems and functions that are required to be in
Attitude retention may be a SAS function, or may be
operation or engaged for IFR flight in either the single
the basic hands off autopilot function.
or two pilot configuration. Often, particularly in two
5. Autopilot Systems (APs), which provide for pilot operation, this level of augmentation is less than
hands off flight along specified lateral and vertical the full capability of the installed systems. Likewise,
paths, including heading, altitude, vertical speed, single pilot operation may require a higher level of
navigation tracking, and approach. These systems augmentation.
f. The RFM also identifies other specific limita- director collective cue responds to glideslope
tions associated with IFR flight. Typically, these deviation, while the horizontal bar of the cross
limitations include, but are not limited to: pointer responds to airspeed deviations. The same
system, while flying an ILS in the twocue mode,
1. Minimum equipment required for IFR flight
provides for the horizontal bar to respond to
(in some cases, for both single pilot and two pilot
glideslope deviations. This concern is particularly
operations).
significant when operating using two pilots. Pilots
2. Vmini (minimum speed IFR). should have an established set of procedures and
NOTE responsibilities for the control of flight director/auto-
The manufacturer may also recommend a minimum IFR pilot modes for the various phases of flight. Not only
airspeed during instrument approach. does a full understanding of the system modes
3. Vnei (never exceed speed IFR). provide for a higher degree of accuracy in control of
the helicopter, it is the basis for crew identification of
4. Maximum approach angle. a faulty system.
5. Weight and center of gravity limits. i. Relief from the prohibition to takeoff with any
6. Aircraft configuration limitations (such as inoperative instruments or equipment may be
aircraft door positions and external loads). provided through a Minimum Equipment List (see
14 CFR Section 91.213 and 14 CFR Section 135.179,
7. Aircraft system limitations (generators, Inoperative Instruments and Equipment). In many
inverters, etc.). cases, a helicopter configured for single pilot IFR
8. System testing requirements (many avionics may depart IFR with certain equipment inoperative,
and AFCS/AP/FD systems incorporate a selftest provided a crew of two pilots is used. Pilots are
feature). cautioned to ensure the pilotincommand and
secondincommand meet the requirements of
9. Pilot action requirements (such as the pilot 14 CFR Section 61.58, PilotinCommand Profi-
must have his/her hands and feet on the controls ciency Check: Operation of Aircraft Requiring More
during certain operations, such as during instrument Than One Pilot Flight Crewmember, and 14 CFR
approach below certain altitudes). Section 61.55, SecondinCommand Qualifications,
g. It is very important that pilots be familiar with or 14 CFR Part 135, Operating Requirements:
the IFR requirements for their particular helicopter. Commuter and OnDemand Operations, Subpart E,
Within the same make, model and series of helicopter, Flight Crewmember Requirements, and Subpart G,
variations in the installed avionics may change the Crewmember Testing Requirements, as appropriate.
required equipment or the level of augmentation for
j. Experience has shown that modern AFCS/AP/
a particular operation.
FD equipment installed in IFR helicopters can, in
h. During flight operations, pilots must be aware some cases, be very complex. This complexity
of the mode of operation of the augmentation requires the pilot(s) to obtain and maintain a high
systems, and the control logic and functions level of knowledge of system operation, limitations,
employed. For example, during an ILS approach failure indications and reversionary modes. In some
using a particular system in the threecue mode cases, this may only be reliably accomplished
(lateral, vertical and collective cues), the flight through formal training.
1012. Helicopter Instrument Approaches also be limited to no more than 70 KIAS. Use the
published minima, no reductions allowed.
a. Helicopters are capable of flying any published NOTE
14 CFR Part 97, Standard Instrument Approach Obstruction clearance surfaces are based on the aircraft
Procedures (SIAPs), for which they are properly speed and have been designed on these approaches for
equipped, subject to the following limitations and 70 knots. If the helicopter is flown at higher speeds, it may
conditions: fly outside of protected airspace. Some helicopters have a
VMINI greater than 70 knots; therefore, they cannot meet
1. Helicopters flying conventional (non the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of procedure.
Copter) SIAPs may reduce the visibility minima to Some helicopter autopilots, when used in the goaround
not less than one half the published Category A mode, are programmed with a VYI greater than 70 knots,
therefore when using the autopilot goaround mode,
landing visibility minima, or 1 / 4 statute mile
they cannot meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type
visibility/1200 RVR, whichever is greater unless the of approach. It may be possible to use the autopilot for the
procedure is annotated with Visibility Reduction missed approach in the other than the goaround mode
by Helicopters NA. This annotation means that and meet the 70 knot limitation to conduct this type of
there are penetrations of the final approach obstacle approach. When operating at speeds other than VYI or VY,
identification surface (OIS) and that the 14 CFR performance data may not be available in the RFM to
Section 97.3 visibility reduction rule does not apply predict compliance with climb gradient requirements.
and you must take precaution to avoid any obstacles Pilots may use observed performance in similar
in the visual segment. No reduction in MDA/DA is weight/altitude/temperature/speed conditions to evaluate
permitted. The helicopter may initiate the final the suitability of performance. Pilots are cautioned to
monitor climb performance to ensure compliance with
approach segment at speeds up to the upper limit of
procedure requirements.
the highest approach category authorized by the
procedure, but must be slowed to no more than 4. TBL 1011 summarizes these require-
90 KIAS at the missed approach point (MAP) in ments.
order to apply the visibility reduction. Pilots are 5. Even with weather conditions reported at or
cautioned that such a decelerating approach may above landing minima, some combinations of
make early identification of wind shear on the reduced cockpit cutoff angle, minimal approach/
approach path difficult or impossible. If required, use runway lighting, and high MDA/DH coupled with a
the Inoperative Components and Visual Aids Table low visibility minima, the pilot may not be able to
provided in the front cover of the U.S. Terminal identify the required visual reference(s) during the
Procedures Volume to derive the Category A minima approach, or those references may only be visible in
before applying the 14 CFR Section 97.3(d1) rule. a very small portion of the pilots available field of
view. Even if identified by the pilot, these visual
2. Helicopters flying Copter SIAPs may use the references may not support normal maneuvering and
published minima, with no reductions allowed. The normal rates of descent to landing. The effect of such
maximum airspeed is 90 KIAS on any segment of the a combination may be exacerbated by other
approach or missed approach. conditions such as rain on the windshield, or
incomplete windshield defogging coverage.
3. Helicopters flying GPS Copter SIAPs must
limit airspeed to 90 KIAS or less when flying any 6. Pilots are cautioned to be prepared to execute
segment of the procedure, except speeds must be a missed approach even though weather conditions
limited to no more than 70 KIAS on the final and may be reported at or above landing minima.
missed approach segments. Military GPS Copter NOTE
SIAPs are limited to no more than 90 KIAS See paragraph 5421, Missed Approach, for additional
throughout the procedure. If annotated, holding may information on missed approach procedures.
TBL 1011
Helicopter Use of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures
1013. Helicopter Approach Procedures (e) At least one of the following visual
to VFR Heliports references must be visible or identifiable before the
pilot may proceed visually:
a. Helicopter approaches may be developed for (1) FATO or FATO lights.
heliports that do not meet the design standards for an
IFR heliport. The majority of IFR approaches to VFR (2) TLOF or TLOF lights.
heliports are developed in support of helicopter (3) Heliport Instrument Lighting System
emergency medical services (HEMS) operators. (HILS).
These approaches can be developed from conven-
tional NAVAIDs or a RNAV system (including GPS). (4) Heliport Approach Lighting System
They are developed either as a Special Approach (HALS) or leadin lights.
(pilot training is required for special procedures due (5) Visual Glideslope Indicator (VGSI).
to their unique characteristics) or a public approach
(no special training required). These instrument (6) Windsock or windsock light(s). See
procedures are developed as either an approach note below.
designed to a specific landing site, or an approach (7) Heliport beacon. See note below.
designed to a pointinspace.
(8) Other facilities or systems approved by
the Flight Technologies and Procedures Division
1. Approach to a specific landing site. The
approach is aligned to a missed approach point from (AFS400).
which a landing can be accomplished with a NOTE
maximum course change of 30 degrees. The visual Windsock lights and heliport beacons should be located
segment from the MAP to the landing site is evaluated within 500 ft of the TLOF.
for obstacle hazards. These procedures are annotated: 2. Approach to a PointinSpace (PinS). At
PROCEED VISUALLY FROM (NAMED MAP) locations where the MAP is located more than 2 SM
OR CONDUCT THE SPECIFIED MISSED from the landing site, or the path from the MAP to the
APPROACH. landing site is populated with obstructions which
require avoidance actions or requires turns greater
(a) This phrase requires the pilot to either than 30 degrees, a PinS procedure may be developed.
acquire and maintain visual contact with the landing These approaches are annotated PROCEED VFR
site at or prior to the MAP, or execute a missed FROM (NAMED MAP) OR CONDUCT THE
approach. The visibility minimum is based on the SPECIFIED MISSED APPROACH.
distance from the MAP to the landing site, among
(a) These procedures require the pilot, at or
other factors.
prior to the MAP, to determine if the published
minimum visibility, or the weather minimums
(b) The pilot is required to maintain the
required by the operating rule, or operations
published minimum visibility throughout the visual
specifications (whichever is higher) is available to
segment.
safely transition from IFR to VFR flight. If not, the
pilot must execute a missed approach. For Part 135
(c) Similar to an approach to a runway, the
operations, pilots may not begin the instrument
missed approach segment protection is not provided
approach unless the latest weather report indicates
between the MAP and the landing site, and obstacle
that the weather conditions are at or above the
or terrain avoidance from the MAP to the landing site
authorized IFR minimums or the VFR weather
is the responsibility of the pilot.
minimums (as required by the class of airspace,
operating rule and/or Operations Specifications)
(d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the
whichever is higher.
approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after
reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether (b) Visual contact with the landing site is not
proceeding visually and canceling IFR or complying required; however, the pilot must maintain the
with the missed approach instructions. See para- appropriate VFR weather minimums throughout the
graph 5115, Canceling IFR Flight Plan. visual segment. The visibility is limited to no lower
than that published in the procedure, until canceling 1. The large number (over 300) of waypoints in
IFR. the grid system makes it difficult to assign
phonetically pronounceable names to the waypoints
(c) IFR obstruction clearance areas are not that would be meaningful to pilots and controllers. A
applied to the VFR segment between the MAP and unique naming system was adopted that enables
the landing site. Obstacle or terrain avoidance from pilots and controllers to derive the fix position from
the MAP to the landing site is the responsibility of the the name. The fiveletter names are derived as
pilot. follows:
(d) Upon reaching the MAP defined on the (a) The waypoints are divided into sets of
approach procedure, or as soon as practicable after 3 columns each. A threeletter identifier, identifying
reaching the MAP, the pilot advises ATC whether a geographical area or a NAVAID to the north,
proceeding VFR and canceling IFR, or complying represents each set.
with the missed approach instructions. See para-
graph 5115, Canceling IFR Flight Plan. (b) Each column in a set is named after its
position, i.e., left (L), center (C), and right (R).
(e) If the visual segment penetrates Class B,
C, or D airspace, pilots are responsible for obtaining (c) The rows of the grid are named
a Special VFR clearance, when required. alphabetically from north to south, starting with A for
the northern most row.
(a) The helicopter must be equipped for IFR ment, or TSOC166b, Extended Squitter Automatic
operations and equipped with IFR approved GPS Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) and
navigational units. Traffic Information.
(b) The operator must obtain prior written (b) Flight crews must comply with the
approval from the appropriate Flight Standards procedures prescribed in the Houston ARTCC Letter
District Office through a Letter of Authorization or of Agreement dated December 17, 2009, or later.
Operations Specification, as appropriate. NOTE
The unique ADSB architecture in the Gulf of Mexico
(c) The operator must be a signatory to the depends upon reception of an aircrafts Mode C in addition
Houston ARTCC Letter of Agreement. to the other message elements described in 14 CFR 91.227.
Flight crews must be made aware that loss of Mode C also
4. Operators who wish to benefit from ADSB means that ATC will not receive the aircrafts ADSB
based ATC separation services must meet the signal.
following additional requirements:
5. FAA/AIS publishes the grid system way-
(a) The Operators installed ADSB Out points on the IFR Gulf of Mexico Vertical Flight
equipment must meet the performance requirements Reference Chart. A commercial equivalent is also
of one of the following FAA Technical Standard available. The chart is updated annually and is
Orders (TSO), or later revisions: TSOC154c, available from an FAA approved print
Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) Automatic provider or FAA directly, web site address:
Dependent SurveillanceBroadcast (ADSB) Equip- http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav.
1021. Offshore Helicopter Operations (b) Arriving passengers and cargo should be
unloaded and cleared from the heliport and access
a. Introduction route prior to loading departing passengers and cargo.
The offshore environment offers unique applications (c) Where a flight crew consists of more than
and challenges for helicopter pilots. The mission one pilot, one crewmember should supervise the
demands, the nature of oil and gas exploration and unloading/loading process from outside the aircraft.
production facilities, and the flight environment
(weather, terrain, obstacles, traffic), demand special (d) Where practical, a designated facility
practices, techniques and procedures not found in employee should assist with loading/unloading, etc.
other flight operations. Several industry
organizations have risen to the task of reducing c. CraneHelicopter Operational Procedures
risks in offshore operations, including the Heli-
1. Background. Historical experience has
copter Safety Advisory Conference (HSAC)
shown that catastrophic consequences can occur
(http://www.hsac.org), and the Offshore Committee
when industry safe practices for crane/helicopter
of the Helicopter Association International (HAI)
operations are not observed. The following recom-
(http://www.rotor.com). The following recommended
mended practices are designed to minimize risks
practices for offshore helicopter operations are based
during crane and helicopter operations.
on guidance developed by HSAC for use in the Gulf
of Mexico, and provided here with their permission. 2. Recommended Practices
While not regulatory, these recommended practices
provide aviation and oil and gas industry operators (a) Personnel awareness
with useful information in developing procedures to
(1) Crane operators and pilots should
avoid certain hazards of offshore helicopter opera-
develop a mutual understanding and respect of the
tions.
others operational limitations and cooperate in the
NOTE spirit of safety;
Like all aviation practices, these recommended practices
are under constant review. In addition to normal (2) Pilots need to be aware that crane
procedures for comments, suggested changes, or correc- operators sometimes cannot release the load to cradle
tions to the AIM (contained in the Preface), any questions the crane boom, such as when attached to wire line
or feedback concerning these recommended procedures lubricators or supporting diving bells; and
may also be directed to the HSAC through the feedback
feature of the HSAC web site (http://www.hsac.org). (3) Crane operators need to be aware that
helicopters require warm up before takeoff, a
b. Passenger Management on and about
twominute cool down before shutdown, and cannot
Heliport Facilities
circle for extended lengths of time because of fuel
1. Background. Several incidents involving consumption.
offshore helicopter passengers have highlighted the
(b) It is recommended that when helicopters
potential for incidents and accidents on and about the
are approaching, maneuvering, taking off, or running
heliport area. The following practices will minimize
on the heliport, cranes be shutdown and the operator
risks to passengers and others involved in heliport
leave the cab. Cranes not in use must have their
operations.
booms cradled, if feasible. If in use, the cranes
2. Recommended Practices boom(s) are to be pointed away from the heliport and
the crane shutdown for helicopter operations.
(a) Heliport facilities should have a desig-
nated and posted passenger waiting area which is (c) Pilots will not approach, land on, takeoff,
clear of the heliport, heliport access points, and or have rotor blades turning on heliports of structures
stairways. not complying with the above practice.
(d) It is recommended that cranes on offshore (e) Helicopter/tanker operations must not be
platforms, rigs, vessels, or any other facility, which conducted during product/cargo transfer.
could interfere with helicopter operations (including (f) Generally, permission will not be granted
approach/departure paths): to land on tankers during mooring operations or while
(1) Be equipped with a red rotating beacon maneuvering alongside another tanker.
or red high intensity strobe light connected to the e. Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard
system powering the crane, indicating the crane is Warning(s) Procedures
under power;
1. Background
(2) Be designed to allow the operator a
maximum view of the helideck area and should be (a) A number of operational hazards can
equipped with wideangle mirrors to eliminate blind develop on or near offshore helidecks or onshore
spots; and heliports that can be minimized through procedures
for proper notification or visual warning to pilots.
(3) Have their boom tips, headache balls, Examples of hazards include but are not limited to:
and hooks painted with high visibility international
orange. (1) Perforating operations: subpara-
graph f.
d. Helicopter/Tanker Operations
(2) H2S gas presence: subparagraph g.
1. Background. The interface of helicopters (3) Gas venting: subparagraph h; or,
and tankers during shipboard helicopter operations is
complex and may be hazardous unless appropriate (4) Closed helidecks or heliports: sub
procedures are coordinated among all parties. The paragraph i (unspecified cause).
following recommended practices are designed to (b) These and other operational hazards are
minimize risks during helicopter/tanker operations: currently minimized through timely dissemination of
2. Recommended Practices a written Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) for pilots by
helicopter companies and operators. A NOTAM
(a) Management, flight operations personnel, provides a written description of the hazard, time and
and pilots should be familiar with and apply the duration of occurrence, and other pertinent informa-
operating safety standards set forth in Guide to tion. ANY POTENTIAL HAZARD should be
Helicopter/Ship Operations, International Chamber communicated to helicopter operators or company
of Shipping, Third Edition, 589 (as amended), aviation departments as early as possible to allow the
establishing operational guidelines/standards and NOTAM to be activated.
safe practices sufficient to safeguard helicopter/tank-
er operations. (c) To supplement the existing NOTAM
procedure and further assist in reducing these
(b) Appropriate plans, approvals, and com- hazards, a standardized visual signal(s) on the
munications must be accomplished prior to reaching helideck/heliport will provide a positive indication to
the vessel, allowing tanker crews sufficient time to an approaching helicopter of the status of the landing
perform required safety preparations and position area. Recommended Practice(s) have been developed
crew members to receive or dispatch a helicopter to reinforce the NOTAM procedures and standardize
safely. visual signals.
(c) Appropriate approvals and direct commu- f. Drilling Rig Perforating Operations:
nications with the bridge of the tanker must be Helideck/Heliport Operational Hazard
maintained throughout all helicopter/tanker opera- Warning(s)/Procedure(s)
tions.
1. Background. A critical step in the oil well
(d) Helicopter/tanker operations, including completion process is perforation, which involves the
landings/departures, must not be conducted until the use of explosive charges in the drill pipe to open the
helicopter pilotincommand has received and pipe to oil or gas deposits. Explosive charges used in
acknowledged permission from the bridge of the conjunction with perforation operations offshore can
tanker. potentially be prematurely detonated by radio
transmissions, including those from helicopters. The transponders, radar altimeters, and DME equipment,
following practices are recommended. and ELTs.
2. Recommended Practices (2) Whenever possible, make radio calls to
the platform being approached or to the Flight
(a) Personnel Conducting Perforating
Following Communications Center at least one mile
Operations. Whenever perforating operations are
out on approach. Ensure all communications are
scheduled and operators are concerned that radio
complete outside the 1,000 foot hazard distance. If no
transmissions from helicopters in the vicinity may
response is received, or if the platform is not radio
jeopardize the operation, personnel conducting
equipped, further radio transmissions should not be
perforating operations should take the following
made until visual contact with the deck indicates it is
precautionary measures:
open for operation (no white X).
(1) Notify company aviation departments,
helicopter operators or bases, and nearby manned g. Hydrogen Sulfide Gas Helideck/Heliport
platforms of the pending perforation operation so the Operational Hazard Warning(s)/Procedures
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) system can be activated 1. Background. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas:
for the perforation operation and the temporary Hydrogen sulfide gas in higher concentrations
helideck closure. (300500 ppm) can cause loss of consciousness
(2) Close the deck and make the radio within a few seconds and presents a hazard to pilots
warning clearly visible to passing pilots, install a on/near offshore helidecks. When operating in
temporary marking (described in subpara- offshore areas that have been identified to have
graph 1021i1(b)) with the words NO RADIO concentrations of hydrogen sulfide gas, the following
stenciled in red on the legs of the diagonals. The practices are recommended.
letters should be 24 inches high and 12 inches wide. 2. Recommended Practices
(See FIG 1021.)
(a) Pilots
(3) The marker should be installed during
the time that charges may be affected by radio (1) Ensure approved protective air packs
transmissions. are available for emergency use by the crew on the
helicopter.
(b) Pilots
(2) If shutdown on a helideck, request the
(1) Pilots when operating within 1,000 feet supervisor in charge provide a briefing on location of
of a known perforation operation or observing the protective equipment and safety procedures.
white X with red NO RADIO warning indicating
perforation operations are underway will avoid radio (3) If while flying near a helideck and the
transmissions from or near the helideck (within visual red beacon alarm is observed or an unusually
1,000 feet) and will not land on the deck if the X is strong odor of rotten eggs is detected, immediately
present. In addition to communications radios, radio don the protective air pack, exit to an area upwind,
transmissions are also emitted by aircraft radar, and notify the suspected source field of the hazard.
FIG 1021
Closed Helideck Marking No Radio
1. Background. Ignited flare booms can re- (a) Permanent Closing. If a helideck or
lease a large volume of natural gas and create a hot heliport is to be permanently closed, X diagonals of
fire and intense heat with little time for the pilot to the same size and location as indicated above should
react. Likewise, unignited gas vents can release be used, but the markings should be painted on the
reasonably large volumes of methane gas under landing area.
certain conditions. Thus, operations conducted very NOTE
near unignited gas vents require precautions to White Decks: If a helideck is painted white, then
prevent inadvertent ingestion of combustible gases international orange or yellow markings can be used for
by the helicopter engine(s). The following practices the temporary or permanent diagonals.
are recommended. (b) Temporary Closing. A temporary
marker can be used for hazards of an interim nature.
2. Pilots This marker could be made from vinyl or other
durable material in the shape of a diagonal X. The
(a) Gas will drift upwards and downwind of marker should be white with legs at least 20 feet long
the vent. Plan the approach and takeoff to observe and and 3 feet in width. This marker is designed to be
avoid the area downwind of the vent, remaining as far quickly secured and removed from the deck using
away as practicable from the open end of the vent grommets and rope ties. The duration, time, location,
boom. and nature of these temporary closings should be
provided to and coordinated with company aviation
(b) Do not attempt to start or land on an departments, nearby helicopter bases, and helicopter
offshore helideck when the deck is downwind of a gas operators supporting the area. These markers MUST
vent unless properly trained personnel verify be removed when the hazard no longer exists.
conditions are safe. (See FIG 1022.)
FIG 1022
Closed Helideck Marking
j. Offshore (VFR) Operating Altitudes for (c) Area Agreements. See HSAC Area
Helicopters Agreement Maps for operating procedures for
onshore high density traffic locations.
1. Background. Midair collisions constitute
a significant percentage of total fatal offshore NOTE
helicopter accidents. A method of reducing this risk Pilots of helicopters operating VFR above 3,000 feet above
is the use of coordinated VFR cruising altitudes. To the surface should refer to the current Federal Aviation
Regulations (14 CFR Part 91), and paragraph 314,
enhance safety through standardized vertical separa-
Basic VFR Weather Minimums, of the AIM.
tion of helicopters when flying in the offshore
environment, it is recommended that helicopter (d) Landing Lights. Aircraft landing lights
operators flying in a particular area establish a should be on to enhance aircraft identification:
cooperatively developed Standard Operating Proce- (1) During takeoff and landings;
dure (SOP) for VFR operating altitudes. An example
of such an SOP is contained in this example. (2) In congested helicopter or fixed wing
traffic areas;
2. Recommended Practice Example
(3) During reduced visibility; or,
(a) Field Operations. Without compromis-
ing minimum safe operating altitudes, helicopters (4) Anytime safety could be enhanced.
working within an offshore field constituting a k. Offshore Helidecks/Landing Communica-
cluster should use altitudes not to exceed 500 feet. tions
(b) En Route Operations 1. Background. To enhance safety, and pro-
(1) Helicopters operating below 750 AGL vide appropriate time to prepare for helicopter
should avoid transitioning through offshore fields. operations, the following is recommended when
anticipating a landing on an offshore helideck.
(2) Helicopters en route to and from
offshore locations, below 3,000 feet, weather 2. Recommended Practices
permitting, should use en route altitudes as outlined (a) Before landing on an offshore helideck,
in TBL 1021. pilots are encouraged to establish communications
with the company owning or operating the helideck
TBL 1021
if frequencies exist for that purpose.
Magnetic Heading Altitude (b) When impracticable, or if frequencies do
0 to 179 750 not exist, pilots or operations personnel should
1750
attempt to contact the company owning or operating
the helideck by telephone. Contact should be made
2750
before the pilot departs home base/point of departure
180 359 1250 to advise of intentions and obtain landing permission
2250 if necessary.
(2) Significant reflected cultural lighting horizon is geometrically exactly 90 degrees from the
(such as the illumination caused by the reflection of local vertical direction.
a major metropolitan areas lighting reflecting off a
cloud ceiling), or (b) Rise, Set. During the course of a day the
Earth rotates once on its axis causing the phenomena
(3) Limited cultural lighting combined of rising and setting. All celestial bodies, the Sun,
with a high level of natural reflectivity of celestial Moon, stars and planets, seem to appear in the sky at
illumination, such as that provided by a surface the horizon to the East of any particular place, then to
covered by snow or a desert surface. cross the sky and again disappear at the horizon to the
West. Because the Sun and Moon appear as circular
2. Low lighting conditions are those that do not disks and not as points of light, a definition of rise or
meet the high lighting conditions requirements. set must be very specific, because not all of either
3. Some areas may be considered a high lighting body is seen to rise or set at once.
environment only in specific circumstances. For (c) Sunrise and sunset refer to the times when
example, some surfaces, such as a forest with limited the upper edge of the disk of the Sun is on the horizon,
cultural lighting, normally have little reflectivity, considered unobstructed relative to the location of
requiring dependence on significant moonlight to interest. Atmospheric conditions are assumed to be
achieve a high lighting condition. However, when average, and the location is in a level region on the
that same forest is covered with snow, its reflectivity Earths surface.
may support a high lighting condition based only on
starlight. Similarly, a desolate area, with little cultural (d) Moonrise and moonset times are com-
lighting, such as a desert, may have such inherent puted for exactly the same circumstances as for
natural reflectivity that it may be considered a high sunrise and sunset. However, moonrise and moonset
lighting conditions area regardless of season, may occur at any time during a 24 hour period and,
provided the cloud cover does not prevent starlight consequently, it is often possible for the Moon to be
from being reflected from the surface. Other surfaces, seen during daylight, and to have moonless nights. It
such as areas of open water, may never have enough is also possible that a moonrise or moonset does not
reflectivity or cultural lighting to ever be character- occur relative to a specific place on a given date.
ized as a high lighting area.
(e) Transit. The transit time of a celestial
4. Through the accumulation of night flying body refers to the instant that its center crosses an
experience in a particular area, the operator will imaginary line in the sky the observers meridian
develop the ability to determine, prior to departure, running from north to south.
which areas can be considered supporting high or low
lighting conditions. Without that operational experi- (f) Twilight. Before sunrise and again after
ence, low lighting considerations should be applied sunset there are intervals of time, known as
by operators for both preflight planning and twilight, during which there is natural light
operations until high lighting conditions are observed provided by the upper atmosphere, which does
or determined to be regularly available. receive direct sunlight and reflects part of it toward
the Earths surface.
b. Astronomical Definitions and Background
Information for Night Operations (g) Civil twilight is defined to begin in the
morning, and to end in the evening when the center of
1. Definitions the Sun is geometrically 6 degrees below the horizon.
This is the limit at which twilight illumination is
(a) Horizon. Wherever one is located on or sufficient, under good weather conditions, for
near the Earths surface, the Earth is perceived as terrestrial objects to be clearly distinguished.
essentially flat and, therefore, as a plane. If there are
no visual obstructions, the apparent intersection of 2. Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
the sky with the Earths (plane) surface is the horizon, applies these concepts and definitions in addressing
which appears as a circle centered at the observer. For the definition of night (Section 1.1), the requirement
rise/set computations, the observers eye is consid- for aircraft lighting (Section 91.209) and pilot
ered to be on the surface of the Earth, so that the recency of night experience (Section 61.67).
c. Information on Moon Phases and Changes in then back through partially illuminated to not
the Percentage of the Moon Illuminated illuminated again. There are eight distinct, tradition-
From any location on the Earth, the Moon appears to ally recognized stages, called phases. The phases
be a circular disk which, at any specific time, is designate both the degree to which the Moon is
illuminated to some degree by direct sunlight. During illuminated and the geometric appearance of the
each lunar orbit (a lunar month), we see the Moons illuminated part. These phases of the Moon, in the
appearance change from not visibly illuminated sequence of their occurrence (starting from New
through partially illuminated to fully illuminated, Moon), are listed in FIG 1023.
FIG 1023
Phases of the Moon
New Moon The Moons unilluminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon is not visible
(except during a solar eclipse).
Waxing Crescent The Moon appears to be partly but less than onehalf illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is increasing.
First Quarter Onehalf of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The
fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is increasing.
Waxing Gibbous The Moon appears to be more than onehalf but not fully illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is increasing.
Full Moon The Moons illuminated side is facing the Earth. The Moon appears to be
completely illuminated by direct sunlight.
Waning Gibbous The Moon appears to be more than onehalf but not fully
illuminated by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is
decreasing.
Last Quarter Onehalf of the Moon appears to be illuminated by direct sunlight. The
fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is decreasing.
Waning Crescent The Moon appears to be partly but less than onehalf illuminated by
direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moons disk that is illuminated is decreasing.
b. The information provided is largely based on (a) Small Helicopter: Bell 206/407, Euro-
the booklet, LZ Preparing the Landing Zone, issued copter AS350/355, BO105, BK117.
by National Emergency Medical Services Pilots
(b) Medium Helicopter: Bell UH1 (Huey)
Association (NEMSPA), and the guidance developed
and derivatives (Bell 212/412), Bell 222/230/430
by the University of Tennessee Medical Centers
Sikorsky S76, Eurocopter SA365.
LIFESTAR program, and is used with their
permission. For additional information, go to (c) Large Helicopter: Boeing Chinook,
http://www.nemspa.org/. Eurocopter Puma, Sikorsky H60 series
(Blackhawk), SK92.
c. Information concerning the estimation of wind
velocity is based on the Beaufort Scale. See 3. The LZ should be level, firm and free of loose
http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/beaufort.html debris that could possibly blow up into the rotor
for more information. system.
d. Selecting a Scene LZ 4. The LZ should be clear of people, vehicles
and obstructions such as trees, poles and wires.
1. If the situation requires the use of a helicopter,
Remember that wires are difficult to see from the air.
first check to see if there is an area large enough to
The LZ must also be free of stumps, brush, post and
land a helicopter safely.
large rocks. See FIG 1025.
FIG 1024
FIG 1025
Recommended Minimum Landing Zone Dimensions
Landing Zone Hazards
e. Helping the Flightcrew Locate the Scene 4. When the helicopter approaches the scene, it
1. If the LZ coordinator has access to a GPS unit, will normally orbit at least one time as the flight crew
the exact latitude and longitude of the LZ should be observes the wind direction and obstacles that could
relayed to the HEMS pilot. If unable to contact the interfere with the landing. This is often referred to as
pilot directly, relay the information to the HEMS the high reconnaissance maneuver.
ground communications specialist for relaying to the f. Wind Direction and Touchdown Area
pilot, so that they may locate your scene more
efficiently. Recognize that the aircraft may approach 1. Determine from which direction the wind is
from a direction different than the direct path from the blowing. Helicopters normally land and takeoff into
takeoff point to the scene, as the pilot may have to the wind.
detour around terrain, obstructions or weather 2. If contact can be established with the pilot,
en route. either directly or indirectly through the HEMS
2. Especially in daylight hours, mountainous ground communications specialist, describe the wind
and densely populated areas can make sighting a in terms of the direction the wind is from and the
scene from the air difficult. Often, the LZ coordinator speed.
on the ground will be asked if she or he can see or hear 3. Common natural sources of wind direction
the helicopter. information are smoke, dust, vegetation movement,
3. Flightcrews use a clock reference method for water streaks and waves. Flags, pennants, streamers
directing one anothers attention to a certain direction can also be used. When describing the direction, use
from the aircraft. The nose of the aircraft is always the compass direction from which the wind is
12 oclock, the right side is 3 oclock, etc. When the blowing (example: from the NorthWest).
LZ coordinator sees the aircraft, he/she should use
this method to assist the flightcrew by indicating the 4. Wind speed can be measured by small
scenes clock reference position from the nose of the handheld measurement devices, or an observers
aircraft. For example, Accident scene is located at estimate can be used to provide velocity information.
your 2 oclock position. See FIG 1026. The wind value should be reported in knots (nautical
miles per hour). If unable to numerically measure
FIG 1026 wind speed, use TBL 1023 to estimate velocity.
Clock System for Identifying Positions Also, report if the wind conditions are gusty, or if the
Relative to the Nose of the Aircraft
wind direction or velocity is variable or has changed
recently.
5. If any obstacle(s) exist, ensure their descrip-
tion, position and approximate height are
communicated to the pilot on the initial radio call.
TBL 1023
Table of Common References for Estimating Wind Velocity
EXAMPLE
Wind from the SouthEast, estimated speed 15 knots. Wind shifted from NorthEast about fifteen minutes ago, and is gusty.
g. Night LZs locations and do not affect the pilots night vision as
significantly.
1. There are several ways to light a night LZ:
3. As in Day LZ operations, ensure radio contact
(a) Mark the touchdown area with five lights
is accomplished between ground and air, if possible.
or road flares, one in each corner and one indicating
the direction of the wind. See FIG 1027. h. Ground Guide
FIG 1027 1. When the helicopter is in sight, one person
Recommended Lighting for should assist the LZ Coordinator by guiding the
Landing Zone Operations at Night helicopter into a safe landing area. In selecting an LZ
Coordinator, recognize that medical personnel
usually are very busy with the patient at this time. It
is recommended that the LZ Coordinator be someone
other than a medical responder, if possible. Eye
protection should be worn. The ground guide should
stand with his/her back to the wind and his/her arms
raised over his/her head (flashlights in each hand for
night operations.)
2. The pilot will confirm the LZ sighting by
radio. If possible, once the pilot has identified the LZ,
the ground guide should move out of the LZ.
3. As the helicopter turns into the wind and
NOTE
Road flares are an intense source of ignition and may be begins a descent, the LZ coordinator should provide
unsuitable or dangerous in certain conditions. In any case, assistance by means of radio contact, or utilize the
they must be closely managed and firefighting equipment unsafe signal to wave off the helicopter if the LZ is
should be present when used. Other light sources are not safe (see FIG 1028). The LZ Coordinator
preferred, if available. should be far enough from the touchdown area that
(b) If chemical light sticks may be used, care he/she can still maintain visual contact with the pilot.
should be taken to assure they are adequately secured i. Assisting the Crew
against being dislodged by the helicopters rotor
wash. 1. After the helicopter has landed, do not
approach the helicopter. The crew will approach you.
(c) Another method of marking a LZ uses four
emergency vehicles with their low beam headlights 2. Be prepared to assist the crew by providing
aimed toward the intended landing area. security for the helicopter. If asked to provide
security, allow no one but the crew to approach the
(d) A third method for marking a LZ uses two aircraft.
vehicles. Have the vehicles direct their headlight
beams into the wind, crossing at the center of the LZ. 3. Once the patient is prepared and ready to load,
(If fire/rescue personnel are available, the reflective allow the crew to open the doors to the helicopter and
stripes on their bunker gear will assist the pilot guide the loading of the patient.
greatly.)
4. When approaching or departing the helicop-
2. At night, spotlights, flood lights and hand ter, always be aware of the tail rotor and always
lights used to define the LZ are not to be pointed at the follow the directions of the crew. Working around a
helicopter. However, they are helpful when pointed running helicopter can be potentially dangerous. The
toward utility poles, trees or other hazards to the environment is very noisy and, with exhaust gases
landing aircraft. White lights such as spotlights, and rotor wash, often windy. In scene operations, the
flashbulbs and hibeam headlights ruin the pilots surface may be uneven, soft, or slippery which can
night vision and temporarily blind him. Red lights, lead to tripping. Be very careful of your footing in this
however, are very helpful in finding accident environment.
5. The tail rotor poses a special threat to the contamination of the crew. Patients/victims
working around a running helicopter. The tail rotor contaminated by hazardous materials may require
turns many times faster than the main rotor, and is special precautions in packaging before loading on
often invisible even at idle engine power. Avoid the aircraft for the medical crews protection, or may
walking towards the tail of a helicopter beyond the be transported by other means.
end of the cabin, unless specifically directed by the
crew. 4. Hazardous chemicals and gases may be fatal
to the unprotected person if inhaled or absorbed
NOTE through the skin.
Helicopters typically have doors on the sides of the cabin,
but many use aft mounted clamshell type doors for 5. Upon initial radio contact, the helicopter crew
loading and unloading patients on litters or stretchers. must be made aware of any hazardous gases in the
When using these doors, it is important to avoid moving any area. Never assume that the crew has already been
further aft than necessary to operate the doors and informed. If the aircraft were to fly through the
load/unload the patient. Again, always comply with the hazardous gases, the crew could be poisoned and/or
crews instructions.
the engines could develop mechanical problems.
j. General Rules
6. Poisonous or irritating gases may cling to a
1. When working around helicopters, always victims clothing and go unnoticed until the patient is
approach and depart from the front, never from the loaded and the doors of the helicopter are closed. To
rear. Approaching from the rear can increase your risk avoid possible compromise of the crew, all of these
of being struck by the tail rotor, which, when at patients must be decontaminated prior to loading.
operating engine speed, is nearly invisible.
l. Hand Signals
2. To prevent injury or damage from the main
rotor, never raise anything over your head. 1. If unable to make radio contact with the
HEMS pilot, use the following signals:
3. If the helicopter landed on a slope, approach
and depart from the down slope side only. FIG 1028
4. When the helicopter is loaded and ready for Recommended Landing Zone Ground Signals
take off, keep the departure path free of vehicles and
spectators. In an emergency, this area is needed to
execute a landing.
k. Hazardous Chemicals and Gases
1. Responding to accidents involving hazardous
materials requires special handling by fire/rescue
units on the ground. Equally important are the
preparations and considerations for helicopter
operations in these areas.
2. Hazardous materials of concern are those
which are toxic, poisonous, flammable, explosive,
irritating, or radioactive in nature. Helicopter
ambulance crews normally dont carry protective
suits or breathing apparatuses to protect them from
hazardous materials.
3. The helicopter ambulance crew must be told
of hazardous materials on the scene in order to avoid
FIG 1029
EMS Multiple Helicopter LZ/Heliport Operation
NOTE
If the LZ/hospital heliport weather conditions or airspace altitude restrictions prohibit the recommended vertical
separation, 1 NM separations should be kept between helicopter orbit areas.
Appendix 3. Abbreviations/Acronyms
Abbreviations/Acronyms Appendix 31
7110.65R
AIM
AIM CHG 2 3/15/07
4/27/17
12/10/15
Appendix 32 Abbreviations/Acronyms
12/10/15 AIM
Abbreviations/Acronyms Appendix 33
AIM 12/10/15
Appendix 34 Abbreviations/Acronyms
12/10/15 AIM
Abbreviations/Acronyms Appendix 35
4/27/17 Pilot/Controller Glossary
PILOT/CONTROLLER
GLOSSARY
PURPOSE
a. This Glossary was compiled to promote a common understanding of the terms used in the Air Traffic
Control system. It includes those terms which are intended for pilot/controller communications. Those terms
most frequently used in pilot/controller communications are printed in bold italics. The definitions are primarily
defined in an operational sense applicable to both users and operators of the National Airspace System. Use of
the Glossary will preclude any misunderstandings concerning the systems design, function, and purpose.
b. Because of the international nature of flying, terms used in the Lexicon, published by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), are included when they differ from FAA definitions. These terms are
followed by [ICAO]. For the readers convenience, there are also cross references to related terms in other parts
of the Glossary and to other documents, such as the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM).
c. This Glossary will be revised, as necessary, to maintain a common understanding of the system.
EXPLANATION OF CHANGES
d. Terms Added:
ATS SURVEILLANCE SERVICE [ICAO]
ATS SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM [ICAO]
BUFFER AREA
FLIGHT TERMINATION
IDENTIFICATION [ICAO]
LOST LINK
LOST LINK PROECDURE
PROCEDURAL CONTROL [ICAO]
PROCEDURAL SEPARATION [ICAO]
e. Terms Deleted:
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROCEDURE (FMSP)
NONRADAR SEPARATION [ICAO]
RADAR IDENTIFICATION
f. Terms Modified:
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM COMMAND CENTER (ATCSCC)
AIRPORT SURFACE DETECTION EQUIPMENT (ASDE)
ALONGTRACK DISTANCE (ATD)
SAFETY LOGIC SYSTEM
TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTION (TFR)
g. Editorial/format changes were made where necessary. Revision bars were not used due to the insignificant
nature of the changes.
PCG1
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
A
AAI ACLT
(See ARRIVAL AIRCRAFT INTERVAL.) (See ACTUAL CALCULATED LANDING TIME.)
AAR ACROBATIC FLIGHT An intentional maneuver
(See AIRPORT ARRIVAL RATE.) involving an abrupt change in an aircrafts attitude, an
abnormal attitude, or abnormal acceleration not
ABBREVIATED IFR FLIGHT PLANS An
necessary for normal flight.
authorization by ATC requiring pilots to submit only
(See ICAO term ACROBATIC FLIGHT.)
that information needed for the purpose of ATC. It
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
includes only a small portion of the usual IFR flight
plan information. In certain instances, this may be ACROBATIC FLIGHT [ICAO] Maneuvers inten-
only aircraft identification, location, and pilot tionally performed by an aircraft involving an abrupt
request. Other information may be requested if change in its attitude, an abnormal attitude, or an
needed by ATC for separation/control purposes. It is abnormal variation in speed.
frequently used by aircraft which are airborne and ACTIVE RUNWAY
desire an instrument approach or by aircraft which are (See RUNWAY IN USE/ACTIVE RUNWAY/DUTY
on the ground and desire a climb to VFR-on-top. RUNWAY.)
(See VFR-ON-TOP.)
(Refer to AIM.) ACTUAL CALCULATED LANDING TIME
ACLT is a flights frozen calculated landing time. An
ABEAM An aircraft is abeam a fix, point, or actual time determined at freeze calculated landing
object when that fix, point, or object is approximately time (FCLT) or meter list display interval (MLDI) for
90 degrees to the right or left of the aircraft track. the adapted vertex for each arrival aircraft based upon
Abeam indicates a general position rather than a runway configuration, airport acceptance rate, airport
precise point. arrival delay period, and other metered arrival
ABORT To terminate a preplanned aircraft aircraft. This time is either the vertex time of arrival
maneuver; e.g., an aborted takeoff. (VTA) of the aircraft or the tentative calculated
landing time (TCLT)/ACLT of the previous aircraft
ACC [ICAO] plus the arrival aircraft interval (AAI), whichever is
(See ICAO term AREA CONTROL CENTER.) later. This time will not be updated in response to the
ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE aircrafts progress.
The runway plus stopway length declared available ACTUAL NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
and suitable for the acceleration and deceleration of (ANP)
an airplane aborting a takeoff. (See REQUIRED NAVIGATION
ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE PERFORMANCE.)
[ICAO] The length of the take-off run available plus ADDITIONAL SERVICES Advisory information
the length of the stopway if provided. provided by ATC which includes but is not limited to
the following:
ACDO
(See AIR CARRIER DISTRICT OFFICE.) a. Traffic advisories.
b. Vectors, when requested by the pilot, to assist
ACKNOWLEDGE Let me know that you have
aircraft receiving traffic advisories to avoid observed
received and understood this message.
traffic.
ACL c. Altitude deviation information of 300 feet or
(See AIRCRAFT LIST.) more from an assigned altitude as observed on a
ACLS verified (reading correctly) automatic altitude
(See AUTOMATIC CARRIER LANDING readout (Mode C).
SYSTEM.) d. Advisories that traffic is no longer a factor.
PCG A1
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PCG A2
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navigation aids, navigation routes, designated f. Instrument Departure Procedure (DP) Charts
airspace, and airports. Commonly used aeronautical Designed to expedite clearance delivery and to
charts are: facilitate transition between takeoff and en route
operations. Each DP is presented as a separate chart
a. Sectional Aeronautical Charts (1:500,000) and may serve a single airport or more than one
Designed for visual navigation of slow or medium airport in a given geographical location.
speed aircraft. Topographic information on these
g. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Charts
charts features the portrayal of relief and a judicious
Designed to expedite air traffic control arrival
selection of visual check points for VFR flight.
procedures and to facilitate transition between en
Aeronautical information includes visual and radio
route and instrument approach operations. Each
aids to navigation, airports, controlled airspace,
STAR procedure is presented as a separate chart and
restricted areas, obstructions, and related data.
may serve a single airport or more than one airport in
b. VFR Terminal Area Charts (1:250,000) a given geographical location.
Depict Class B airspace which provides for the h. Airport Taxi Charts Designed to expedite the
control or segregation of all the aircraft within Class efficient and safe flow of ground traffic at an airport.
B airspace. The chart depicts topographic informa- These charts are identified by the official airport
tion and aeronautical information which includes name; e.g., Ronald Reagan Washington National
visual and radio aids to navigation, airports, Airport.
controlled airspace, restricted areas, obstructions, (See ICAO term AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
and related data.
AERONAUTICAL CHART [ICAO] A representa-
c. En Route Low Altitude Charts Provide tion of a portion of the earth, its culture and relief,
aeronautical information for en route instrument specifically designated to meet the requirements of
navigation (IFR) in the low altitude stratum. air navigation.
Information includes the portrayal of airways, limits AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL
of controlled airspace, position identification and (AIM) A primary FAA publication whose purpose
frequencies of radio aids, selected airports, minimum is to instruct airmen about operating in the National
en route and minimum obstruction clearance Airspace System of the U.S. It provides basic flight
altitudes, airway distances, reporting points, re- information, ATC Procedures and general instruc-
stricted areas, and related data. Area charts, which are tional information concerning health, medical facts,
a part of this series, furnish terminal data at a larger factors affecting flight safety, accident and hazard
scale in congested areas. reporting, and types of aeronautical charts and their
d. En Route High Altitude Charts Provide use.
aeronautical information for en route instrument AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICA-
navigation (IFR) in the high altitude stratum. TION (AIP) [ICAO] A publication issued by or with
Information includes the portrayal of jet routes, the authority of a State and containing aeronautical
identification and frequencies of radio aids, selected information of a lasting character essential to air
airports, distances, time zones, special use airspace, navigation.
and related information. (See CHART SUPPLEMENT U.S.)
e. Instrument Approach Procedures (IAP) Charts AFFIRMATIVE Yes.
Portray the aeronautical data which is required to AFIS
execute an instrument approach to an airport. These (See AUTOMATIC FLIGHT INFORMATION
charts depict the procedures, including all related SERVICE ALASKA FSSs ONLY.)
data, and the airport diagram. Each procedure is
designated for use with a specific type of electronic AFP
navigation system including NDB, TACAN, VOR, (See AIRSPACE FLOW PROGRAM.)
ILS RNAV and GLS. These charts are identified by AIM
the type of navigational aid(s)/equipment required to (See AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION
provide final approach guidance. MANUAL.)
PCG A3
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PCG A4
4/27/17
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procedures forbid compliance with the clearance AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SPECIALIST A person
issued. Pilots may also request clarification or authorized to provide air traffic control service.
amendment, as appropriate, any time a clearance is (See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.)
not fully understood, or considered unacceptable (See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.)
because of safety of flight. Controllers should, in (See ICAO term CONTROLLER.)
such instances and to the extent of operational AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM COMMAND
practicality and safety, honor the pilots request. CENTER (ATCSCC) An Air Traffic Tactical
14 CFR Part 91.3(a) states: The pilot in command Operations facility responsible for monitoring and
of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the managing the flow of air traffic throughout the NAS,
final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft. producing a safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of
THE PILOT IS RESPONSIBLE TO REQUEST AN traffic while minimizing delays. The following
AMENDED CLEARANCE if ATC issues a functions are located at the ATCSCC:
clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a a. Central Altitude Reservation Function
rule or regulation, or in the pilots opinion, would (CARF). Responsible for coordinating, planning,
place the aircraft in jeopardy. and approving special user requirements under the
(See ATC INSTRUCTIONS.) Altitude Reservation (ALTRV) concept.
(See ICAO term AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL (See ALTITUDE RESERVATION.)
CLEARANCE.) b. Airport Reservation Office (ARO). Monitors
the operation and allocation of reservations for
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL A service operated by unscheduled operations at airports designated by the
appropriate authority to promote the safe, orderly and Administrator as High Density Airports. These
expeditious flow of air traffic. airports are generally known as slot controlled
(See ICAO term AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL airports. The ARO allocates reservations on a first
SERVICE.) come, first served basis determined by the time the
request is received at the ARO.
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL CLEARANCE [ICAO] (Refer to 14 CFR Part 93.)
Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under (See CHART SUPPLEMENT U.S.)
conditions specified by an air traffic control unit. c. U.S. Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) Office.
Note 1: For convenience, the term air traffic control Responsible for collecting, maintaining, and distrib-
clearance is frequently abbreviated to clearance uting NOTAMs for the U.S. civilian and military, as
when used in appropriate contexts. well as international aviation communities.
(See NOTICE TO AIRMEN.)
Note 2: The abbreviated term clearance may be
prefixed by the words taxi, takeoff, departure, en d. Weather Unit. Monitor all aspects of weather
route, approach or landing to indicate the particular for the U.S. that might affect aviation including cloud
portion of flight to which the air traffic control clear- cover, visibility, winds, precipitation, thunderstorms,
ance relates. icing, turbulence, and more. Provide forecasts based
on observations and on discussions with meteorolo-
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE gists from various National Weather Service offices,
FAA facilities, airlines, and private weather services.
(See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL.)
AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE A generic term meaning:
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE [ICAO] A a. Flight Information Service.
service provided for the purpose of: b. Alerting Service.
a. Preventing collisions: c. Air Traffic Advisory Service.
d. Air Traffic Control Service:
1. Between aircraft; and
1. Area Control Service,
2. On the maneuvering area between aircraft 2. Approach Control Service, or
and obstructions. 3. Airport Control Service.
b. Expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE (ATS) ROUTES The
air traffic. term ATS Route is a generic term that includes
PCG A5
Pilot/Controller Glossary 4/27/17
12/10/15
VOR Federal airways, colored Federal airways, operating at this weight during a particular phase of
jet routes, and RNAV routes. The term ATS flight.
route does not replace these more familiar route c. Large Aircraft of more than 41,000 pounds,
names, but serves only as an overall title when listing maximum certificated takeoff weight, up to but not
the types of routes that comprise the United States including 300,000 pounds.
route structure.
d. Small Aircraft of 41,000 pounds or less
AIRBORNE An aircraft is considered airborne maximum certificated takeoff weight.
when all parts of the aircraft are off the ground. (Refer to AIM.)
AIRBORNE DELAY Amount of delay to be
AIRCRAFT CONFLICT Predicted conflict, within
encountered in airborne holding.
EDST of two aircraft, or between aircraft and
AIRCRAFT Device(s) that are used or intended to airspace. A Red alert is used for conflicts when the
be used for flight in the air, and when used in air traffic predicted minimum separation is 5 nautical miles or
control terminology, may include the flight crew. less. A Yellow alert is used when the predicted
(See ICAO term AIRCRAFT.) minimum separation is between 5 and approximately
12 nautical miles. A Blue alert is used for conflicts
AIRCRAFT [ICAO] Any machine that can derive between an aircraft and predefined airspace.
support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air
(See EN ROUTE DECISION SUPPORT
other than the reactions of the air against the earths
surface. TOOL.)
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edge when installed on a runway equipped with a i. Boundary Lights Lights defining the perimeter
VASI. of an airport or landing area.
(Refer to FAAO JO 6850.2, VISUAL GUIDANCE (Refer to AIM.)
LIGHTING SYSTEMS.) AIRPORT MARKING AIDS Markings used on
b. Runway Lights/Runway Edge Lights Lights runway and taxiway surfaces to identify a specific
having a prescribed angle of emission used to define runway, a runway threshold, a centerline, a hold line,
the lateral limits of a runway. Runway lights are etc. A runway should be marked in accordance with
uniformly spaced at intervals of approximately 200 its present usage such as:
feet, and the intensity may be controlled or preset. a. Visual.
c. Touchdown Zone Lighting Two rows of b. Nonprecision instrument.
transverse light bars located symmetrically about the c. Precision instrument.
runway centerline normally at 100 foot intervals. The (Refer to AIM.)
basic system extends 3,000 feet along the runway. AIRPORT REFERENCE POINT (ARP) The
d. Runway Centerline Lighting Flush centerline approximate geometric center of all usable runway
lights spaced at 50-foot intervals beginning 75 feet surfaces.
from the landing threshold and extending to within 75 AIRPORT RESERVATION OFFICE Office
feet of the opposite end of the runway. responsible for monitoring the operation of slot
e. Threshold Lights Fixed green lights arranged controlled airports. It receives and processes requests
symmetrically left and right of the runway centerline, for unscheduled operations at slot controlled airports.
identifying the runway threshold. AIRPORT ROTATING BEACON A visual
f. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL) Two NAVAID operated at many airports. At civil airports,
synchronized flashing lights, one on each side of the alternating white and green flashes indicate the
runway threshold, which provide rapid and positive location of the airport. At military airports, the
identification of the approach end of a particular beacons flash alternately white and green, but are
runway. differentiated from civil beacons by dualpeaked (two
quick) white flashes between the green flashes.
g. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) An
(See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
airport lighting facility providing vertical visual
(See SPECIAL VFR OPERATIONS.)
approach slope guidance to aircraft during approach
(See ICAO term AERODROME BEACON.)
to landing by radiating a directional pattern of high
(Refer to AIM.)
intensity red and white focused light beams which
indicate to the pilot that he/she is on path if he/she AIRPORT STREAM FILTER (ASF) An on/off
sees red/white, above path if white/white, and filter that allows the conflict notification function to
below path if red/red. Some airports serving large be inhibited for arrival streams into single or multiple
aircraft have three-bar VASIs which provide two airports to prevent nuisance alerts.
visual glide paths to the same runway. AIRPORT SURFACE DETECTION EQUIPMENT
h. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) An (ASDE) Surveillance equipment specifically de-
airport lighting facility, similar to VASI, providing signed to detect aircraft, vehicular traffic, and other
vertical approach slope guidance to aircraft during objects, on the surface of an airport, and to present the
approach to landing. PAPIs consist of a single row of image on a tower display. Used to augment visual
either two or four lights, normally installed on the left observation by tower personnel of aircraft and/or
side of the runway, and have an effective visual range vehicular movements on runways and taxiways.
of about 5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at There are three ASDE systems deployed in the NAS:
night. PAPIs radiate a directional pattern of high a. ASDE3 a Surface Movement Radar.
intensity red and white focused light beams which b. ASDEX a system that uses an Xband
indicate that the pilot is on path if the pilot sees an Surface Movement Radar, multilateration and
equal number of white lights and red lights, with ADSB.
white to the left of the red; above path if the pilot c. Airport Surface Surveillance Capability
sees more white than red lights; and below path if (ASSC)a system that uses Surface Movement
the pilot sees more red than white lights. Radar, multilateration and ADSB.
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route phase of flight. The U.S. equivalent facility is 2. LEFT BASE AREA A 30NM arc centered
an air route traffic control center (ARTCC). on the right corner IAF. The area shares a boundary
with the straight-in area except that it extends out for
AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) A method of 30NM from the IAF and is bounded on the other side
navigation which permits aircraft operation on any by a line extending from the IF through the FAF to the
desired flight path within the coverage of ground or arc.
spacebased navigation aids or within the limits of
the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination 3. RIGHT BASE AREA A 30NM arc centered
of these. on the left corner IAF. The area shares a boundary
with the straight-in area except that it extends out for
Note: Area navigation includes
30NM from the IAF and is bounded on the other side
performancebased navigation as well as other
operations that do not meet the definition of by a line extending from the IF through the FAF to the
performancebased navigation. arc.
AREA NAVI GATION (R NAV) G L O B A L
AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) APPROACH POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) PRECISION
CONFIGURATION: RUNWAY MONITORING (PRM) APPROACH A
a. STANDARD T An RNAV approach whose GPS approach, which requires vertical guidance,
design allows direct flight to any one of three initial used in lieu of an ILS PRM approach to conduct
approach fixes (IAF) and eliminates the need for approaches to parallel runways whose extended
procedure turns. The standard design is to align the centerlines are separated by less than 4,300 feet and
procedure on the extended centerline with the missed at least 3,000 feet, where simultaneous close parallel
approach point (MAP) at the runway threshold, the approaches are permitted. Also used in lieu of an ILS
final approach fix (FAF), and the initial approach/ PRM and/or LDA PRM approach to conduct
intermediate fix (IAF/IF). The other two IAFs will be Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach (SOIA)
established perpendicular to the IF. operations.
b. MODIFIED T An RNAV approach design for ARINC An acronym for Aeronautical Radio, Inc.,
single or multiple runways where terrain or a corporation largely owned by a group of airlines.
operational constraints do not allow for the standard ARINC is licensed by the FCC as an aeronautical
T. The T may be modified by increasing or station and contracted by the FAA to provide
decreasing the angle from the corner IAF(s) to the IF communications support for air traffic control and
or by eliminating one or both corner IAFs. meteorological services in portions of international
c. STANDARD I An RNAV approach design for airspace.
a single runway with both corner IAFs eliminated.
ARMY AVIATION FLIGHT INFORMATION
Course reversal or radar vectoring may be required at
BULLETIN A bulletin that provides air operation
busy terminals with multiple runways.
data covering Army, National Guard, and Army
d. TERMINAL ARRIVAL AREA (TAA) The Reserve aviation activities.
TAA is controlled airspace established in conjunction
with the Standard or Modified T and I RNAV ARO
approach configurations. In the standard TAA, there (See AIRPORT RESERVATION OFFICE.)
are three areas: straight-in, left base, and right base. ARRESTING SYSTEM A safety device consisting
The arc boundaries of the three areas of the TAA are of two major components, namely, engaging or
published portions of the approach and allow aircraft catching devices and energy absorption devices for
to transition from the en route structure direct to the the purpose of arresting both tailhook and/or
nearest IAF. TAAs will also eliminate or reduce nontailhook-equipped aircraft. It is used to prevent
feeder routes, departure extensions, and procedure aircraft from overrunning runways when the aircraft
turns or course reversal. cannot be stopped after landing or during aborted
1. STRAIGHT-IN AREA A 30NM arc takeoff. Arresting systems have various names; e.g.,
centered on the IF bounded by a straight line arresting gear, hook device, wire barrier cable.
extending through the IF perpendicular to the (See ABORT.)
intermediate course. (Refer to AIM.)
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rescue incident, including their predicted positions UNICOM frequency. Availability will be published
and their characteristics. in the Chart Supplement U.S. and approach charts.
(See FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 1064, INFLIGHT AUTOMATIC ALTITUDE REPORT
CONTINGENCIES.)
(See ALTITUDE READOUT.)
AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION (APD) AUTOMATIC ALTITUDE REPORTING That
An Automation Processing capability that compares function of a transponder which responds to Mode C
trajectories in order to predict conflicts. interrogations by transmitting the aircrafts altitude
AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION in 100-foot increments.
BOUNDARY (APB) The adapted distance beyond AUTOMATIC CARRIER LANDING SYSTEM
a facilities boundary defining the airspace within U.S. Navy final approach equipment consisting of
which EDST performs conflict detection. precision tracking radar coupled to a computer data
(See EN ROUTE DECISION SUPPORT TOOL.) link to provide continuous information to the aircraft,
monitoring capability to the pilot, and a backup
AUTOMATED PROBLEM DETECTION IN-
approach system.
HIBITED AREA (APDIA) Airspace surrounding a
terminal area within which APD is inhibited for all AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE
flights within that airspace. (ADS) [ICAO] A surveillance technique in which
aircraft automatically provide, via a data link, data
AUTOMATED RADAR TERMINAL SYSTEMS derived from onboard navigation and position
(ARTS) A generic term for several tracking systems fixing systems, including aircraft identification, four
included in the Terminal Automation Systems (TAS). dimensional position and additional data as
ARTS plus a suffix roman numeral denotes a major appropriate.
modification to that system.
AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE
a. ARTS IIIA. The Radar Tracking and Beacon
BROADCAST (ADS-B) A surveillance system in
Tracking Level (RT&BTL) of the modular,
which an aircraft or vehicle to be detected is fitted
programmable automated radar terminal system.
with cooperative equipment in the form of a data link
ARTS IIIA detects, tracks, and predicts primary as
transmitter. The aircraft or vehicle periodically
well as secondary radar-derived aircraft targets. This
broadcasts its GPSderived position and other
more sophisticated computer-driven system up-
information such as velocity over the data link, which
grades the existing ARTS III system by providing
is received by a groundbased transmitter/receiver
improved tracking, continuous data recording, and
(transceiver) for processing and display at an air
fail-soft capabilities.
traffic control facility.
b. Common ARTS. Includes ARTS IIE, ARTS (See GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM.)
IIIE; and ARTS IIIE with ACD (see DTAS) which (See GROUNDBASED TRANSCEIVER.)
combines functionalities of the previous ARTS
systems. AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE
CONTRACT (ADSC) A data link position
AUTOMATED WEATHER SYSTEM Any of the reporting system, controlled by a ground station, that
automated weather sensor platforms that collect establishes contracts with an aircrafts avionics that
weather data at airports and disseminate the weather occur automatically whenever specific events occur,
information via radio and/or landline. The systems or specific time intervals are reached.
currently consist of the Automated Surface Observ-
ing System (ASOS), Automated Weather Sensor AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE-
System (AWSS) and Automated Weather Observa- REBROADCAST (ADS-R) is a datalink translation
tion System (AWOS). function of the ADSB ground system required to
accommodate the two separate operating frequencies
AUTOMATED UNICOM Provides completely (978 MHz and 1090 ES). The ADSB system
automated weather, radio check capability and airport receives the ADSB messages transmitted on one
advisory information on an Automated UNICOM frequency and ADSR translates and reformats the
system. These systems offer a variety of features, information for rebroadcast and use on the other
typically selectable by microphone clicks, on the frequency. This allows ADSB In equipped aircraft
PCG A15
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to see nearby ADSB Out traffic regardless of the Left approach in use, Runway Two Five Right closed,
operating link of the other aircraft. Aircraft operating advise you have Alfa.
on the same ADSB frequency exchange information (See ICAO term AUTOMATIC TERMINAL
directly and do not require the ADSR translation INFORMATION SERVICE.)
function. (Refer to AIM.)
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER An aircraft SERVICE [ICAO] The provision of current, routine
radio navigation system which senses and indicates information to arriving and departing aircraft by
the direction to a L/MF nondirectional radio beacon means of continuous and repetitive broadcasts
(NDB) ground transmitter. Direction is indicated to throughout the day or a specified portion of the day.
the pilot as a magnetic bearing or as a relative bearing
to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft depending on AUTOROTATION A rotorcraft flight condition in
the type of indicator installed in the aircraft. In certain which the lifting rotor is driven entirely by action of
applications, such as military, ADF operations may the air when the rotorcraft is in motion.
be based on airborne and ground transmitters in the a. Autorotative Landing/Touchdown Autorota-
VHF/UHF frequency spectrum. tion. Used by a pilot to indicate that the landing will
(See BEARING.) be made without applying power to the rotor.
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) b. Low Level Autorotation. Commences at an
altitude well below the traffic pattern, usually below
100 feet AGL and is used primarily for tactical
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT INFORMATION
military training.
SERVICE (AFIS) ALASKA FSSs ONLY The
continuous broadcast of recorded noncontrol c. 180 degrees Autorotation. Initiated from a
information at airports in Alaska where a FSS downwind heading and is commenced well inside the
provides local airport advisory service. The AFIS normal traffic pattern. Go around may not be
broadcast automates the repetitive transmission of possible during the latter part of this maneuver.
essential but routine information such as weather, AVAILABLE LANDING DISTANCE (ALD) The
wind, altimeter, favored runway, breaking action, portion of a runway available for landing and roll-out
airport NOTAMs, and other applicable information. for aircraft cleared for LAHSO. This distance is
The information is continuously broadcast over a measured from the landing threshold to the
discrete VHF radio frequency (usually the ASOS/ hold-short point.
AWSS/AWOS frequency.)
AVIATION WEATHER SERVICE A service
provided by the National Weather Service (NWS) and
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION
FAA which collects and disseminates pertinent
SERVICE The continuous broadcast of recorded
weather information for pilots, aircraft operators, and
noncontrol information in selected terminal areas. Its
ATC. Available aviation weather reports and
purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to
forecasts are displayed at each NWS office and FAA
relieve frequency congestion by automating the
FSS.
repetitive transmission of essential but routine
(See TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST.)
information; e.g., Los Angeles information Alfa.
(See WEATHER ADVISORY.)
One three zero zero Coordinated Universal Time.
Weather, measured ceiling two thousand overcast, (Refer to AIM.)
visibility three, haze, smoke, temperature seven one, AWW
dew point five seven, wind two five zero at five, (See SEVERE WEATHER FORECAST
altimeter two niner niner six. I-L-S Runway Two Five ALERTS.)
PCG A16
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B
BACK-TAXI A term used by air traffic controllers BLIND VELOCITY [ICAO] The radial velocity of
to taxi an aircraft on the runway opposite to the traffic a moving target such that the target is not seen on
flow. The aircraft may be instructed to back-taxi to primary radars fitted with certain forms of fixed echo
the beginning of the runway or at some point before suppression.
reaching the runway end for the purpose of departure
BLIND ZONE
or to exit the runway.
(See BLIND SPOT.)
BASE LEG BLOCKED Phraseology used to indicate that a
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) radio transmission has been distorted or interrupted
BEACON due to multiple simultaneous radio transmissions.
(See AERONAUTICAL BEACON.) BOTTOM ALTITUDE In reference to published
(See AIRPORT ROTATING BEACON.) altitude restrictions on a STAR or STAR runway
(See AIRWAY BEACON.) transition, the lowest altitude authorized.
(See MARKER BEACON.) BOUNDARY LIGHTS
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
(See RADAR.)
BRAKING ACTION (GOOD, MEDIUM, POOR,
BEARING The horizontal direction to or from any OR NIL) A report of conditions on the airport
point, usually measured clockwise from true north, movement area providing a pilot with a degree/qual-
magnetic north, or some other reference point ity of braking that he/she might expect. Braking
through 360 degrees. action is reported in terms of good, fair, poor, or nil.
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) Effective October 1, 2016, Braking Action will be
categorized in the following terms: Good, Good to
BELOW MINIMUMS Weather conditions below Medium, Medium, Medium to Poor, Poor, and Nil.
the minimums prescribed by regulation for the (See RUNWAY CONDITION READING.)
particular action involved; e.g., landing minimums,
takeoff minimums. BRAKING ACTION ADVISORIES When tower
controllers have received runway braking action
BLAST FENCE A barrier that is used to divert or reports which include the terms fair, poor, or
dissipate jet or propeller blast. nil, or whenever weather conditions are conducive
to deteriorating or rapidly changing runway braking
BLAST PAD A surface adjacent to the ends of a
conditions, the tower will include on the ATIS
runway provided to reduce the erosive effect of jet
broadcast the statement, Braking action advisories
blast and propeller wash.
are in effect on the ATIS broadcast. During the time
BLIND SPEED The rate of departure or closing of braking action advisories are in effect, ATC will issue
a target relative to the radar antenna at which the latest braking action report for the runway in use
cancellation of the primary radar target by moving to each arriving and departing aircraft. Pilots should
target indicator (MTI) circuits in the radar equipment be prepared for deteriorating braking conditions and
causes a reduction or complete loss of signal. should request current runway condition information
(See ICAO term BLIND VELOCITY.) if not volunteered by controllers. Pilots should also
be prepared to provide a descriptive runway
BLIND SPOT An area from which radio condition report to controllers after landing.
transmissions and/or radar echoes cannot be Effective October 1, 2016, the term fair will be
received. The term is also used to describe portions replaced with medium.
of the airport not visible from the control tower.
BREAKOUT A technique to direct aircraft out of
BLIND TRANSMISSION the approach stream. In the context of simultaneous
(See TRANSMITTING IN THE BLIND.) (independent) parallel operations, a breakout is used
PCG B1
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to direct threatened aircraft away from a deviating BROADCAST [ICAO] A transmission of informa-
aircraft. tion relating to air navigation that is not addressed to
a specific station or stations.
BROADCAST Transmission of information for
which an acknowledgement is not expected. BUFFER AREA As applied to an MVA or MIA
(See ICAO term BROADCAST.) chart, a depicted three (3) or five (5) NM radius
MVA/MIA sector isolating a displayed obstacle for
which the sector is established. A portion of a buffer
area can also be inclusive of a MVA/MIA sector
polygon boundary.
PCG B2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
C
CALCULATED LANDING TIME A term that may CENRAP-PLUS
be used in place of tentative or actual calculated (See CENTER RADAR ARTS
landing time, whichever applies. PRESENTATION/PROCESSING- PLUS.)
CALL FOR RELEASE Wherein the overlying CENTER
ARTCC requires a terminal facility to initiate verbal (See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
coordination to secure ARTCC approval for release CENTER.)
of a departure into the en route environment. CENTERS AREA The specified airspace within
CALL UP Initial voice contact between a facility which an air route traffic control center (ARTCC)
and an aircraft, using the identification of the unit provides air traffic control and advisory service.
being called and the unit initiating the call. (See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
CENTER.)
(Refer to AIM.)
(Refer to AIM.)
CANADIAN MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFOR-
CENTER RADAR ARTS PRESENTATION/
MANCE SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE That
PROCESSING A computer program developed to
portion of Canadian domestic airspace within which
provide a back-up system for airport surveillance
MNPS separation may be applied.
radar in the event of a failure or malfunction. The
CARDINAL ALTITUDES Odd or Even program uses air route traffic control center radar for
thousand-foot altitudes or flight levels; e.g., 5,000, the processing and presentation of data on the ARTS
6,000, 7,000, FL 250, FL 260, FL 270. IIA or IIIA displays.
(See ALTITUDE.) CENTER RADAR ARTS PRESENTATION/
(See FLIGHT LEVEL.) PROCESSING-PLUS A computer program
CARDINAL FLIGHT LEVELS developed to provide a back-up system for airport
(See CARDINAL ALTITUDES.) surveillance radar in the event of a terminal secondary
radar system failure. The program uses a combination
CAT of Air Route Traffic Control Center Radar and
(See CLEAR-AIR TURBULENCE.) terminal airport surveillance radar primary targets
CATCH POINT A fix/waypoint that serves as a displayed simultaneously for the processing and
transition point from the high altitude waypoint presentation of data on the ARTS IIA or IIIA
navigation structure to an arrival procedure (STAR) displays.
or the low altitude groundbased navigation CENTER TRACON AUTOMATION SYSTEM
structure. (CTAS) A computerized set of programs designed
to aid Air Route Traffic Control Centers and
CEILING The heights above the earths surface of
TRACONs in the management and control of air
the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena
traffic.
that is reported as broken, overcast, or
obscuration, and not classified as thin or CENTER WEATHER ADVISORY An unsched-
partial. uled weather advisory issued by Center Weather
(See ICAO term CEILING.) Service Unit meteorologists for ATC use to alert
pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather
CEILING [ICAO] The height above the ground or conditions within the next 2 hours. A CWA may
water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below modify or redefine a SIGMET.
6,000 meters (20,000 feet) covering more than half
(See AWW.)
the sky.
(See AIRMET.)
CENRAP (See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
(See CENTER RADAR ARTS (See SIGMET.)
PRESENTATION/PROCESSING.) (Refer to AIM.)
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CENTRAL EAST PACIFIC An organized route runway for landing when a straight-in landing from
system between the U.S. West Coast and Hawaii. an instrument approach is not possible or is not
desirable. At tower controlled airports, this maneuver
CEP
is made only after ATC authorization has been
(See CENTRAL EAST PACIFIC.)
obtained and the pilot has established required visual
CERAP reference to the airport.
(See COMBINED CENTER-RAPCON.) (See CIRCLE TO RUNWAY.)
CERTIFIED TOWER RADAR DISPLAY (CTRD) (See LANDING MINIMUMS.)
A FAA radar display certified for use in the NAS. (Refer to AIM.)
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associated with wind shear. CAT is often encountered aircraft will be cleared for a specific instrument
in the vicinity of the jet stream. approach procedure.
(See WIND SHEAR.) (See CLEARED (Type of) APPROACH.)
(See JET STREAM.) (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
PROCEDURE.)
CLEAR OF THE RUNWAY (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(Refer to AIM.)
a. Taxiing aircraft, which is approaching a
runway, is clear of the runway when all parts of the CLEARED (Type of) APPROACH ATC authoriza-
aircraft are held short of the applicable runway tion for an aircraft to execute a specific instrument
holding position marking. approach procedure to an airport; e.g., Cleared ILS
b. A pilot or controller may consider an aircraft, Runway Three Six Approach.
which is exiting or crossing a runway, to be clear of (See APPROACH CLEARANCE.)
the runway when all parts of the aircraft are beyond (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
the runway edge and there are no restrictions to its PROCEDURE.)
continued movement beyond the applicable runway (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
holding position marking. (Refer to AIM.)
c. Pilots and controllers shall exercise good CLEARED AS FILED Means the aircraft is cleared
judgement to ensure that adequate separation exists to proceed in accordance with the route of flight filed
between all aircraft on runways and taxiways at in the flight plan. This clearance does not include the
airports with inadequate runway edge lines or altitude, DP, or DP Transition.
holding position markings. (See REQUEST FULL ROUTE CLEARANCE.)
(Refer to AIM.)
CLEARANCE
CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF ATC authorization
(See AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCE.) for an aircraft to depart. It is predicated on known
traffic and known physical airport conditions.
CLEARANCE LIMIT The fix, point, or location to
which an aircraft is cleared when issued an air traffic CLEARED FOR THE OPTION ATC authoriza-
clearance. tion for an aircraft to make a touch-and-go, low
(See ICAO term CLEARANCE LIMIT.) approach, missed approach, stop and go, or full stop
landing at the discretion of the pilot. It is normally
CLEARANCE LIMIT [ICAO] The point to which used in training so that an instructor can evaluate a
an aircraft is granted an air traffic control clearance. students performance under changing situations.
Pilots should advise ATC if they decide to remain on
CLEARANCE VOID IF NOT OFF BY (TIME) the runway, of any delay in their stop and go, delay
Used by ATC to advise an aircraft that the departure clearing the runway, or are unable to comply with the
clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff is not instruction(s).
made prior to a specified time. The pilot must obtain (See OPTION APPROACH.)
a new clearance or cancel his/her IFR flight plan if not (Refer to AIM.)
off by the specified time.
(See ICAO term CLEARANCE VOID TIME.) CLEARED THROUGH ATC authorization for an
aircraft to make intermediate stops at specified
CLEARANCE VOID TIME [ICAO] A time airports without refiling a flight plan while en route
specified by an air traffic control unit at which a to the clearance limit.
clearance ceases to be valid unless the aircraft CLEARED TO LAND ATC authorization for an
concerned has already taken action to comply aircraft to land. It is predicated on known traffic and
therewith. known physical airport conditions.
CLEARED APPROACH ATC authorization for an CLEARWAY An area beyond the takeoff runway
aircraft to execute any standard or special instrument under the control of airport authorities within which
approach procedure for that airport. Normally, an terrain or fixed obstacles may not extend above
PCG C3
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12/10/15
specified limits. These areas may be required for by precipitation, chaff, terrain, numerous aircraft
certain turbine-powered operations and the size and targets, or other phenomena. Such returns may limit
upward slope of the clearway will differ depending on or preclude ATC from providing services based on
when the aircraft was certificated. radar.
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 1.) (See CHAFF.)
(See GROUND CLUTTER.)
CLIMB TO VFR ATC authorization for an aircraft
(See PRECIPITATION.)
to climb to VFR conditions within Class B, C, D, and
(See TARGET.)
E surface areas when the only weather limitation is
(See ICAO term RADAR CLUTTER.)
restricted visibility. The aircraft must remain clear of
clouds while climbing to VFR. CMNPS
(See SPECIAL VFR CONDITIONS.) (See CANADIAN MINIMUM NAVIGATION
(Refer to AIM.) PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE.)
CLIMBOUT That portion of flight operation COASTAL FIX A navigation aid or intersection
between takeoff and the initial cruising altitude. where an aircraft transitions between the domestic
route structure and the oceanic route structure.
CLIMB VIA An abbreviated ATC clearance that
requires compliance with the procedure lateral path, CODES The number assigned to a particular
associated speed restrictions, and altitude restrictions multiple pulse reply signal transmitted by a
along the cleared route or procedure. transponder.
(See DISCRETE CODE.)
CLOSE PARALLEL RUNWAYS Two parallel
runways whose extended centerlines are separated by COLD TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION An
less than 4,300 feet and at least 3000 feet (750 feet for action on the part of the pilot to adjust an aircrafts
SOIA operations) that are authorized to conduct indicated altitude due to the effect of cold
simultaneous independent approach operations. temperatures on true altitude above terrain versus
PRM and simultaneous close parallel appear in aircraft indicated altitude. The amount of
approach title. Dual communications, special pilot compensation required increases at a greater rate with
training, an Attention All Users Page (AAUP), NTZ a decrease in temperature and increase in height
monitoring by displays that have aural and visual above the reporting station.
alerting algorithms are required. A high update rate COLLABORATIVE TRAJECTORY OPTIONS
surveillance sensor is required for certain runway or PROGRAM (CTOP)- CTOP is a traffic management
approach course spacing. program administered by the Air Traffic Control
CLOSED RUNWAY A runway that is unusable for System Command Center (ATCSCC) that manages
aircraft operations. Only the airport management/ demand through constrained airspace, while consid-
military operations office can close a runway. ering operator preference with regard to both route
and delay as defined in a Trajectory Options Set
CLOSED TRAFFIC Successive operations involv- (TOS).
ing takeoffs and landings or low approaches where
COMBINED CENTER-RAPCON An air traffic
the aircraft does not exit the traffic pattern.
facility which combines the functions of an ARTCC
CLOUD A cloud is a visible accumulation of and a radar approach control facility.
minute water droplets and/or ice particles in the (See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
atmosphere above the Earths surface. Cloud differs CENTER.)
from ground fog, fog, or ice fog only in that the latter (See RADAR APPROACH CONTROL
are, by definition, in contact with the Earths surface. FACILITY.)
PCG C4
11/10/16
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point not originally in the aircrafts flight plan and with all altitude and/or speed restrictions depicted on
then clear the aircraft to fly over the point. the procedure. This term may be used in lieu of
(See SIGNIFICANT POINT.) repeating each remaining restriction that appears on
the procedure.
COMMON PORTION
(See COMMON ROUTE.) COMPOSITE FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan which
specifies VFR operation for one portion of flight and
COMMON ROUTE That segment of a North IFR for another portion. It is used primarily in
American Route between the inland navigation military operations.
facility and the coastal fix.
(Refer to AIM.)
OR COMPOSITE ROUTE SYSTEM An organized
COMMON ROUTE Typically the portion of a oceanic route structure, incorporating reduced lateral
RNAV STAR between the en route transition end spacing between routes, in which composite
point and the runway transition start point; however, separation is authorized.
the common route may only consist of a single point COMPOSITE SEPARATION A method of separat-
that joins the en route and runway transitions. ing aircraft in a composite route system where, by
COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY FREQUENCY management of route and altitude assignments, a
(CTAF) A frequency designed for the purpose of combination of half the lateral minimum specified for
carrying out airport advisory practices while the area concerned and half the vertical minimum is
operating to or from an airport without an operating applied.
control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, COMPULSORY REPORTING POINTS Reporting
Multicom, FSS, or tower frequency and is identified points which must be reported to ATC. They are
in appropriate aeronautical publications. designated on aeronautical charts by solid triangles or
(See DESIGNATED COMMON TRAFFIC filed in a flight plan as fixes selected to define direct
ADVISORY FREQUENCY (CTAF) AREA.) routes. These points are geographical locations
(Refer to AC 90-42, Traffic Advisory Practices at which are defined by navigation aids/fixes. Pilots
Airports Without Operating Control Towers.) should discontinue position reporting over compul-
COMPASS LOCATOR A low power, low or sory reporting points when informed by ATC that
medium frequency (L/MF) radio beacon installed at their aircraft is in radar contact.
the site of the outer or middle marker of an instrument CONDITIONS NOT MONITOREDWhen an
landing system (ILS). It can be used for navigation at airport operator cannot monitor the condition of the
distances of approximately 15 miles or as authorized movement area or airfield surface area, this
in the approach procedure. information is issued as a NOTAM. Usually
a. Outer Compass Locator (LOM) A compass necessitated due to staffing, operating hours or other
locator installed at the site of the outer marker of an mitigating factors associated with airport operations.
instrument landing system.
CONFIDENCE MANEUVER A confidence man-
(See OUTER MARKER.) euver consists of one or more turns, a climb or
b. Middle Compass Locator (LMM) A compass descent, or other maneuver to determine if the pilot
locator installed at the site of the middle marker of an in command (PIC) is able to receive and comply with
instrument landing system. ATC instructions.
(See MIDDLE MARKER.)
CONFLICT ALERT A function of certain air traffic
(See ICAO term LOCATOR.)
control automated systems designed to alert radar
COMPASS ROSE A circle, graduated in degrees, controllers to existing or pending situations between
printed on some charts or marked on the ground at an tracked targets (known IFR or VFR aircraft) that
airport. It is used as a reference to either true or require his/her immediate attention/action.
magnetic direction. (See MODE C INTRUDER ALERT.)
COMPLY WITH RESTRICTIONS An ATC CONFLICT RESOLUTION The resolution of
instruction that requires an aircraft being vectored potential conflictions between aircraft that are radar
back onto an arrival or departure procedure to comply identified and in communication with ATC by
PCG C5
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
12/10/15
ensuring that radar targets do not touch. Pertinent nated with respect to rubber deposits or other
traffic advisories shall be issued when this procedure friction-degrading substances when the average
is applied. friction value for any 500-foot segment of the runway
Note: This procedure shall not be provided utilizing within the ALD fails below the recommended
mosaic radar systems. minimum friction level and the average friction value
in the adjacent 500-foot segments falls below the
CONFORMANCE The condition established when maintenance planning friction level.
an aircrafts actual position is within the conformance
region constructed around that aircraft at its position, CONTERMINOUS U.S. The 48 adjoining States
according to the trajectory associated with the and the District of Columbia.
aircrafts Current Plan. CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES The 49 States
located on the continent of North America and the
CONFORMANCE REGION A volume, bounded
District of Columbia.
laterally, vertically, and longitudinally, within which
an aircraft must be at a given time in order to be in CONTINUE When used as a control instruction
conformance with the Current Plan Trajectory for that should be followed by another word or words
aircraft. At a given time, the conformance region is clarifying what is expected of the pilot. Example:
determined by the simultaneous application of the continue taxi, continue descent, continue
lateral, vertical, and longitudinal conformance inbound, etc.
bounds for the aircraft at the position defined by time CONTROL AREA [ICAO] A controlled airspace
and aircrafts trajectory. extending upwards from a specified limit above the
CONSOLAN A low frequency, long-distance earth.
NAVAID used principally for transoceanic naviga- CONTROL SECTOR An airspace area of defined
tions. horizontal and vertical dimensions for which a
CONTACT controller or group of controllers has air traffic
control responsibility, normally within an air route
a. Establish communication with (followed by the traffic control center or an approach control facility.
name of the facility and, if appropriate, the frequency Sectors are established based on predominant traffic
to be used). flows, altitude strata, and controller workload.
b. A flight condition wherein the pilot ascertains Pilot-communications during operations within a
the attitude of his/her aircraft and navigates by visual sector are normally maintained on discrete frequen-
reference to the surface. cies assigned to the sector.
(See CONTACT APPROACH.) (See DISCRETE FREQUENCY.)
(See RADAR CONTACT.) CONTROL SLASH A radar beacon slash repre-
CONTACT APPROACH An approach wherein an senting the actual position of the associated aircraft.
aircraft on an IFR flight plan, having an air traffic Normally, the control slash is the one closest to the
control authorization, operating clear of clouds with interrogating radar beacon site. When ARTCC radar
at least 1 mile flight visibility and a reasonable is operating in narrowband (digitized) mode, the
expectation of continuing to the destination airport in control slash is converted to a target symbol.
those conditions, may deviate from the instrument CONTROLLED AIRSPACE An airspace of
approach procedure and proceed to the destination defined dimensions within which air traffic control
airport by visual reference to the surface. This service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights
approach will only be authorized when requested by in accordance with the airspace classification.
the pilot and the reported ground visibility at the a. Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers
destination airport is at least 1 statute mile. Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E
(Refer to AIM.) airspace.
CONTAMINATED RUNWAY A runway is b. Controlled airspace is also that airspace within
considered contaminated whenever standing water, which all aircraft operators are subject to certain pilot
ice, snow, slush, frost in any form, heavy rubber, or qualifications, operating rules, and equipment
other substances are present. A runway is contami- requirements in 14 CFR Part 91 (for specific
PCG C6
11/10/16
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operating requirements, please refer to 14 CFR 4. CLASS D Generally, that airspace from the
Part 91). For IFR operations in any class of controlled surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation
airspace, a pilot must file an IFR flight plan and (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that
receive an appropriate ATC clearance. Each Class B, have an operational control tower. The configuration
Class C, and Class D airspace area designated for an of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored
airport contains at least one primary airport around and when instrument procedures are published, the
which the airspace is designated (for specific airspace will normally be designed to contain the
designations and descriptions of the airspace classes, procedures. Arrival extensions for instrument
please refer to 14 CFR Part 71). approach procedures may be Class D or Class E
c. Controlled airspace in the United States is airspace. Unless otherwise authorized, each person
designated as follows: must establish two-way radio communications with
the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to
1. CLASS A Generally, that airspace from
entering the airspace and thereafter maintain those
18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,
communications while in the airspace. No separation
including the airspace overlying the waters within 12
services are provided to VFR aircraft.
nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States
and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all persons 5. CLASS E Generally, if the airspace is not
must operate their aircraft under IFR. Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is
controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace. Class E
2. CLASS B Generally, that airspace from the
airspace extends upward from either the surface or a
surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nations
designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent
busiest airports in terms of airport operations or
controlled airspace. When designated as a surface
passenger enplanements. The configuration of each
area, the airspace will be configured to contain all
Class B airspace area is individually tailored and
instrument procedures. Also in this class are Federal
consists of a surface area and two or more layers
airways, airspace beginning at either 700 or 1,200
(some Class B airspaces areas resemble upside-down
feet AGL used to transition to/from the terminal or en
wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all
route environment, en route domestic, and offshore
published instrument procedures once an aircraft
airspace areas designated below 18,000 feet MSL.
enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for
Unless designated at a lower altitude, Class E
all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that
airspace begins at 14,500 MSL over the United
are so cleared receive separation services within the
States, including that airspace overlying the waters
airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR
within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48
operations is clear of clouds.
contiguous States and Alaska, up to, but not
3. CLASS C Generally, that airspace from the including 18,000 feet MSL, and the airspace above
surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation FL 600.
(charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that
have an operational control tower, are serviced by a CONTROLLED AIRSPACE [ICAO] An airspace
radar approach control, and that have a certain of defined dimensions within which air traffic control
number of IFR operations or passenger enplane- service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights
ments. Although the configuration of each Class C in accordance with the airspace classification.
area is individually tailored, the airspace usually Note: Controlled airspace is a generic term which
consists of a surface area with a 5 nautical mile (NM) covers ATS airspace Classes A, B, C, D, and E.
radius, a circle with a 10NM radius that extends no
lower than 1,200 feet up to 4,000 feet above the CONTROLLED TIME OF ARRIVAL Arrival time
airport elevation and an outer area that is not charted. assigned during a Traffic Management Program. This
Each person must establish two-way radio commu- time may be modified due to adjustments or user
nications with the ATC facility providing air traffic options.
services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter CONTROLLER
maintain those communications while within the
(See AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SPECIALIST.)
airspace. VFR aircraft are only separated from IFR
aircraft within the airspace. CONTROLLER [ICAO] A person authorized to
(See OUTER AREA.) provide air traffic control services.
PCG C7
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
12/10/15
CONTROLLER PILOT DATA LINK Coupled instrument approaches are commonly flown
COMMUNICATIONS (CPDLC) A twoway to the allowable IFR weather minima established by
digital communications system that conveys textual the operator or PIC, or flown VFR for training and
air traffic control messages between controllers and safety.
pilots using ground or satellite-based radio relay
stations. COURSE
a. The intended direction of flight in the horizontal
CONVECTIVE SIGMET A weather advisory plane measured in degrees from north.
concerning convective weather significant to the
b. The ILS localizer signal pattern usually
safety of all aircraft. Convective SIGMETs are issued
specified as the front course or the back course.
for tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, embedded
(See BEARING.)
thunderstorms of any intensity level, areas of
thunderstorms greater than or equal to VIP level 4 (See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
with an area coverage of 4/10 (40%) or more, and hail (See RADIAL.)
3/ inch or greater.
4 CPDLC
(See AIRMET.) (See CONTROLLER PILOT DATA LINK
(See AWW.) COMMUNICATIONS.)
(See CWA.)
CPL [ICAO]
(See SIGMET.)
(See ICAO term CURRENT FLIGHT PLAN.)
(Refer to AIM.)
CRITICAL ENGINE The engine which, upon
CONVECTIVE SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOG-
failure, would most adversely affect the performance
ICAL INFORMATION
or handling qualities of an aircraft.
(See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
CROSS (FIX) AT (ALTITUDE) Used by ATC
COORDINATES The intersection of lines of when a specific altitude restriction at a specified fix
reference, usually expressed in degrees/minutes/ is required.
seconds of latitude and longitude, used to determine
position or location. CROSS (FIX) AT OR ABOVE (ALTITUDE) Used
by ATC when an altitude restriction at a specified fix
COORDINATION FIX The fix in relation to which is required. It does not prohibit the aircraft from
facilities will handoff, transfer control of an aircraft, crossing the fix at a higher altitude than specified;
or coordinate flight progress data. For terminal however, the higher altitude may not be one that will
facilities, it may also serve as a clearance for arriving violate a succeeding altitude restriction or altitude
aircraft. assignment.
COPTER (See ALTITUDE RESTRICTION.)
(See HELICOPTER.) (Refer to AIM.)
CROSS (FIX) AT OR BELOW (ALTITUDE)
CORRECTION An error has been made in the
Used by ATC when a maximum crossing altitude at
transmission and the correct version follows.
a specific fix is required. It does not prohibit the
COUPLED APPROACH An instrument approach aircraft from crossing the fix at a lower altitude;
performed by the aircraft autopilot, and/or visually however, it must be at or above the minimum IFR
depicted on the flight director, which is receiving altitude.
position information and/or steering commands from (See ALTITUDE RESTRICTION.)
onboard navigational equipment. In general, coupled (See MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDES.)
non-precision approaches must be flown manually (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(autopilot disengaged) at altitudes lower than 50 feet
AGL below the minimum descent altitude, and CROSSWIND
coupled precision approaches must be flown a. When used concerning the traffic pattern, the
manually (autopilot disengaged) below 50 feet AGL word means crosswind leg.
unless authorized to conduct autoland operations. (See TRAFFIC PATTERN.)
PCG C8
11/10/16
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
b. When used concerning wind conditions, the constant altitude and should not be confused with a
word means a wind not parallel to the runway or the cruise clearance.
path of an aircraft. (See ALTITUDE.)
(See CROSSWIND COMPONENT.) (See ICAO term CRUISING LEVEL.)
PCG C9
11/10/16
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
D
D-ATIS 3. The required visual reference means that section of
(See DIGITAL-AUTOMATIC TERMINAL the visual aids or of the approach area which should
INFORMATION SERVICE.) have been in view for sufficient time for the pilot to
have made an assessment of the aircraft position and
DATIS [ICAO]* rate of change of position, in relation to the desired
(See ICAO Term DATA LINK AUTOMATIC flight path.
TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE.) Decision altitude (DA) - A specified altitude (mean
DA [ICAO] sea level (MSL)) on an instrument approach
(See ICAO Term DECISION procedure (ILS, GLS, vertically guided RNAV) at
ALTITUDE/DECISION HEIGHT.) which the pilot must decide whether to continue the
approach or initiate an immediate missed approach if
DAIR the pilot does not see the required visual references.
(See DIRECT ALTITUDE AND IDENTITY
READOUT.) DECISION HEIGHT With respect to the operation
of aircraft, means the height at which a decision must
DANGER AREA [ICAO] An airspace of defined
be made during an ILS or PAR instrument approach
dimensions within which activities dangerous to the
to either continue the approach or to execute a missed
flight of aircraft may exist at specified times.
approach.
Note: The term Danger Area is not used in
(See ICAO term DECISION
reference to areas within the United States or any
ALTITUDE/DECISION HEIGHT.)
of its possessions or territories.
DECODER The device used to decipher signals
DAS received from ATCRBS transponders to effect their
(See DELAY ASSIGNMENT.) display as select codes.
DATA BLOCK (See CODES.)
(See ALPHANUMERIC DISPLAY.) (See RADAR.)
DATA LINK AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFOR- DEFENSE AREA- Any airspace of the contiguous
MATION SERVICE (DATIS) [ICAO] The United States that is not an ADIZ in which the control
provision of ATIS via data link. of aircraft is required for reasons of national security.
DEAD RECKONING Dead reckoning, as applied DEFENSE VISUAL FLIGHT RULES Rules
to flying, is the navigation of an airplane solely by applicable to flights within an ADIZ conducted under
means of computations based on airspeed, course, the visual flight rules in 14 CFR Part 91.
heading, wind direction, and speed, groundspeed, (See AIR DEFENSE IDENTIFICATION ZONE.)
and elapsed time. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
DECISION ALTITUDE/DECISION HEIGHT (Refer to 14 CFR Part 99.)
[ICAO Annex 6]- A specified altitude or height (A/H) DELAY ASSIGNMENT (DAS) Delays are distrib-
in the precision approach at which a missed approach uted to aircraft based on the traffic management
must be initiated if the required visual reference to program parameters. The delay assignment is
continue the approach has not been established. calculated in 15minute increments and appears as a
1. Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea table in Traffic Flow Management System (TFMS).
level and decision height (DH) is referenced to the
threshold elevation. DELAY INDEFINITE (REASON IF KNOWN)
2. Category II and III minima are expressed as a DH EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME) Used
and not a DA. Minima is assessed by reference to a by ATC to inform a pilot when an accurate estimate
radio altimeter and not a barometric altimeter, which of the delay time and the reason for the delay cannot
makes the minima a DH. immediately be determined; e.g., a disabled aircraft
PCG D1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
12/10/15
on the runway, terminal or center area saturation, DESIRED TRACK The planned or intended track
weather below landing minimums, etc. between two waypoints. It is measured in degrees
(See EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME).) from either magnetic or true north. The instantaneous
angle may change from point to point along the great
DELAY TIME The amount of time that the arrival circle track between waypoints.
must lose to cross the meter fix at the assigned meter
fix time. This is the difference between ACLT and DETRESFA (DISTRESS PHASE) [ICAO] The
VTA. code word used to designate an emergency phase
wherein there is reasonable certainty that an aircraft
DEPARTURE CENTER The ARTCC having and its occupants are threatened by grave and
jurisdiction for the airspace that generates a flight to imminent danger or require immediate assistance.
the impacted airport.
DEVIATIONS
DEPARTURE CONTROL A function of an a. A departure from a current clearance, such as an
approach control facility providing air traffic control off course maneuver to avoid weather or turbulence.
service for departing IFR and, under certain
b. Where specifically authorized in the CFRs and
conditions, VFR aircraft.
requested by the pilot, ATC may permit pilots to
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.)
deviate from certain regulations.
(Refer to AIM.)
DH
DEPARTURE SEQUENCING PROGRAM A (See DECISION HEIGHT.)
program designed to assist in achieving a specified
interval over a common point for departures. DH [ICAO]
(See ICAO Term DECISION ALTITUDE/
DEPARTURE TIME The time an aircraft becomes DECISION HEIGHT.)
airborne.
DIGITAL-AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMA-
DESCEND VIA An abbreviated ATC clearance that TION SERVICE (D-ATIS) The service provides
requires compliance with a published procedure text messages to aircraft, airlines, and other users
lateral path and associated speed restrictions and outside the standard reception range of conventional
provides a pilot-discretion descent to comply with ATIS via landline and data link communications to
published altitude restrictions. the cockpit. Also, the service provides a computer
synthesized voice message that can be transmitted to
DESCENT SPEED ADJUSTMENTS Speed decel- all aircraft within range of existing transmitters. The
eration calculations made to determine an accurate Terminal Data Link System (TDLS) D-ATIS
VTA. These calculations start at the transition point application uses weather inputs from local automated
and use arrival speed segments to the vertex. weather sources or manually entered meteorological
DESIGNATED COMMON TRAFFIC ADVISORY data together with preprogrammed menus to provide
FREQUENCY (CTAF) AREA- In Alaska, in standard information to users. Airports with D-ATIS
addition to being designated for the purpose of capability are listed in the Chart Supplement U.S.
carrying out airport advisory practices while DIGITAL TARGET A computergenerated symbol
operating to or from an airport without an operating representing an aircrafts position, based on a primary
airport traffic control tower, a CTAF may also be return or radar beacon reply, shown on a digital
designated for the purpose of carrying out advisory display.
practices for operations in and through areas with a
high volume of VFR traffic. DIGITAL TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEM
(DTAS) A system where digital radar and beacon
DESIRED COURSE data is presented on digital displays and the
a. True A predetermined desired course direction operational program monitors the system perfor-
to be followed (measured in degrees from true north). mance on a realtime basis.
b. Magnetic A predetermined desired course DIGITIZED TARGET A computergenerated
direction to be followed (measured in degrees from indication shown on an analog radar display resulting
local magnetic north). from a primary radar return or a radar beacon reply.
PCG D2
11/10/16
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DIRECT Straight line flight between two naviga- DISTRESS A condition of being threatened by
tional aids, fixes, points, or any combination thereof. serious and/or imminent danger and of requiring
When used by pilots in describing off-airway routes, immediate assistance.
points defining direct route segments become
DIVE BRAKES
compulsory reporting points unless the aircraft is
(See SPEED BRAKES.)
under radar contact.
DIVERSE VECTOR AREA In a radar environ-
DIRECTLY BEHIND An aircraft is considered to ment, that area in which a prescribed departure route
be operating directly behind when it is following the is not required as the only suitable route to avoid
actual flight path of the lead aircraft over the surface obstacles. The area in which random radar vectors
of the earth except when applying wake turbulence below the MVA/MIA, established in accordance with
separation criteria. the TERPS criteria for diverse departures, obstacles
and terrain avoidance, may be issued to departing
DISCRETE BEACON CODE
aircraft.
(See DISCRETE CODE.)
DIVERSION (DVRSN) Flights that are required to
DISCRETE CODE As used in the Air Traffic land at other than their original destination for
Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS), any one reasons beyond the control of the pilot/company, e.g.
of the 4096 selectable Mode 3/A aircraft transponder periods of significant weather.
codes except those ending in zero zero; e.g., discrete
DME
codes: 0010, 1201, 2317, 7777; nondiscrete codes:
(See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
0100, 1200, 7700. Nondiscrete codes are normally
reserved for radar facilities that are not equipped with DME FIX A geographical position determined by
discrete decoding capability and for other purposes reference to a navigational aid which provides
such as emergencies (7700), VFR aircraft (1200), etc. distance and azimuth information. It is defined by a
(See RADAR.) specific distance in nautical miles and a radial,
(Refer to AIM.) azimuth, or course (i.e., localizer) in degrees
magnetic from that aid.
DISCRETE FREQUENCY A separate radio (See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
frequency for use in direct pilot-controller commu- (See FIX.)
nications in air traffic control which reduces
DME SEPARATION Spacing of aircraft in terms of
frequency congestion by controlling the number of
distances (nautical miles) determined by reference to
aircraft operating on a particular frequency at one
distance measuring equipment (DME).
time. Discrete frequencies are normally designated
(See DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT.)
for each control sector in en route/terminal ATC
facilities. Discrete frequencies are listed in the Chart DOD FLIP Department of Defense Flight Informa-
Supplement U.S. and the DOD FLIP IFR En Route tion Publications used for flight planning, en route,
Supplement. and terminal operations. FLIP is produced by the
(See CONTROL SECTOR.) National GeospatialIntelligence Agency (NGA) for
world-wide use. United States Government Flight
DISPLACED THRESHOLD A threshold that is Information Publications (en route charts and
located at a point on the runway other than the instrument approach procedure charts) are incorpo-
designated beginning of the runway. rated in DOD FLIP for use in the National Airspace
(See THRESHOLD.) System (NAS).
(Refer to AIM.)
DOMESTIC AIRSPACE Airspace which overlies
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) the continental land mass of the United States plus
Equipment (airborne and ground) used to measure, in Hawaii and U.S. possessions. Domestic airspace
nautical miles, the slant range distance of an aircraft extends to 12 miles offshore.
from the DME navigational aid. DOWNBURST A strong downdraft which induces
(See TACAN.) an outburst of damaging winds on or near the ground.
(See VORTAC.) Damaging winds, either straight or curved, are highly
PCG D3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
12/10/15
divergent. The sizes of downbursts vary from 1/2 assumes responsibility to separate his/her aircraft
mile or less to more than 10 miles. An intense from all other aircraft.
downburst often causes widespread damage. Damag- (See also FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 121, WORD
ing winds, lasting 5 to 30 minutes, could reach speeds MEANINGS.)
as high as 120 knots.
DUTY RUNWAY
DOWNWIND LEG (See RUNWAY IN USE/ACTIVE RUNWAY/DUTY
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) RUNWAY.)
DP DVA
(See INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE.) (See DIVERSE VECTOR AREA.)
DRAG CHUTE A parachute device installed on
DVFR
certain aircraft which is deployed on landing roll to
assist in deceleration of the aircraft. (See DEFENSE VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
DROP ZONE Any pre-determined area upon which DVFR FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan filed for a VFR
parachutists or objects land after making an aircraft which intends to operate in airspace within
intentional parachute jump or drop. which the ready identification, location, and control
(Refer to 14 CFR 105.3, Definitions) of aircraft are required in the interest of national
security.
DSP
(See DEPARTURE SEQUENCING PROGRAM.) DVRSN
DT (See DIVERSION.)
(See DELAY TIME.) DYNAMIC Continuous review, evaluation, and
DTAS change to meet demands.
(See DIGITAL TERMINAL AUTOMATION DYNAMIC RESTRICTIONS Those restrictions
SYSTEM.)
imposed by the local facility on an as needed basis
DUE REGARD A phase of flight wherein an to manage unpredictable fluctuations in traffic
aircraft commander of a State-operated aircraft demands.
PCG D4
11/10/16
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
E
EAS EN ROUTE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SER-
(See EN ROUTE AUTOMATION SYSTEM.) VICES Air traffic control service provided aircraft
on IFR flight plans, generally by centers, when these
EDCT aircraft are operating between departure and
(See EXPECT DEPARTURE CLEARANCE destination terminal areas. When equipment, capa-
TIME.) bilities, and controller workload permit, certain
EDST advisory/assistance services may be provided to VFR
(See EN ROUTE DECISION SUPPORT TOOL)
aircraft.
(See AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL
EFC CENTER.)
(See EXPECT FURTHER CLEARANCE (TIME).) (Refer to AIM.)
EN ROUTE AUTOMATION SYSTEM (EAS) The
ELT
complex integrated environment consisting of
(See EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER.)
situation display systems, surveillance systems and
EMERGENCY A distress or an urgency condition. flight data processing, remote devices, decision
support tools, and the related communications
EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER A equipment that form the heart of the automated IFR
radio transmitter attached to the aircraft structure air traffic control system. It interfaces with automated
which operates from its own power source on terminal systems and is used in the control of en route
121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz. It aids in locating IFR aircraft.
downed aircraft by radiating a downward sweeping (Refer to AIM.)
audio tone, 2-4 times per second. It is designed to
EN ROUTE CHARTS
function without human action after an accident.
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(Refer to AIM.) EN ROUTE DECISION SUPPORT TOOL An
automated tool provided at each Radar Associate
E-MSAW position in selected En Route facilities. This tool
(See EN ROUTE MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE utilizes flight and radar data to determine present and
WARNING.) future trajectories for all active and proposal aircraft
and provides enhanced automated flight data
ENHANCED FLIGHT VISION SYSTEM (EFVS)
management.
An EFVS is an installed airborne system which uses
an electronic means to provide a display of the EN ROUTE DESCENT Descent from the en route
forward external scene topography (the applicable cruising altitude which takes place along the route of
natural or manmade features of a place or region flight.
especially in a way to show their relative positions EN ROUTE HIGH ALTITUDE CHARTS
and elevation) through the use of imaging sensors, (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
such as forward looking infrared, millimeter wave EN ROUTE LOW ALTITUDE CHARTS
radiometry, millimeter wave radar, and/or low light (See AERONAUTICAL CHART.)
level image intensifying. When flying an instrument
approach procedure (IAP), if the runway environ- EN ROUTE MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE WARN-
ment cannot be visually acquired at decision altitude ING A function of the EAS that aids the controller
(DA) or minimum descent altitude (MDA) using by providing an alert when a tracked aircraft is below
natural vision, then a pilot may use an EFVS to or predicted by the computer to go below a
continue descending down to 100 feet above the predetermined minimum IFR altitude (MIA).
Touchdown Zone Elevation (TDZE), provided all of EN ROUTE SPACING PROGRAM (ESP) A
the visibility requirements of 14 CFR part 91.175 (l) program designed to assist the exit sector in
are met. achieving the required in-trail spacing.
PCG E1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
12/10/15
PCG E2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
F
FAF flight which require special flight plan filing and
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.) handling techniques.
FAST FILE An FSS system whereby a pilot files a a. Terminal Area Delay. A delay within a terminal
flight plan via telephone that is recorded and later area for touch-and-go, low approach, or other
transcribed for transmission to the appropriate air terminal area activity.
traffic facility. (Alaska only.) b. Special Use Airspace Delay. A delay within a
Military Operations Area, Restricted Area, Warning
FAWP Final Approach Waypoint Area, or ATC Assigned Airspace.
FCLT c. Aerial Refueling Delay. A delay within an
(See FREEZE CALCULATED LANDING TIME.) Aerial Refueling Track or Anchor.
FEATHERED PROPELLER A propeller whose FILED FLIGHT PLAN The flight plan as filed with
blades have been rotated so that the leading and an ATS unit by the pilot or his/her designated
trailing edges are nearly parallel with the aircraft representative without any subsequent changes or
flight path to stop or minimize drag and engine clearances.
rotation. Normally used to indicate shutdown of a FINAL Commonly used to mean that an aircraft is
reciprocating or turboprop engine due to malfunc- on the final approach course or is aligned with a
tion. landing area.
FEDERAL AIRWAYS (See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.)
(See LOW ALTITUDE AIRWAY STRUCTURE.) (See FINAL APPROACH-IFR.)
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
FEEDER FIX The fix depicted on Instrument APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
Approach Procedure Charts which establishes the
starting point of the feeder route. FINAL APPROACH [ICAO] That part of an
instrument approach procedure which commences at
FEEDER ROUTE A route depicted on instrument the specified final approach fix or point, or where
approach procedure charts to designate routes for such a fix or point is not specified.
aircraft to proceed from the en route structure to the a. At the end of the last procedure turn, base turn
initial approach fix (IAF). or inbound turn of a racetrack procedure, if specified;
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH or
PROCEDURE.)
b. At the point of interception of the last track
FERRY FLIGHT A flight for the purpose of: specified in the approach procedure; and ends at a
a. Returning an aircraft to base. point in the vicinity of an aerodrome from which:
b. Delivering an aircraft from one location to 1. A landing can be made; or
another. 2. A missed approach procedure is initiated.
c. Moving an aircraft to and from a maintenance FINAL APPROACH COURSE A bearing/radial/
base. Ferry flights, under certain conditions, may be track of an instrument approach leading to a runway
conducted under terms of a special flight permit. or an extended runway centerline all without regard
FIELD ELEVATION to distance.
(See AIRPORT ELEVATION.) FINAL APPROACH FIX The fix from which the
final approach (IFR) to an airport is executed and
FILED Normally used in conjunction with flight
which identifies the beginning of the final approach
plans, meaning a flight plan has been submitted to
segment. It is designated on Government charts by
ATC.
the Maltese Cross symbol for nonprecision
FILED EN ROUTE DELAY Any of the following approaches and the lightning bolt symbol,
preplanned delays at points/areas along the route of designating the PFAF, for precision approaches; or
PCG F1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
when ATC directs a lower-than-published FINAL MONITOR AID A high resolution color
glideslope/path or vertical path intercept altitude, it is display that is equipped with the controller alert
the resultant actual point of the glideslope/path or system hardware/software used to monitor the no
vertical path intercept. transgression zone (NTZ) during simultaneous
(See FINAL APPROACH POINT.) parallel approach operations. The display includes
(See GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE.) alert algorithms providing the target predictors, a
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT color change alert when a target penetrates or is
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) predicted to penetrate the no transgression zone
(NTZ), synthesized voice alerts, and digital mapping.
FINAL APPROACH-IFR The flight path of an (See RADAR APPROACH.)
aircraft which is inbound to an airport on a final
instrument approach course, beginning at the final FINAL MONITOR CONTROLLER Air Traffic
approach fix or point and extending to the airport or Control Specialist assigned to radar monitor the
the point where a circle-to-land maneuver or a missed flight path of aircraft during simultaneous parallel
approach is executed. (approach courses spaced less than 9000 feet/9200
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.) feet above 5000 feet) and simultaneous close parallel
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.)
approach operations. Each runway is assigned a final
monitor controller during simultaneous parallel and
(See FINAL APPROACH POINT.)
simultaneous close parallel ILS approaches.
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) FIR
(See ICAO term FINAL APPROACH.) (See FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION.)
FINAL APPROACH POINT The point, applicable FIRST TIER CENTER The ARTCC immediately
only to a nonprecision approach with no depicted adjacent to the impacted center.
FAF (such as an on airport VOR), where the aircraft FISB
is established inbound on the final approach course (See FLIGHT INFORMATION
from the procedure turn and where the final approach SERVICEBROADCAST.)
descent may be commenced. The FAP serves as the
FAF and identifies the beginning of the final FIX A geographical position determined by visual
approach segment. reference to the surface, by reference to one or more
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.) radio NAVAIDs, by celestial plotting, or by another
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
navigational device.
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) FIX BALANCING A process whereby aircraft are
evenly distributed over several available arrival fixes
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT
reducing delays and controller workload.
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) FLAG A warning device incorporated in certain
airborne navigation and flight instruments indicating
FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT [ICAO] That that:
segment of an instrument approach procedure in
which alignment and descent for landing are a. Instruments are inoperative or otherwise not
accomplished. operating satisfactorily, or
b. Signal strength or quality of the received signal
FINAL CONTROLLER The controller providing falls below acceptable values.
information and final approach guidance during PAR
and ASR approaches utilizing radar equipment. FLAG ALARM
(See RADAR APPROACH.) (See FLAG.)
FLAMEOUT An emergency condition caused by a
FINAL GUARD SERVICE A value added service
loss of engine power.
provided in conjunction with LAA/RAA only during
periods of significant and fast changing weather FLAMEOUT PATTERN An approach normally
conditions that may affect landing and takeoff conducted by a single-engine military aircraft
operations. experiencing loss or anticipating loss of engine
PCG F2
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
power or control. The standard overhead approach FLIGHT LEVEL A level of constant atmospheric
starts at a relatively high altitude over a runway pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches
(high key) followed by a continuous 180 degree of mercury. Each is stated in three digits that represent
turn to a high, wide position (low key) followed by hundreds of feet. For example, flight level (FL) 250
a continuous 180 degree turn final. The standard represents a barometric altimeter indication of
straight-in pattern starts at a point that results in a 25,000 feet; FL 255, an indication of 25,500 feet.
straight-in approach with a high rate of descent to the (See ICAO term FLIGHT LEVEL.)
runway. Flameout approaches terminate in the type
FLIGHT LEVEL [ICAO] A surface of constant
approach requested by the pilot (normally fullstop).
atmospheric pressure which is related to a specific
FLIGHT CHECK A call-sign prefix used by FAA pressure datum, 1013.2 hPa (1013.2 mb), and is
aircraft engaged in flight inspection/certification of separated from other such surfaces by specific
navigational aids and flight procedures. The word pressure intervals.
recorded may be added as a suffix; e.g., Flight Note 1: A pressure type altimeter calibrated in
Check 320 recorded to indicate that an automated accordance with the standard atmosphere:
flight inspection is in progress in terminal areas. a. When set to a QNH altimeter setting, will
indicate altitude;
(See FLIGHT INSPECTION.) b. When set to a QFE altimeter setting, will
(Refer to AIM.) indicate height above the QFE reference datum;
and
FLIGHT FOLLOWING c. When set to a pressure of 1013.2 hPa
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.) (1013.2 mb), may be used to indicate flight levels.
FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION An airspace of Note 2: The terms height and altitude, used in
defined dimensions within which Flight Information Note 1 above, indicate altimetric rather than
geometric heights and altitudes.
Service and Alerting Service are provided.
a. Flight Information Service. A service provided FLIGHT LINE A term used to describe the precise
for the purpose of giving advice and information movement of a civil photogrammetric aircraft along
useful for the safe and efficient conduct of flights. a predetermined course(s) at a predetermined altitude
during the actual photographic run.
b. Alerting Service. A service provided to notify
appropriate organizations regarding aircraft in need FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS A comput-
of search and rescue aid and to assist such er system that uses a large data base to allow routes
organizations as required. to be preprogrammed and fed into the system by
means of a data loader. The system is constantly
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE A service updated with respect to position accuracy by
provided for the purpose of giving advice and reference to conventional navigation aids. The
information useful for the safe and efficient conduct sophisticated program and its associated data base
of flights. ensures that the most appropriate aids are automati-
cally selected during the information update cycle.
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE
BROADCAST (FISB) A ground broadcast service FLIGHT PATH A line, course, or track along which
provided through the ADSB Broadcast Services an aircraft is flying or intended to be flown.
network over the UAT data link that operates on 978 (See COURSE.)
MHz. The FISB system provides pilots and flight (See TRACK.)
crews of properly equipped aircraft with a cockpit FLIGHT PLAN Specified information relating to
display of certain aviation weather and aeronautical the intended flight of an aircraft that is filed orally or
information. in writing with an FSS or an ATC facility.
FLIGHT INSPECTION Inflight investigation and (See FAST FILE.)
evaluation of a navigational aid to determine whether (See FILED.)
it meets established tolerances. (Refer to AIM.)
(See FLIGHT CHECK.) FLIGHT PLAN AREA (FPA) The geographical
(See NAVIGATIONAL AID.) area assigned to a flight service station (FSS) for the
PCG F3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 4/27/17
12/10/15
purpose of establishing primary responsibility for control, or other failure that compromises the safety
services that may include search and rescue for VFR of flight.
aircraft, issuance of NOTAMs, pilot briefings, FLIGHT TEST A flight for the purpose of:
inflight services, broadcast services, emergency
a. Investigating the operation/flight characteris-
services, flight data processing, international opera-
tics of an aircraft or aircraft component.
tions, and aviation weather services. Large
consolidated FSS facilities may combine FPAs into b. Evaluating an applicant for a pilot certificate or
larger areas of responsibility (AOR). rating.
(See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.) FLIGHT VISIBILITY
(See TIE-IN FACILITY.) (See VISIBILITY.)
FLIGHT RECORDER A general term applied to FLIP
any instrument or device that records information (See DOD FLIP.)
about the performance of an aircraft in flight or about FLY HEADING (DEGREES) Informs the pilot of
conditions encountered in flight. Flight recorders the heading he/she should fly. The pilot may have to
may make records of airspeed, outside air turn to, or continue on, a specific compass direction
temperature, vertical acceleration, engine RPM, in order to comply with the instructions. The pilot is
manifold pressure, and other pertinent variables for a expected to turn in the shorter direction to the heading
given flight. unless otherwise instructed by ATC.
(See ICAO term FLIGHT RECORDER.) FLY-BY WAYPOINT A fly-by waypoint requires
FLIGHT RECORDER [ICAO] Any type of the use of turn anticipation to avoid overshoot of the
recorder installed in the aircraft for the purpose of next flight segment.
complementing accident/incident investigation. FLY-OVER WAYPOINT A fly-over waypoint
Note: See Annex 6 Part I, for specifications relating precludes any turn until the waypoint is overflown
to flight recorders. and is followed by an intercept maneuver of the next
flight segment.
FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS) An air traffic
facility which provides pilot briefings, flight plan FLY VISUAL TO AIRPORT
processing, en route flight advisories, search and (See PUBLISHED INSTRUMENT APPROACH
rescue services, and assistance to lost aircraft and PROCEDURE VISUAL SEGMENT.)
aircraft in emergency situations. FSS also relay ATC FMA
clearances, process Notices to Airmen, broadcast (See FINAL MONITOR AID.)
aviation weather and aeronautical information, and
FMS
advise Customs and Immigration of transborder
(See FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.)
flights. In Alaska, FSS provide Airport Advisory
Services. FORMATION FLIGHT More than one aircraft
(See FLIGHT PLAN AREA.) which, by prior arrangement between the pilots,
(See TIE-IN FACILITY.) operate as a single aircraft with regard to navigation
and position reporting. Separation between aircraft
FLIGHT STANDARDS DISTRICT OFFICE An within the formation is the responsibility of the flight
FAA field office serving an assigned geographical leader and the pilots of the other aircraft in the flight.
area and staffed with Flight Standards personnel who This includes transition periods when aircraft within
serve the aviation industry and the general public on the formation are maneuvering to attain separation
matters relating to the certification and operation of from each other to effect individual control and
air carrier and general aviation aircraft. Activities during join-up and breakaway.
include general surveillance of operational safety, a. A standard formation is one in which a
certification of airmen and aircraft, accident proximity of no more than 1 mile laterally or
prevention, investigation, enforcement, etc. longitudinally and within 100 feet vertically from the
FLIGHT TERMINATION The intentional and flight leader is maintained by each wingman.
deliberate process of terminating the flight of a UA in b. Nonstandard formations are those operating
the event of an unrecoverable lost link, loss of under any of the following conditions:
PCG F4
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
1. When the flight leader has requested and ATC specifications, procedures and schedules contained
has approved other than standard formation in AC 150/532012, Measurement, Construction,
dimensions. and Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport Pavement
2. When operating within an authorized altitude Surfaces.
reservation (ALTRV) or under the provisions of a FSDO
letter of agreement. (See FLIGHT STANDARDS DISTRICT OFFICE.)
3. When the operations are conducted in FSPD
airspace specifically designed for a special activity. (See FREEZE SPEED PARAMETER.)
(See ALTITUDE RESERVATION.)
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) FSS
(See FLIGHT SERVICE STATION.)
FRC
FUEL DUMPING Airborne release of usable fuel.
(See REQUEST FULL ROUTE CLEARANCE.)
This does not include the dropping of fuel tanks.
FREEZE/FROZEN Terms used in referring to (See JETTISONING OF EXTERNAL STORES.)
arrivals which have been assigned ACLTs and to the
FUEL REMAINING A phrase used by either pilots
lists in which they are displayed.
or controllers when relating to the fuel remaining on
FREEZE CALCULATED LANDING TIME A board until actual fuel exhaustion. When transmitting
dynamic parameter number of minutes prior to the such information in response to either a controller
meter fix calculated time of arrival for each aircraft question or pilot initiated cautionary advisory to air
when the TCLT is frozen and becomes an ACLT (i.e., traffic control, pilots will state the APPROXIMATE
the VTA is updated and consequently the TCLT is NUMBER OF MINUTES the flight can continue
modified as appropriate until FCLT minutes prior to with the fuel remaining. All reserve fuel SHOULD
meter fix calculated time of arrival, at which time BE INCLUDED in the time stated, as should an
updating is suspended and an ACLT and a frozen allowance for established fuel gauge system error.
meter fix crossing time (MFT) is assigned). FUEL SIPHONING Unintentional release of fuel
FREEZE HORIZON The time or point at which an caused by overflow, puncture, loose cap, etc.
aircrafts STA becomes fixed and no longer fluctuates FUEL VENTING
with each radar update. This setting ensures a (See FUEL SIPHONING.)
constant time for each aircraft, necessary for the
metering controller to plan his/her delay technique. FUSED TARGET-
This setting can be either in distance from the meter (See DIGITAL TARGET)
fix or a prescribed flying time to the meter fix. FUSION [STARS/CARTS]- the combination of all
FREEZE SPEED PARAMETER A speed adapted available surveillance sources (airport surveillance
for each aircraft to determine fast and slow aircraft. radar [ASR], air route surveillance radar [ARSR],
Fast aircraft freeze on parameter FCLT and slow ADS-B, etc.) into the display of a single tracked
aircraft freeze on parameter MLDI. target for air traffic control separation services.
FUSION is the equivalent of the current
FRICTION MEASUREMENT A measurement of single-sensor radar display. FUSION performance is
the friction characteristics of the runway pavement characteristic of a single-sensor radar display system.
surface using continuous self-watering friction Terminal areas use mono-pulse secondary surveil-
measurement equipment in accordance with the lance radar (ASR 9, Mode S or ASR 11, MSSR).
PCG F5
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
G
GATE HOLD PROCEDURES Procedures at b. Visual ground aids, such as VASI, which
selected airports to hold aircraft at the gate or other provide vertical guidance for a VFR approach or for
ground location whenever departure delays exceed or the visual portion of an instrument approach and
are anticipated to exceed 15 minutes. The sequence landing.
for departure will be maintained in accordance with c. PAR. Used by ATC to inform an aircraft making
initial callup unless modified by flow control a PAR approach of its vertical position (elevation)
restrictions. Pilots should monitor the ground relative to the descent profile.
control/clearance delivery frequency for engine (See ICAO term GLIDEPATH.)
start/taxi advisories or new proposed start/taxi time
if the delay changes. GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE The
published minimum altitude to intercept the
GBT glideslope in the intermediate segment of an
(See GROUNDBASED TRANSCEIVER.) instrument approach. Government charts use the
lightning bolt symbol to identify this intercept point.
GCA This intersection is called the Precise Final Approach
(See GROUND CONTROLLED APPROACH.) fix (PFAF). ATC directs a higher altitude, the
GDP resultant intercept becomes the PFAF.
(See FINAL APPROACH FIX.)
(See GROUND DELAY PROGRAM.)
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
GENERAL AVIATION That portion of civil APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
aviation that does not include scheduled or GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
unscheduled air carriers or commercial space (GNSS) [ICAO] GNSS refers collectively to the
operations. worldwide positioning, navigation, and timing
(See ICAO term GENERAL AVIATION.) determination capability available from one or more
GENERAL AVIATION [ICAO] All civil aviation satellite constellation in conjunction with a network
operations other than scheduled air services and of ground stations.
nonscheduled air transport operations for remunera- GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
tion or hire. MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE (GNSS
MEA) The minimum en route IFR altitude on a
GEO MAP The digitized map markings associated published ATS route or route segment which assures
with the ASR-9 Radar System. acceptable Global Navigation Satellite System
GLIDEPATH reception and meets obstacle clearance requirements.
(See GLIDESLOPE.) (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 95.)
GLIDEPATH [ICAO] A descent profile determined
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) GPS
for vertical guidance during a final approach.
refers to the worldwide positioning, navigation
GLIDEPATH INTERCEPT ALTITUDE and timing determination capability available
(See GLIDESLOPE INTERCEPT ALTITUDE.) from the U.S. satellite constellation. The service
provided by GPS for civil use is defined in the
GLIDESLOPE Provides vertical guidance for
aircraft during approach and landing. The glideslope/ GPS Standard Positioning System Performance
glidepath is based on the following: Standard. GPS is composed of space, control,
and user elements.
a. Electronic components emitting signals which
provide vertical guidance by reference to airborne GNSS [ICAO]
instruments during instrument approaches such as (See GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE
ILS or SYSTEM .)
PCG G1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
12/10/15
PCG G2
5/26/16
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
PCG G3
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
H
HAA HEIGHT ABOVE LANDING The height above a
(See HEIGHT ABOVE AIRPORT.) designated helicopter landing area used for helicopter
instrument approach procedures.
HAL (Refer to 14 CFR Part 97.)
(See HEIGHT ABOVE LANDING.)
HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN The height of
HANDOFF An action taken to transfer the radar the Decision Height or Minimum Descent Altitude
identification of an aircraft from one controller to above the highest runway elevation in the touchdown
another if the aircraft will enter the receiving zone (first 3,000 feet of the runway). HAT is
controllers airspace and radio communications with published on instrument approach charts in conjunc-
the aircraft will be transferred. tion with all straight-in minimums.
(See DECISION HEIGHT.)
HAR (See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.)
(See HIGH ALTITUDE REDESIGN.) HELICOPTER A heavier-than-air aircraft sup-
HAT ported in flight chiefly by the reactions of the air on
one or more power-driven rotors on substantially
(See HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN.)
vertical axes.
HAVE NUMBERS Used by pilots to inform ATC HELIPAD A small, designated area, usually with a
that they have received runway, wind, and altimeter prepared surface, on a heliport, airport, landing/take-
information only. off area, apron/ramp, or movement area used for
takeoff, landing, or parking of helicopters.
HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISO-
RY SERVICE Continuous recorded hazardous HELIPORT An area of land, water, or structure used
inflight weather forecasts broadcasted to airborne or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of
pilots over selected VOR outlets defined as an helicopters and includes its buildings and facilities if
HIWAS BROADCAST AREA. any.
HELIPORT REFERENCE POINT (HRP) The
HAZARDOUS WEATHER INFORMATION
geographic center of a heliport.
Summary of significant meteorological information
(SIGMET/WS), convective significant meteorologi- HERTZ The standard radio equivalent of frequency
cal information (convective SIGMET/WST), urgent in cycles per second of an electromagnetic wave.
pilot weather reports (urgent PIREP/UUA), center Kilohertz (kHz) is a frequency of one thousand cycles
weather advisories (CWA), airmens meteorological per second. Megahertz (MHz) is a frequency of one
information (AIRMET/WA) and any other weather million cycles per second.
such as isolated thunderstorms that are rapidly HF
developing and increasing in intensity, or low (See HIGH FREQUENCY.)
ceilings and visibilities that are becoming wide-
spread which is considered significant and are not HF COMMUNICATIONS
included in a current hazardous weather advisory. (See HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS.)
HIGH ALTITUDE REDESIGN (HAR) A level of
HEAVY (AIRCRAFT)
nonrestrictive routing (NRR) service for aircraft
(See AIRCRAFT CLASSES.) that have all waypoints associated with the HAR
HEIGHT ABOVE AIRPORT The height of the program in their flight management systems or
Minimum Descent Altitude above the published RNAV equipage.
airport elevation. This is published in conjunction HIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band between
with circling minimums. 3 and 30 MHz.
(See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.) (See HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS.)
PCG H1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS High altitude that will permit a normal descent to the final
radio frequencies (HF) between 3 and 30 MHz used approach fix altitude. The hold in lieu of procedure
for air-to-ground voice communication in overseas turn is a required maneuver (the same as a procedure
operations. turn) unless the aircraft is being radar vectored to the
final approach course, when NoPT is shown on the
HIGH SPEED EXIT approach chart, or when the pilot requests or the
(See HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY.) controller advises the pilot to make a straightin
HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY A long radius taxiway approach.
designed and provided with lighting or marking to HOLD PROCEDURE A predetermined maneuver
define the path of aircraft, traveling at high speed (up which keeps aircraft within a specified airspace while
to 60 knots), from the runway center to a point on the awaiting further clearance from air traffic control.
center of a taxiway. Also referred to as long radius Also used during ground operations to keep aircraft
exit or turn-off taxiway. The high speed taxiway is within a specified area or at a specified point while
designed to expedite aircraft turning off the runway awaiting further clearance from air traffic control.
after landing, thus reducing runway occupancy time.
(See HOLDING FIX.)
HIGH SPEED TURNOFF (Refer to AIM.)
(See HIGH SPEED TAXIWAY.)
HOLDING FIX A specified fix identifiable to a
HIWAS pilot by NAVAIDs or visual reference to the ground
(See HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER used as a reference point in establishing and
ADVISORY SERVICE.) maintaining the position of an aircraft while holding.
(See FIX.)
HIWAS AREA (See VISUAL HOLDING.)
(See HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER (Refer to AIM.)
ADVISORY SERVICE.)
HOLDING POINT [ICAO] A specified location,
HIWAS BROADCAST AREA A geographical area
identified by visual or other means, in the vicinity of
of responsibility including one or more HIWAS
which the position of an aircraft in flight is
outlet areas assigned to a FSS for hazardous weather
maintained in accordance with air traffic control
advisory broadcasting.
clearances.
HIWAS OUTLET AREA An area defined as a 150
HOLDING PROCEDURE
NM radius of a HIWAS outlet, expanded as necessary
to provide coverage. (See HOLD PROCEDURE.)
HOLD FOR RELEASE Used by ATC to delay an HOLD-SHORT POINT A point on the runway
aircraft for traffic management reasons; i.e., weather, beyond which a landing aircraft with a LAHSO
traffic volume, etc. Hold for release instructions clearance is not authorized to proceed. This point
(including departure delay information) are used to may be located prior to an intersecting runway,
inform a pilot or a controller (either directly or taxiway, predetermined point, or approach/departure
through an authorized relay) that an IFR departure flight path.
clearance is not valid until a release time or additional HOLD-SHORT POSITION LIGHTS Flashing
instructions have been received. in-pavement white lights located at specified
(See ICAO term HOLDING POINT.) hold-short points.
HOLD IN LIEU OF PROCEDURE TURN A hold HOLD-SHORT POSITION MARKING The
in lieu of procedure turn shall be established over a painted runway marking located at the hold-short
final or intermediate fix when an approach can be point on all LAHSO runways.
made from a properly aligned holding pattern. The
hold in lieu of procedure turn permits the pilot to HOLD-SHORT POSITION SIGNS Red and white
align with the final or intermediate segment of the holding position signs located alongside the
approach and/or descend in the holding pattern to an hold-short point.
PCG H2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
HOMING Flight toward a NAVAID, without HOVER TAXI Used to describe a helicopter/VTOL
correcting for wind, by adjusting the aircraft heading aircraft movement conducted above the surface and
to maintain a relative bearing of zero degrees. in ground effect at airspeeds less than approximately
(See BEARING.) 20 knots. The actual height may vary, and some
(See ICAO term HOMING.) helicopters may require hover taxi above 25 feet AGL
to reduce ground effect turbulence or provide
HOMING [ICAO] The procedure of using the
clearance for cargo slingloads.
direction-finding equipment of one radio station with
the emission of another radio station, where at least (See AIR TAXI.)
one of the stations is mobile, and whereby the mobile (See HOVER CHECK.)
station proceeds continuously towards the other (Refer to AIM.)
station.
HOW DO YOU HEAR ME? A question relating to
HOVER CHECK Used to describe when a the quality of the transmission or to determine how
helicopter/VTOL aircraft requires a stabilized hover well the transmission is being received.
to conduct a performance/power check prior to hover
taxi, air taxi, or takeoff. Altitude of the hover will HZ
vary based on the purpose of the check. (See HERTZ.)
PCG H3
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
I
I SAY AGAIN The message will be repeated. the manufacturer. Immediate exit from the condition
is necessary.
IAF Note:
(See INITIAL APPROACH FIX.) Severe icing is aircraft dependent, as are the other
categories of icing intensity. Severe icing may
IAP occur at any ice accumulation rate.
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
PROCEDURE.) IDENT A request for a pilot to activate the aircraft
transponder identification feature. This will help the
IAWP Initial Approach Waypoint controller to confirm an aircraft identity or to identify
an aircraft.
ICAO (Refer to AIM.)
(See ICAO Term INTERNATIONAL CIVIL
AVIATION ORGANIZATION.) IDENT FEATURE The special feature in the Air
Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS)
ICING The accumulation of airframe ice. equipment. It is used to immediately distinguish one
displayed beacon target from other beacon targets.
Types of icing are: (See IDENT.)
a. Rime Ice Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by IDENTIFICATION [ICAO] The situation which
the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled exists when the position indication of a particular
water droplets. aircraft is seen on a situation display and positively
b. Clear Ice A glossy, clear, or translucent ice identified.
formed by the relatively slow freezing or large IF
supercooled water droplets. (See INTERMEDIATE FIX.)
c. Mixed A mixture of clear ice and rime ice. IFIM
Intensity of icing: (See INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT INFORMATION
MANUAL.)
a. Trace Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of
IF NO TRANSMISSION RECEIVED FOR
accumulation is slightly greater than the rate of
(TIME) Used by ATC in radar approaches to prefix
sublimation. Deicing/anti-icing equipment is not
procedures which should be followed by the pilot in
utilized unless encountered for an extended period of
event of lost communications.
time (over 1 hour).
(See LOST COMMUNICATIONS.)
b. Light The rate of accumulation may create a
IFR
problem if flight is prolonged in this environment
(See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
(over 1 hour). Occasional use of deicing/anti-icing
equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does IFR AIRCRAFT An aircraft conducting flight in
not present a problem if the deicing/anti-icing accordance with instrument flight rules.
equipment is used. IFR CONDITIONS Weather conditions below the
c. Moderate The rate of accumulation is such that minimum for flight under visual flight rules.
even short encounters become potentially hazardous (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
and use of deicing/anti-icing equipment or flight CONDITIONS.)
diversion is necessary. IFR DEPARTURE PROCEDURE
d. Severe The rate of ice accumulation is such (See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND
that ice protection systems fail to remove the DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.)
accumulation of ice, or ice accumulates in locations (Refer to AIM.)
not normally prone to icing, such as areas aft of IFR FLIGHT
protected surfaces and any other areas identified by (See IFR AIRCRAFT.)
PCG I1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 4/27/17
12/10/15
IFR LANDING MINIMUMS a height above touchdown of not less than 150 feet
(See LANDING MINIMUMS.) and with runway visual range of not less than 1,400
feet, HUD to DH. 3. Category II. An ILS approach
IFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES (IR) Routes
procedure which provides for approach to a height
used by the Department of Defense and associated
above touchdown of not less than 100 feet and with
Reserve and Air Guard units for the purpose of
runway visual range of not less than 1,200 feet (with
conducting low-altitude navigation and tactical
autoland or HUD to touchdown and noted on
training in both IFR and VFR weather conditions
authorization, RVR 1,000 feet). 4. Special
below 10,000 feet MSL at airspeeds in excess of 250
Authorization Category II with Reduced Lighting.
knots IAS.
An ILS approach procedure which provides for
IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND DEPARTURE approach to a height above touchdown of not less
PROCEDURES Title 14 Code of Federal than 100 feet and with runway visual range of not less
Regulations Part 91, prescribes standard takeoff rules than 1,200 feet with autoland or HUD to touchdown
for certain civil users. At some airports, obstructions and noted on authorization (no touchdown zone and
or other factors require the establishment of centerline lighting are required). 5. Category III:
nonstandard takeoff minimums, departure proce- a. IIIA.An ILS approach procedure which
dures, or both to assist pilots in avoiding obstacles provides for approach without a decision height
during climb to the minimum en route altitude. Those minimum and with runway visual range of not less
airports are listed in FAA/DOD Instrument Approach than 700 feet.
Procedures (IAPs) Charts under a section entitled
IFR Takeoff Minimums and Departure Procedures. b. IIIB.An ILS approach procedure which
The FAA/DOD IAP chart legend illustrates the provides for approach without a decision height
symbol used to alert the pilot to nonstandard takeoff minimum and with runway visual range of not less
minimums and departure procedures. When depart- than 150 feet.
ing IFR from such airports or from any airports where c. IIIC.An ILS approach procedure which
there are no departure procedures, DPs, or ATC provides for approach without a decision height
facilities available, pilots should advise ATC of any minimum and without runway visual range
departure limitations. Controllers may query a pilot minimum.
to determine acceptable departure directions, turns,
ILS PRM APPROACH An instrument landing
or headings after takeoff. Pilots should be familiar
system (ILS) approach conducted to parallel runways
with the departure procedures and must assure that
whose extended centerlines are separated by less than
their aircraft can meet or exceed any specified climb
4,300 feet and at least 3,000 feet where independent
gradients.
closely spaced approaches are permitted. Also used
IF/IAWP Intermediate Fix/Initial Approach Way- in conjunction with an LDA PRM, RNAV PRM or
point. The waypoint where the final approach course GLS PRM approach to conduct Simultaneous Offset
of a T approach meets the crossbar of the T. When Instrument Approach (SOIA) operations. No
designated (in conjunction with a TAA) this Transgression Zone (NTZ) monitoring is required to
waypoint will be used as an IAWP when approaching conduct these approaches. ATC utilizes an enhanced
the airport from certain directions, and as an IFWP display with alerting and, with certain runway
when beginning the approach from another IAWP. spacing, a high update rate PRM surveillance sensor.
Use of a secondary monitor frequency, pilot PRM
IFWP Intermediate Fix Waypoint
training, and publication of an Attention All Users
ILS Page are also required for all PRM approaches.
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.) (Refer to AIM)
ILS CATEGORIES 1. Category I. An ILS approach IM
procedure which provides for approach to a height (See INNER MARKER.)
above touchdown of not less than 200 feet and with
runway visual range of not less than 1,800 feet. IMC
2. Special Authorization Category I. An ILS (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
approach procedure which provides for approach to CONDITIONS.)
PCG I2
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
PCG I3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 4/27/17
12/10/15
PCG I4
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
c. Precision Approach Runway, Category IIAn and assigned at the intermediate airport. An
instrument runway served by ILS and visual aids intermediate landing airport within the arrival center
intended for operations down to 30 m (100 feet) will not be accepted without coordination with and
decision height and down to an RVR of the order of the approval of the ATCSCC.
400 m. INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT Relating to interna-
d. Precision Approach Runway, Category IIIAn tional flight, it means:
instrument runway served by ILS to and along the a. An airport of entry which has been designated
surface of the runway and: by the Secretary of Treasury or Commissioner of
1. Intended for operations down to an RVR of Customs as an international airport for customs
the order of 200 m (no decision height being service.
applicable) using visual aids during the final phase of b. A landing rights airport at which specific
landing; permission to land must be obtained from customs
2. Intended for operations down to an RVR of authorities in advance of contemplated use.
the order of 50 m (no decision height being c. Airports designated under the Convention on
applicable) using visual aids for taxiing; International Civil Aviation as an airport for use by
3. Intended for operations without reliance on international commercial air transport and/or interna-
visual reference for landing or taxiing. tional general aviation.
Note 1: See Annex 10 Volume I, Part I, Chapter 3, (See ICAO term INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT.)
for related ILS specifications. (Refer to Chart Supplement U.S.)
Note 2: Visual aids need not necessarily be (Refer to IFIM.)
matched to the scale of nonvisual aids provided.
INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT [ICAO] Any airport
The criterion for the selection of visual aids is the
conditions in which operations are intended to be designated by the Contracting State in whose
conducted. territory it is situated as an airport of entry and
departure for international air traffic, where the
INTEGRITY The ability of a system to provide formalities incident to customs, immigration, public
timely warnings to users when the system should not health, animal and plant quarantine and similar
be used for navigation. procedures are carried out.
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGA-
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT NIZATION [ICAO] A specialized agency of the
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) United Nations whose objective is to develop the
INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT principles and techniques of international air
[ICAO] That segment of an instrument approach navigation and to foster planning and development of
procedure between either the intermediate approach international civil air transport.
fix and the final approach fix or point, or between the a. Regions include:
end of a reversal, race track or dead reckoning track 1. African-Indian Ocean Region
procedure and the final approach fix or point, as 2. Caribbean Region
appropriate.
3. European Region
INTERMEDIATE FIX The fix that identifies the 4. Middle East/Asia Region
beginning of the intermediate approach segment of an 5. North American Region
instrument approach procedure. The fix is not
normally identified on the instrument approach chart 6. North Atlantic Region
as an intermediate fix (IF). 7. Pacific Region
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT 8. South American Region
APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
INTERNATIONAL FLIGHT INFORMATION
INTERMEDIATE LANDING On the rare occasion MANUAL A publication designed primarily as a
that this option is requested, it should be approved. pilots preflight planning guide for flights into
The departure center, however, must advise the foreign airspace and for flights returning to the U.S.
ATCSCC so that the appropriate delay is carried over from foreign locations.
PCG I5
Pilot/Controller Glossary 4/27/17
12/10/15
INTERROGATOR The ground-based surveillance b. Used to describe the point where two runways,
radar beacon transmitter-receiver, which normally a runway and a taxiway, or two taxiways cross or
scans in synchronism with a primary radar, meet.
transmitting discrete radio signals which repetitious-
ly request all transponders on the mode being used to INTERSECTION DEPARTURE A departure from
reply. The replies received are mixed with the any runway intersection except the end of the runway.
primary radar returns and displayed on the same plan (See INTERSECTION.)
position indicator (radar scope). Also, applied to the INTERSECTION TAKEOFF
airborne element of the TACAN/DME system. (See INTERSECTION DEPARTURE.)
(See TRANSPONDER.)
(Refer to AIM.) IR
(See IFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.)
INTERSECTING RUNWAYS Two or more
runways which cross or meet within their lengths. IRREGULAR SURFACE A surface that is open for
(See INTERSECTION.) use but not per regulations.
INTERSECTION ISR Indicates the confidence level of the track
a. A point defined by any combination of courses, requires 5NM separation. 3NM separation, 1 1/2NM
radials, or bearings of two or more navigational aids. separation, and target resolution cannot be used.
PCG I6
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
J
JAMMING Electronic or mechanical interference JET STREAM A migrating stream of high-speed
which may disrupt the display of aircraft on radar or winds present at high altitudes.
the transmission/reception of radio communications/
navigation. JETTISONING OF EXTERNAL STORES Air-
borne release of external stores; e.g., tiptanks,
JET BLAST Jet engine exhaust (thrust stream ordnance.
turbulence).
(See FUEL DUMPING.)
(See WAKE TURBULENCE.)
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
JET ROUTE A route designed to serve aircraft
operations from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including JOINT USE RESTRICTED AREA
flight level 450. The routes are referred to as J (See RESTRICTED AREA.)
routes with numbering to identify the designated
route; e.g., J105. JUMP ZONE The airspace directly associated with
(See Class A AIRSPACE.) a Drop Zone. Vertical and horizontal limits may be
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 71.) locally defined.
PCG J1
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
K
KNOWN TRAFFIC With respect to ATC clear-
ances, means aircraft whose altitude, position, and
intentions are known to ATC.
PCG K1
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
L
LAA LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE (LDA) The
(See LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY.) runway length declared available and suitable for a
landing airplane.
LAAS (See ICAO term LANDING DISTANCE
(See LOW ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM.) AVAILABLE.)
LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE [ICAO] The
LAHSO An acronym for Land and Hold Short length of runway which is declared available and
Operation. These operations include landing and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
holding short of an intersecting runway, a taxiway, a
predetermined point, or an approach/departure LANDING MINIMUMS The minimum visibility
flightpath. prescribed for landing a civil aircraft while using an
instrument approach procedure. The minimum
LAHSO-DRY Land and hold short operations on applies with other limitations set forth in 14 CFR
runways that are dry. Part 91 with respect to the Minimum Descent
Altitude (MDA) or Decision Height (DH) prescribed
LAHSO-WET Land and hold short operations on in the instrument approach procedures as follows:
runways that are wet (but not contaminated). a. Straight-in landing minimums. A statement of
MDA and visibility, or DH and visibility, required for
LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS a straight-in landing on a specified runway, or
Operations which include simultaneous takeoffs and b. Circling minimums. A statement of MDA and
landings and/or simultaneous landings when a visibility required for the circle-to-land maneuver.
landing aircraft is able and is instructed by the Note: Descent below the MDA or DH must meet the
controller to hold-short of the intersecting runway/ conditions stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175.
taxiway or designated hold-short point. Pilots are
(See CIRCLE-TO-LAND MANEUVER.)
expected to promptly inform the controller if the hold
(See DECISION HEIGHT.)
short clearance cannot be accepted.
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
(See PARALLEL RUNWAYS.) PROCEDURE.)
(Refer to AIM.) (See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.)
(See STRAIGHT-IN LANDING.)
LANDING AREA Any locality either on land, (See VISIBILITY.)
water, or structures, including airports/heliports and (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
intermediate landing fields, which is used, or
intended to be used, for the landing and takeoff of LANDING ROLL The distance from the point of
aircraft whether or not facilities are provided for the touchdown to the point where the aircraft can be
shelter, servicing, or for receiving or discharging brought to a stop or exit the runway.
passengers or cargo. LANDING SEQUENCE The order in which
(See ICAO term LANDING AREA.) aircraft are positioned for landing.
(See APPROACH SEQUENCE.)
LANDING AREA [ICAO] That part of a movement
area intended for the landing or take-off of aircraft. LAST ASSIGNED ALTITUDE The last altitude/
flight level assigned by ATC and acknowledged by
LANDING DIRECTION INDICATOR A device the pilot.
which visually indicates the direction in which (See MAINTAIN.)
landings and takeoffs should be made. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(See TETRAHEDRON.) LATERAL NAVIGATION (LNAV) A function of
(Refer to AIM.) area navigation (RNAV) equipment which calculates,
PCG L1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
12/10/15
displays, and provides lateral guidance to a profile or LINE UP AND WAIT (LUAW) Used by ATC to
path. inform a pilot to taxi onto the departure runway to line
up and wait. It is not authorization for takeoff. It is
LATERAL SEPARATION The lateral spacing of used when takeoff clearance cannot immediately be
aircraft at the same altitude by requiring operation on issued because of traffic or other reasons.
different routes or in different geographical locations.
(See CLEARED FOR TAKEOFF.)
(See SEPARATION.)
LOCAL AIRPORT ADVISORY (LAA) A service
LDA
available only in Alaska and provided by facilities,
(See LOCALIZER TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID.) which are located on the landing airport, have a
(See LANDING DISTANCE AVAILABLE.) discrete groundtoair communication frequency or
(See ICAO Term LANDING DISTANCE the tower frequency when the tower is closed,
AVAILABLE.) automated weather reporting with voice broadcast-
LF ing, and a continuous ASOS/AWSS/AWOS data
(See LOW FREQUENCY.) display, other continuous direct reading instruments,
or manual observations available to the specialist.
LIGHTED AIRPORT An airport where runway and (See AIRPORT ADVISORY AREA.)
obstruction lighting is available.
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.) LOCAL TRAFFIC Aircraft operating in the traffic
(Refer to AIM.) pattern or within sight of the tower, or aircraft known
to be departing or arriving from flight in local practice
LIGHT GUN A handheld directional light signaling areas, or aircraft executing practice instrument
device which emits a brilliant narrow beam of white, approaches at the airport.
green, or red light as selected by the tower controller. (See TRAFFIC PATTERN.)
The color and type of light transmitted can be used to
approve or disapprove anticipated pilot actions where LOCALIZER The component of an ILS which
radio communication is not available. The light gun provides course guidance to the runway.
is used for controlling traffic operating in the vicinity (See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
of the airport and on the airport movement area. (See ICAO term LOCALIZER COURSE.)
(Refer to AIM.) (Refer to AIM.)
PCG L2
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
at least 750 feet. NTZ monitoring is required to LOST LINK An interruption or loss of the control
conduct these approaches. link, or when the pilot is unable to effect control of the
(See SIMULTANEOUS OFFSET INSTRUMENT aircraft and, as a result, the UA will perform a
APPROACH (SOIA).) predictable or planned maneuver. Loss of command
(Refer to AIM) and control link between the Control Station and the
LOCALIZER USABLE DISTANCE The maxi- aircraft. There are two types of links:
mum distance from the localizer transmitter at a a. An uplink which transmits command instruc-
specified altitude, as verified by flight inspection, at tions to the aircraft, and
which reliable course information is continuously b. A downlink which transmits the status of the
received. aircraft and provides situational awareness to the
(Refer to AIM.) pilot.
LOCATOR [ICAO] An LM/MF NDB used as an aid
to final approach. LOST LINK PROCEDURE Preprogrammed or
predetermined mitigations to ensure the continued
Note: A locator usually has an average radius of
rated coverage of between 18.5 and 46.3 km (10 safe operation of the UA in the event of a lost link
and 25 NM). (LL). In the event positive link cannot be established,
flight termination must be implemented.
LONG RANGE NAVIGATION
(See LORAN.) LOW ALTITUDE AIRWAY STRUCTURE The
network of airways serving aircraft operations up to
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION The longitudi-
but not including 18,000 feet MSL.
nal spacing of aircraft at the same altitude by a
minimum distance expressed in units of time or (See AIRWAY.)
miles. (Refer to AIM.)
(See SEPARATION.)
LOW ALTITUDE ALERT, CHECK YOUR ALTI-
(Refer to AIM.)
TUDE IMMEDIATELY
LORAN An electronic navigational system by (See SAFETY ALERT.)
which hyperbolic lines of position are determined by
measuring the difference in the time of reception of LOW APPROACH An approach over an airport or
synchronized pulse signals from two fixed transmit- runway following an instrument approach or a VFR
ters. Loran A operates in the 1750-1950 kHz approach including the go-around maneuver where
frequency band. Loran C and D operate in the the pilot intentionally does not make contact with the
100-110 kHz frequency band. In 2010, the U.S. Coast runway.
Guard terminated all U.S. LORAN-C transmissions. (Refer to AIM.)
(Refer to AIM.)
LOW FREQUENCY The frequency band between
LOST COMMUNICATIONS Loss of the ability to 30 and 300 kHz.
communicate by radio. Aircraft are sometimes (Refer to AIM.)
referred to as NORDO (No Radio). Standard pilot
procedures are specified in 14 CFR Part 91. Radar LPV A type of approach with vertical guidance
controllers issue procedures for pilots to follow in the (APV) based on WAAS, published on RNAV (GPS)
event of lost communications during a radar approach approach charts. This procedure takes advantage of
when weather reports indicate that an aircraft will the precise lateral guidance available from WAAS.
likely encounter IFR weather conditions during the The minima is published as a decision altitude (DA).
approach.
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) LUAW
(Refer to AIM.) (See LINE UP AND WAIT.)
PCG L3
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
M
MAA requires familiarity with the subject. Terrorists
(See MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE.) choose MANPADS because the weapons are low
cost, highly mobile, require minimal setup time, and
MACH NUMBER The ratio of true airspeed to the are easy to use and maintain. Although the weapons
speed of sound; e.g., MACH .82, MACH 1.6. have limited range, and their accuracy is affected by
(See AIRSPEED.) poor visibility and adverse weather, they can be fired
MACH TECHNIQUE [ICAO] Describes a control from anywhere on land or from boats where there is
technique used by air traffic control whereby turbojet unrestricted visibility to the target.
aircraft operating successively along suitable routes MANDATORY ALTITUDE An altitude depicted
are cleared to maintain appropriate MACH numbers on an instrument Approach Procedure Chart
for a relevant portion of the en route phase of flight. requiring the aircraft to maintain altitude at the
The principle objective is to achieve improved depicted value.
utilization of the airspace and to ensure that
separation between successive aircraft does not MANPADS
decrease below the established minima. (See MAN PORTABLE AIR DEFENSE
SYSTEMS.)
MAHWP Missed Approach Holding Waypoint
MAP
MAINTAIN (See MISSED APPROACH POINT.)
a. Concerning altitude/flight level, the term MARKER BEACON An electronic navigation
means to remain at the altitude/flight level specified. facility transmitting a 75 MHz vertical fan or
The phrase climb and or descend and normally boneshaped radiation pattern. Marker beacons are
precedes maintain and the altitude assignment; identified by their modulation frequency and keying
e.g., descend and maintain 5,000. code, and when received by compatible airborne
b. Concerning other ATC instructions, the term is equipment, indicate to the pilot, both aurally and
used in its literal sense; e.g., maintain VFR. visually, that he/she is passing over the facility.
(See INNER MARKER.)
MAINTENANCE PLANNING FRICTION (See MIDDLE MARKER.)
LEVEL The friction level specified in (See OUTER MARKER.)
AC 150/5320-12, Measurement, Construction, and (Refer to AIM.)
Maintenance of Skid Resistant Airport Pavement
Surfaces, which represents the friction value below MARSA
which the runway pavement surface remains (See MILITARY AUTHORITY ASSUMES
acceptable for any category or class of aircraft RESPONSIBILITY FOR SEPARATION OF
operations but which is beginning to show signs of AIRCRAFT.)
deterioration. This value will vary depending on the MAWP Missed Approach Waypoint
particular friction measurement equipment used.
MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE A pub-
MAKE SHORT APPROACH Used by ATC to lished altitude representing the maximum usable
inform a pilot to alter his/her traffic pattern so as to altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or
make a short final approach. route segment. It is the highest altitude on a Federal
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) airway, jet route, area navigation low or high route,
or other direct route for which an MEA is designated
MAN PORTABLE AIR DEFENSE SYSTEMS
in 14 CFR Part 95 at which adequate reception of
(MANPADS) MANPADS are lightweight, shoul-
navigation aid signals is assured.
derlaunched, missile systems used to bring down
aircraft and create mass casualties. The potential for MAYDAY The international radiotelephony distress
MANPADS use against airborne aircraft is real and signal. When repeated three times, it indicates
PCG M1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
imminent and grave danger and that immediate METERING AIRPORTS Airports adapted for
assistance is requested. metering and for which optimum flight paths are
(See PAN-PAN.) defined. A maximum of 15 airports may be adapted.
(Refer to AIM.)
METERING FIX A fix along an established route
MCA from over which aircraft will be metered prior to
(See MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE.) entering terminal airspace. Normally, this fix should
be established at a distance from the airport which
MDA
will facilitate a profile descent 10,000 feet above
(See MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE.)
airport elevation (AAE) or above.
MEA
METERING POSITION(S) Adapted PVDs/
(See MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE.)
MDMs and associated D positions eligible for
MEARTS display of a metering position list. A maximum of
(See MICRO-EN ROUTE AUTOMATED RADAR four PVDs/MDMs may be adapted.
TRACKING SYSTEM.)
METERING POSITION LIST An ordered list of
METEOROLOGICAL IMPACT STATEMENT data on arrivals for a selected metering airport
An unscheduled planning forecast describing displayed on a metering position PVD/MDM.
conditions expected to begin within 4 to 12 hours
which may impact the flow of air traffic in a specific MFT
centers (ARTCC) area. (See METER FIX TIME/SLOT TIME.)
PCG M2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
1300 Hz tone, which is received aurally and visually which assures acceptable navigational signal cover-
by compatible airborne equipment. age and meets obstacle clearance requirements
(See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.) between those fixes. The MEA prescribed for a
(See MARKER BEACON.) Federal airway or segment thereof, area navigation
(Refer to AIM.) low or high route, or other direct route applies to the
entire width of the airway, segment, or route between
MILES-IN-TRAIL A specified distance between the radio fixes defining the airway, segment, or route.
aircraft, normally, in the same stratum associated (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
with the same destination or route of flight. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 95.)
MILITARY AUTHORITY ASSUMES RESPONSI- (Refer to AIM.)
BILITY FOR SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT A
condition whereby the military services involved MINIMUM FRICTION LEVEL The friction level
assume responsibility for separation between specified in AC 150/5320-12, Measurement,
participating military aircraft in the ATC system. It is Construction, and Maintenance of Skid Resistant
used only for required IFR operations which are Airport Pavement Surfaces, that represents the
specified in letters of agreement or other appropriate minimum recommended wet pavement surface
FAA or military documents. friction value for any turbojet aircraft engaged in
LAHSO. This value will vary with the particular
MILITARY LANDING ZONE A landing strip used friction measurement equipment used.
exclusively by the military for training. A military
landing zone does not carry a runway designation. MINIMUM FUEL Indicates that an aircrafts fuel
MILITARY OPERATIONS AREA supply has reached a state where, upon reaching the
destination, it can accept little or no delay. This is not
(See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
an emergency situation but merely indicates an
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES Airspace of emergency situation is possible should any undue
defined vertical and lateral dimensions established delay occur.
for the conduct of military flight training at airspeeds (Refer to AIM.)
in excess of 250 knots IAS.
(See IFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.) MINIMUM HOLDING ALTITUDE The lowest
(See VFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES.) altitude prescribed for a holding pattern which
assures navigational signal coverage, communica-
MINIMA tions, and meets obstacle clearance requirements.
(See MINIMUMS.)
MINIMUM IFR ALTITUDES (MIA) Minimum
MINIMUM CROSSING ALTITUDE The lowest
altitudes for IFR operations as prescribed in 14 CFR
altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must cross
Part 91. These altitudes are published on aeronautical
when proceeding in the direction of a higher
charts and prescribed in 14 CFR Part 95 for airways
minimum en route IFR altitude (MEA).
and routes, and in 14 CFR Part 97 for standard
(See MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE.) instrument approach procedures. If no applicable
MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE The lowest minimum altitude is prescribed in 14 CFR Part 95 or
altitude, expressed in feet above mean sea level, to 14 CFR Part 97, the following minimum IFR
which descent is authorized on final approach or altitude applies:
during circle-to-land maneuvering in execution of a a. In designated mountainous areas, 2,000 feet
standard instrument approach procedure where no above the highest obstacle within a horizontal
electronic glideslope is provided. distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be
(See NONPRECISION APPROACH flown; or
PROCEDURE.)
b. Other than mountainous areas, 1,000 feet above
MINIMUM EN ROUTE IFR ALTITUDE (MEA) the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4
The lowest published altitude between radio fixes nautical miles from the course to be flown; or
PCG M3
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PCG M4
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landing. The route of flight and altitude are shown on Mode C (altitude reporting) are used in air traffic
instrument approach procedure charts. A pilot control.
executing a missed approach prior to the Missed (See INTERROGATOR.)
Approach Point (MAP) must continue along the final (See RADAR.)
approach to the MAP. (See TRANSPONDER.)
b. A term used by the pilot to inform ATC that (See ICAO term MODE.)
he/she is executing the missed approach. (Refer to AIM.)
c. At locations where ATC radar service is MODE (SSR MODE) [ICAO] The letter or number
provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors assigned to a specific pulse spacing of the
when provided by ATC in lieu of the published interrogation signals transmitted by an interrogator.
missed approach procedure. There are 4 modes, A, B, C and D specified in Annex
10, corresponding to four different interrogation
(See MISSED APPROACH POINT.)
pulse spacings.
(Refer to AIM.)
MODE C INTRUDER ALERT A function of
MISSED APPROACH POINT A point prescribed certain air traffic control automated systems designed
in each instrument approach procedure at which a to alert radar controllers to existing or pending
missed approach procedure shall be executed if the situations between a tracked target (known IFR or
required visual reference does not exist. VFR aircraft) and an untracked target (unknown IFR
or VFR aircraft) that requires immediate attention/
(See MISSED APPROACH.)
action.
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
(See CONFLICT ALERT.)
APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
MODEL AIRCRAFT An unmanned aircraft that is:
MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE [ICAO] The (1) capable of sustained flight in the atmosphere; (2)
procedure to be followed if the approach cannot be flown within visual line of sight of the person
continued. operating the aircraft; and (3) flown for hobby or
recreational purposes.
MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT
MONITOR (When used with communication
(See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT transfer) listen on a specific frequency and stand by
APPROACH PROCEDURE.) for instructions. Under normal circumstances do not
establish communications.
MLDI
(See METER LIST DISPLAY INTERVAL.) MONITOR ALERT (MA) A function of the TFMS
that provides traffic management personnel with a
MM tool for predicting potential capacity problems in
individual operational sectors. The MA is an
(See MIDDLE MARKER.) indication that traffic management personnel need to
analyze a particular sector for actual activity and to
MOA determine the required action(s), if any, needed to
(See MILITARY OPERATIONS AREA.) control the demand.
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PCG M6
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N
NAS NAVAID CLASSES VOR, VORTAC, and TACAN
(See NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM.) aids are classed according to their operational use.
The three classes of NAVAIDs are:
NAT HLA
a. T Terminal.
(See NORTH ATLANTIC HIGH LEVEL
AIRSPACE) b. L Low altitude.
c. H High altitude.
NATIONAL AIRSPACE SYSTEM The common
network of U.S. airspace; air navigation facilities, Note: The normal service range for T, L, and H class
aids is found in the AIM. Certain operational
equipment and services, airports or landing areas;
requirements make it necessary to use some of
aeronautical charts, information and services; rules, these aids at greater service ranges than
regulations and procedures, technical information, specified. Extended range is made possible
and manpower and material. Included are system through flight inspection determinations. Some
components shared jointly with the military. aids also have lesser service range due to location,
terrain, frequency protection, etc. Restrictions to
NATIONAL BEACON CODE ALLOCATION service range are listed in Chart Supplement U.S.
PLAN AIRSPACE Airspace over United States
territory located within the North American continent NAVIGABLE AIRSPACE Airspace at and above
between Canada and Mexico, including adjacent the minimum flight altitudes prescribed in the CFRs
territorial waters outward to about boundaries of including airspace needed for safe takeoff and
oceanic control areas (CTA)/Flight Information landing.
Regions (FIR). (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(See FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION.)
NAVIGATION REFERENCE SYSTEM (NRS)
NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA CENTER A facility in The NRS is a system of waypoints developed for use
Washington D.C., established by FAA to operate a within the United States for flight planning and
central aeronautical information service for the navigation without reference to ground based
collection, validation, and dissemination of navigational aids. The NRS waypoints are located in
aeronautical data in support of the activities of a grid pattern along defined latitude and longitude
government, industry, and the aviation community. lines. The initial use of the NRS will be in the high
The information is published in the National Flight altitude environment in conjunction with the High
Data Digest. Altitude Redesign initiative. The NRS waypoints are
(See NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA DIGEST.) intended for use by aircraft capable of pointtopoint
navigation.
NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA DIGEST A daily
(except weekends and Federal holidays) publication NAVIGATION SPECIFICATION [ICAO] A set of
of flight information appropriate to aeronautical aircraft and flight crew requirements needed to
charts, aeronautical publications, Notices to Airmen, support performancebased navigation operations
or other media serving the purpose of providing within a defined airspace. There are two kinds of
operational flight data essential to safe and efficient navigation specifications:
aircraft operations. a. RNP specification. A navigation specification
based on area navigation that includes the
NATIONAL SEARCH AND RESCUE PLAN An
requirement for performance monitoring and
interagency agreement which provides for the
alerting, designated by the prefix RNP; e.g., RNP 4,
effective utilization of all available facilities in all
RNP APCH.
types of search and rescue missions.
b. RNAV specification. A navigation specifica-
NAVAID tion based on area navigation that does not include the
(See NAVIGATIONAL AID.) requirement for performance monitoring and alert-
PCG N1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
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ing, designated by the prefix RNAV; e.g., RNAV 5, with headings to be flown, the controller observes the
RNAV 1. radar track and issues control instructions turn
Note: The Performancebased Navigation Manual right/left or stop turn as appropriate.
(Doc 9613), Volume II contains detailed guidance (Refer to AIM.)
on navigation specifications.
NO GYRO VECTOR
(See NO GYRO APPROACH.)
NAVIGATIONAL AID Any visual or electronic
NO TRANSGRESSION ZONE (NTZ) The NTZ is
device airborne or on the surface which provides
a 2,000 foot wide zone, located equidistant between
point-to-point guidance information or position data
parallel runway or SOIA final approach courses in
to aircraft in flight.
which flight is normally not allowed.
(See AIR NAVIGATION FACILITY.)
NONAPPROACH CONTROL TOWER Author-
NBCAP AIRSPACE
izes aircraft to land or takeoff at the airport controlled
(See NATIONAL BEACON CODE ALLOCATION
by the tower or to transit the Class D airspace. The
PLAN AIRSPACE.)
primary function of a nonapproach control tower is
NDB the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and on
(See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.) the landing area. Nonapproach control towers also
NEGATIVE No, or permission not granted, or separate aircraft operating under instrument flight
that is not correct. rules clearances from approach controls and centers.
They provide ground control services to aircraft,
NEGATIVE CONTACT Used by pilots to inform vehicles, personnel, and equipment on the airport
ATC that: movement area.
a. Previously issued traffic is not in sight. It may NONCOMMON ROUTE/PORTION That segment
be followed by the pilots request for the controller to of a North American Route between the inland
provide assistance in avoiding the traffic. navigation facility and a designated North American
b. They were unable to contact ATC on a terminal.
particular frequency.
NONCOMPOSITE SEPARATION Separation in
NFDC accordance with minima other than the composite
(See NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA CENTER.) separation minimum specified for the area con-
NFDD cerned.
(See NATIONAL FLIGHT DATA DIGEST.) NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON An L/MF or UHF
NIGHT The time between the end of evening civil radio beacon transmitting nondirectional signals
twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight, whereby the pilot of an aircraft equipped with
as published in the Air Almanac, converted to local direction finding equipment can determine his/her
time. bearing to or from the radio beacon and home on or
track to or from the station. When the radio beacon is
(See ICAO term NIGHT.)
installed in conjunction with the Instrument Landing
NIGHT [ICAO] The hours between the end of System marker, it is normally called a Compass
evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning Locator.
civil twilight or such other period between sunset and (See AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER.)
sunrise as may be specified by the appropriate (See COMPASS LOCATOR.)
authority.
NONMOVEMENT AREAS Taxiways and apron
Note: Civil twilight ends in the evening when the
center of the suns disk is 6 degrees below the
(ramp) areas not under the control of air traffic.
horizon and begins in the morning when the center NONPRECISION APPROACH
of the suns disk is 6 degrees below the horizon. (See NONPRECISION APPROACH
PROCEDURE.)
NO GYRO APPROACH A radar approach/vector
provided in case of a malfunctioning gyro-compass NONPRECISION APPROACH PROCEDURE A
or directional gyro. Instead of providing the pilot standard instrument approach procedure in which no
PCG N2
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electronic glideslope is provided; e.g., VOR, NORDO (No Radio) Aircraft that cannot or do not
TACAN, NDB, LOC, ASR, LDA, or SDF communicate by radio when radio communication is
approaches. required are referred to as NORDO.
(See LOST COMMUNICATIONS.)
NONRADAR Precedes other terms and generally
means without the use of radar, such as: NORMAL OPERATING ZONE (NOZ) The NOZ
a. Nonradar Approach. Used to describe is the operating zone within which aircraft flight
instrument approaches for which course guidance on remains during normal independent simultaneous
final approach is not provided by ground-based parallel ILS approaches.
precision or surveillance radar. Radar vectors to the NORTH AMERICAN ROUTE A numerically
final approach course may or may not be provided by coded route preplanned over existing airway and
ATC. Examples of nonradar approaches are VOR, route systems to and from specific coastal fixes
NDB, TACAN, ILS, RNAV, and GLS approaches. serving the North Atlantic. North American Routes
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.) consist of the following:
(See FINAL APPROACH-IFR.) a. Common Route/Portion. That segment of a
(See INSTRUMENT APPROACH North American Route between the inland navigation
PROCEDURE.) facility and the coastal fix.
(See RADAR APPROACH.)
b. Noncommon Route/Portion. That segment of a
b. Nonradar Approach Control. An ATC facility North American Route between the inland navigation
providing approach control service without the use of facility and a designated North American terminal.
radar. c. Inland Navigation Facility. A navigation aid on
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.) a North American Route at which the common route
(See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.) and/or the noncommon route begins or ends.
c. Nonradar Arrival. An aircraft arriving at an d. Coastal Fix. A navigation aid or intersection
airport without radar service or at an airport served by where an aircraft transitions between the domestic
a radar facility and radar contact has not been route structure and the oceanic route structure.
established or has been terminated due to a lack of
radar service to the airport. NORTH AMERICAN ROUTE PROGRAM (NRP)
(See RADAR ARRIVAL.)
The NRP is a set of rules and procedures which are
designed to increase the flexibility of user flight
(See RADAR SERVICE.)
planning within published guidelines.
d. Nonradar Route. A flight path or route over
which the pilot is performing his/her own navigation. NORTH ATLANTIC HIGH LEVEL AIRSPACE
The pilot may be receiving radar separation, radar (NAT HLA) That volume of airspace (as defined in
monitoring, or other ATC services while on a ICAO Document 7030) between FL 285 and FL 420
nonradar route. within the Oceanic Control Areas of Bodo Oceanic,
(See RADAR ROUTE.) Gander Oceanic, New York Oceanic East, Reykjavik,
Santa Maria, and Shanwick, excluding the Shannon
e. Nonradar Separation. The spacing of aircraft in and Brest Ocean Transition Areas. ICAO Doc 007
accordance with established minima without the use North Atlantic Operations and Airspace Manual
of radar; e.g., vertical, lateral, or longitudinal provides detailed information on related aircraft and
separation. operational requirements.
(See RADAR SEPARATION.)
NORTH MARK A beacon data block sent by the
NONRESTRICTIVE ROUTING (NRR) Portions host computer to be displayed by the ARTS on a 360
of a proposed route of flight where a user can flight degree bearing at a locally selected radar azimuth and
plan the most advantageous flight path with no distance. The North Mark is used to ensure correct
requirement to make reference to groundbased range/azimuth orientation during periods of
NAVAIDs. CENRAP.
NOPAC NORTH PACIFIC An organized route system
(See NORTH PACIFIC.) between the Alaskan west coast and Japan.
PCG N3
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NOT STANDARD Varying from what is expected of responsibility of the Flight Service Station. These
or published. For use in NOTAMs only. NOTAMs will be stored and available until canceled.
NOT STD- c. FDC NOTAM A NOTAM regulatory in
(See NOT STANDARD) nature, transmitted by USNOF and given system
wide dissemination.
NOTAM (See ICAO term NOTAM.)
(See NOTICE TO AIRMEN.)
NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION A
NOTAM [ICAO] A notice containing information publication issued every 28 days, designed primarily
concerning the establishment, condition or change in for the pilot, which contains current NOTAM
any aeronautical facility, service, procedure or information considered essential to the safety of
hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to flight as well as supplemental data to other
personnel concerned with flight operations. aeronautical publications. The contraction NTAP is
a. I Distribution Distribution by means of used in NOTAM text.
telecommunication. (See NOTICE TO AIRMEN.)
b. II Distribution Distribution by means other NRR
than telecommunications.
(See NONRESTRICTIVE ROUTING.)
NOTICE TO AIRMEN A notice containing NRS
information (not known sufficiently in advance to
(See NAVIGATION REFERENCE SYSTEM.)
publicize by other means) concerning the
establishment, condition, or change in any NTAP
component (facility, service, or procedure of, or (See NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION.)
hazard in the National Airspace System) the timely NUMEROUS TARGETS VICINITY (LOCA-
knowledge of which is essential to personnel TION) A traffic advisory issued by ATC to advise
concerned with flight operations. pilots that targets on the radar scope are too numerous
NOTAM(D) A NOTAM given (in addition to local to issue individually.
dissemination) distant dissemination beyond the area (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
PCG N4
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
O
OBSTACLE An existing object, object of natural (b) 180 feet, plus the wingspan of the most
growth, or terrain at a fixed geographical location or demanding airplane, plus 20 feet per 1,000 feet of
which may be expected at a fixed location within a airport elevation.
prescribed area with reference to which vertical 2. For runways serving only small airplanes:
clearance is or must be provided during flight (a) 300 feet for precision instrument run-
operation. ways.
OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURE (ODP) (b) 250 feet for other runways serving small
A preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) departure airplanes with approach speeds of 50 knots, or more.
procedure printed for pilot use in textual or graphic (c) 120 feet for other runways serving small
form to provide obstruction clearance via the least airplanes with approach speeds of less than 50 knots.
onerous route from the terminal area to the b. Inner-approach OFZ. The inner-approach OFZ
appropriate en route structure. ODPs are recom- is a defined volume of airspace centered on the
mended for obstruction clearance and may be flown approach area. The inner-approach OFZ applies only
without ATC clearance unless an alternate departure to runways with an approach lighting system. The
procedure (SID or radar vector) has been specifically inner-approach OFZ begins 200 feet from the runway
assigned by ATC. threshold at the same elevation as the runway
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND threshold and extends 200 feet beyond the last light
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.) unit in the approach lighting system. The width of the
(See STANDARD INSTRUMENT inner-approach OFZ is the same as the runway OFZ
DEPARTURES.) and rises at a slope of 50 (horizontal) to 1 (vertical)
(Refer to AIM.) from the beginning.
c. Inner-transitional OFZ. The inner transitional
OBSTACLE FREE ZONE The OFZ is a three surface OFZ is a defined volume of airspace along the
dimensional volume of airspace which protects for sides of the runway and inner-approach OFZ and
the transition of aircraft to and from the runway. The applies only to precision instrument runways. The
OFZ clearing standard precludes taxiing and parked inner-transitional surface OFZ slopes 3 (horizontal)
airplanes and object penetrations, except for to 1 (vertical) out from the edges of the runway OFZ
frangible NAVAID locations that are fixed by and inner-approach OFZ to a height of 150 feet above
function. Additionally, vehicles, equipment, and the established airport elevation.
personnel may be authorized by air traffic control to (Refer to AC 150/5300-13, Chapter 3.)
enter the area using the provisions of FAAO JO (Refer to FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 315,
7110.65, Para 315, VEHICLES/EQUIPMENT/ VEHICLES/EQUIPMENT/PERSONNEL ON
PERSONNEL ON RUNWAYS. The runway OFZ RUNWAYS.)
and when applicable, the inner-approach OFZ, and
OBSTRUCTION Any object/obstacle exceeding
the inner-transitional OFZ, comprise the OFZ.
the obstruction standards specified by 14 CFR
a. Runway OFZ. The runway OFZ is a defined Part 77, Subpart C.
volume of airspace centered above the runway. The
OBSTRUCTION LIGHT A light or one of a group
runway OFZ is the airspace above a surface whose
of lights, usually red or white, frequently mounted on
elevation at any point is the same as the elevation of
a surface structure or natural terrain to warn pilots of
the nearest point on the runway centerline. The
the presence of an obstruction.
runway OFZ extends 200 feet beyond each end of the
runway. The width is as follows: OCEANIC AIRSPACE Airspace over the oceans of
the world, considered international airspace, where
1. For runways serving large airplanes, the
oceanic separation and procedures per the Interna-
greater of:
tional Civil Aviation Organization are applied.
(a) 400 feet, or Responsibility for the provisions of air traffic control
PCG O1
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service in this airspace is delegated to various b. Used by ATC to advise a pilot making a radar
countries, based generally upon geographic proxim- approach that his/her aircraft is lined up on the final
ity and the availability of the required resources. approach course.
(See ON-COURSE INDICATION.)
OCEANIC ERROR REPORT A report filed when
ATC observes an Oceanic Error as defined by ON-COURSE INDICATION An indication on an
FAAO 7110.82, Reporting Oceanic Errors. instrument, which provides the pilot a visual means
of determining that the aircraft is located on the
OCEANIC PUBLISHED ROUTE A route estab- centerline of a given navigational track, or an
lished in international airspace and charted or indication on a radar scope that an aircraft is on a
described in flight information publications, such as given track.
Route Charts, DOD Enroute Charts, Chart Supple-
ments, NOTAMs, and Track Messages. ONE-MINUTE WEATHER The most recent one
minute updated weather broadcast received by a pilot
OCEANIC TRANSITION ROUTE An ATS route from an uncontrolled airport ASOS/AWSS/AWOS.
established for the purpose of transitioning aircraft
ONER
to/from an organized track system.
(See OCEANIC NAVIGATIONAL ERROR
ODP REPORT.)
(See OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURE.) OPERATIONAL
OFF COURSE A term used to describe a situation (See DUE REGARD.)
where an aircraft has reported a position fix or is OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS [ICAO] The
observed on radar at a point not on the ATC-approved authorizations, conditions and limitations associated
route of flight. with the air operator certificate and subject to the
conditions in the operations manual.
OFF-ROUTE VECTOR A vector by ATC which
takes an aircraft off a previously assigned route. OPPOSITE DIRECTION AIRCRAFT Aircraft are
Altitudes assigned by ATC during such vectors operating in opposite directions when:
provide required obstacle clearance. a. They are following the same track in reciprocal
directions; or
OFFSET PARALLEL RUNWAYS Staggered
runways having centerlines which are parallel. b. Their tracks are parallel and the aircraft are
flying in reciprocal directions; or
OFFSHORE/CONTROL AIRSPACE AREA That c. Their tracks intersect at an angle of more than
portion of airspace between the U.S. 12 NM limit and 135_.
the oceanic CTA/FIR boundary within which air
traffic control is exercised. These areas are OPTION APPROACH An approach requested and
established to provide air traffic control services. conducted by a pilot which will result in either a
Offshore/Control Airspace Areas may be classified touch-and-go, missed approach, low approach,
as either Class A airspace or Class E airspace. stop-and-go, or full stop landing. Pilots should advise
ATC if they decide to remain on the runway, of any
OFT delay in their stop and go, delay clearing the runway,
(See OUTER FIX TIME.) or are unable to comply with the instruction(s).
(See CLEARED FOR THE OPTION.)
OM
(Refer to AIM.)
(See OUTER MARKER.)
ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM A series of ATS
ON COURSE routes which are fixed and charted; i.e., CEP,
a. Used to indicate that an aircraft is established on NOPAC, or flexible and described by NOTAM; i.e.,
the route centerline. NAT TRACK MESSAGE.
PCG O2
11/10/16
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OROCA An off-route altitude which provides OUTER FIX An adapted fix along the converted
obstruction clearance with a 1,000 foot buffer in route of flight, prior to the meter fix, for which
nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000 foot buffer crossing times are calculated and displayed in the
in designated mountainous areas within the United metering position list.
States. This altitude may not provide signal coverage OUTER FIX ARC A semicircle, usually about a
from ground-based navigational aids, air traffic 5070 mile radius from a meter fix, usually in high
control radar, or communications coverage. altitude, which is used by CTAS/HOST to calculate
OTR outer fix times and determine appropriate sector
(See OCEANIC TRANSITION ROUTE.) meter list assignments for aircraft on an established
arrival route that will traverse the arc.
OTS
OUTER FIX TIME A calculated time to depart the
(See ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM.) outer fix in order to cross the vertex at the ACLT. The
OUT The conversation is ended and no response is time reflects descent speed adjustments and any
expected. applicable delay time that must be absorbed prior to
crossing the meter fix.
OUT OF SERVICE When a piece of equipment, a
OUTER MARKER A marker beacon at or near the
system, a facility or a service is not operational,
glideslope intercept altitude of an ILS approach. It is
certified (if required) and immediately available
keyed to transmit two dashes per second on a 400 Hz
for Air Traffic or public use.
tone, which is received aurally and visually by
OUTER AREA (associated with Class C airspace) compatible airborne equipment. The OM is normally
Nonregulatory airspace surrounding designated located four to seven miles from the runway threshold
Class C airspace airports wherein ATC provides radar on the extended centerline of the runway.
vectoring and sequencing on a full-time basis for all (See INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM.)
IFR and participating VFR aircraft. The service (See MARKER BEACON.)
provided in the outer area is called Class C service (Refer to AIM.)
which includes: IFR/IFRIFR separation; IFR/ OVER My transmission is ended; I expect a
VFRtraffic advisories and conflict resolution; and response.
VFR/VFRtraffic advisories and, as appropriate,
safety alerts. The normal radius will be 20 nautical OVERHEAD MANEUVER A series of predeter-
miles with some variations based on site-specific mined maneuvers prescribed for aircraft (often in
requirements. The outer area extends outward from formation) for entry into the visual flight rules (VFR)
the primary Class C airspace airport and extends from traffic pattern and to proceed to a landing. An
the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the overhead maneuver is not an instrument flight rules
ceiling of the approach controls delegated airspace (IFR) approach procedure. An aircraft executing an
excluding the Class C charted area and other airspace overhead maneuver is considered VFR and the IFR
as appropriate. flight plan is cancelled when the aircraft reaches the
(See CONFLICT RESOLUTION.) initial point on the initial approach portion of the
maneuver. The pattern usually specifies the
(See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
following:
OUTER COMPASS LOCATOR a. The radio contact required of the pilot.
(See COMPASS LOCATOR.) b. The speed to be maintained.
OUTER FIX A general term used within ATC to c. An initial approach 3 to 5 miles in length.
describe fixes in the terminal area, other than the final d. An elliptical pattern consisting of two 180
approach fix. Aircraft are normally cleared to these degree turns.
fixes by an Air Route Traffic Control Center or an e. A break point at which the first 180 degree turn
Approach Control Facility. Aircraft are normally is started.
cleared from these fixes to the final approach fix or f. The direction of turns.
final approach course.
g. Altitude (at least 500 feet above the convention-
OR al pattern).
PCG O3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 11/10/16
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h. A Roll-out on final approach not less than 1/4 OVERLYING CENTER The ARTCC facility that
mile from the landing threshold and not less than 300 is responsible for arrival/departure operations at a
feet above the ground. specific terminal.
PCG O4
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
P
P TIME PERFORMANCEBASED NAVIGATION (PBN)
(See PROPOSED DEPARTURE TIME.) [ICAO] Area navigation based on performance
requirements for aircraft operating along an ATS
P-ACP route, on an instrument approach procedure or in a
(See PREARRANGED COORDINATION designated airspace.
PROCEDURES.)
Note: Performance requirements are expressed in
PAN-PAN The international radio-telephony urgen- navigation specifications (RNAV specification,
cy signal. When repeated three times, indicates RNP specification) in terms of accuracy, integrity,
uncertainty or alert followed by the nature of the continuity, availability, and functionality needed for
the proposed operation in the context of a
urgency.
particular airspace concept.
(See MAYDAY.)
(Refer to AIM.) PERMANENT ECHO Radar signals reflected from
fixed objects on the earths surface; e.g., buildings,
PAR
towers, terrain. Permanent echoes are distinguished
(See PRECISION APPROACH RADAR.)
from ground clutter by being definable locations
PAR [ICAO] rather than large areas. Under certain conditions they
(See ICAO Term PRECISION APPROACH may be used to check radar alignment.
RADAR.)
PHOTO RECONNAISSANCE Military activity
PARALLEL ILS APPROACHES Approaches to that requires locating individual photo targets and
parallel runways by IFR aircraft which, when navigating to the targets at a preplanned angle and
established inbound toward the airport on the altitude. The activity normally requires a lateral route
adjacent final approach courses, are radar-separated width of 16 NM and altitude range of 1,500 feet to
by at least 2 miles. 10,000 feet AGL.
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.) PILOT BRIEFING A service provided by the FSS
(See SIMULTANEOUS ILS APPROACHES.) to assist pilots in flight planning. Briefing items may
PARALLEL OFFSET ROUTE A parallel track to include weather information, NOTAMS, military
the left or right of the designated or established activities, flow control information, and other items
airway/route. Normally associated with Area Navi- as requested.
gation (RNAV) operations. (Refer to AIM.)
(See AREA NAVIGATION.) PILOT IN COMMAND The pilot responsible for
PARALLEL RUNWAYS Two or more runways at the operation and safety of an aircraft during flight
the same airport whose centerlines are parallel. In time.
addition to runway number, parallel runways are (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
designated as L (left) and R (right) or, if three parallel PILOT WEATHER REPORT A report of meteoro-
runways exist, L (left), C (center), and R (right). logical phenomena encountered by aircraft in flight.
PBCT (Refer to AIM.)
(See PROPOSED BOUNDARY CROSSING PILOTS DISCRETION When used in conjunc-
TIME.) tion with altitude assignments, means that ATC has
PBN offered the pilot the option of starting climb or
(See ICAO Term PERFORMANCEBASED descent whenever he/she wishes and conducting the
NAVIGATION.) climb or descent at any rate he/she wishes. He/she
may temporarily level off at any intermediate
PDC altitude. However, once he/she has vacated an
(See PREDEPARTURE CLEARANCE.) altitude, he/she may not return to that altitude.
PCG P1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
PCG P2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
PRECISION APPROACH RADAR Radar equip- system, or other FMA with the same capability,
ment in some ATC facilities operated by the FAA presents (NTZ) surveillance track data to controllers
and/or the military services at joint-use civil/military along with detailed maps depicting approaches and
locations and separate military installations to detect no transgression zone and is required for all
and display azimuth, elevation, and range of aircraft simultaneous close parallel PRM NTZ monitoring
on the final approach course to a runway. This operations.
equipment may be used to monitor certain nonradar (Refer to AIM)
approaches, but is primarily used to conduct a PREDICTIVE WIND SHEAR ALERT SYSTEM
precision instrument approach (PAR) wherein the (PWS) A selfcontained system used onboard some
controller issues guidance instructions to the pilot aircraft to alert the flight crew to the presence of a
based on the aircrafts position in relation to the final potential wind shear. PWS systems typically monitor
approach course (azimuth), the glidepath (elevation), 3 miles ahead and 25 degrees left and right of the
and the distance (range) from the touchdown point on aircrafts heading at or below 1200 AGL. Departing
the runway as displayed on the radar scope. flights may receive a wind shear alert after they start
Note: The abbreviation PAR is also used to the takeoff roll and may elect to abort the takeoff.
denote preferential arrival routes in ARTCC Aircraft on approach receiving an alert may elect to
computers. go around or perform a wind shear escape maneuver.
(See GLIDEPATH.)
PREFERENTIAL ROUTES Preferential routes
(See PAR.) (PDRs, PARs, and PDARs) are adapted in ARTCC
(See PREFERENTIAL ROUTES.) computers to accomplish inter/intrafacility controller
(See ICAO term PRECISION APPROACH coordination and to assure that flight data is posted at
RADAR.) the proper control positions. Locations having a need
(Refer to AIM.) for these specific inbound and outbound routes
PRECISION APPROACH RADAR [ICAO] Pri- normally publish such routes in local facility
mary radar equipment used to determine the position bulletins, and their use by pilots minimizes flight
of an aircraft during final approach, in terms of lateral plan route amendments. When the workload or traffic
and vertical deviations relative to a nominal approach situation permits, controllers normally provide radar
path, and in range relative to touchdown. vectors or assign requested routes to minimize
Note: Precision approach radars are designed to
circuitous routing. Preferential routes are usually
enable pilots of aircraft to be given guidance by confined to one ARTCCs area and are referred to by
radio communication during the final stages of the the following names or acronyms:
approach to land. a. Preferential Departure Route (PDR). A specific
departure route from an airport or terminal area to an
PRECISION OBSTACLE FREE ZONE (POFZ) en route point where there is no further need for flow
An 800 foot wide by 200 foot long area centered on control. It may be included in an Instrument
the runway centerline adjacent to the threshold Departure Procedure (DP) or a Preferred IFR Route.
designed to protect aircraft flying precision
b. Preferential Arrival Route (PAR). A specific
approaches from ground vehicles and other aircraft
arrival route from an appropriate en route point to an
when ceiling is less than 250 feet or visibility is less
airport or terminal area. It may be included in a
than 3/4 statute mile (or runway visual range below
Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) or a Preferred IFR
4,000 feet.)
Route. The abbreviation PAR is used primarily
PRECISION RUNWAY MONITOR (PRM) within the ARTCC and should not be confused with
SYSTEM Provides air traffic controllers the abbreviation for Precision Approach Radar.
monitoring the NTZ during simultaneous close c. Preferential Departure and Arrival Route
parallel PRM approaches with precision, high update (PDAR). A route between two terminals which are
rate secondary surveillance data. The high update rate within or immediately adjacent to one ARTCCs area.
surveillance sensor component of the PRM system is PDARs are not synonymous with Preferred IFR
only required for specific runway or approach course Routes but may be listed as such as they do
separation. The high resolution color monitoring accomplish essentially the same purpose.
display, Final Monitor Aid (FMA) of the PRM (See PREFERRED IFR ROUTES.)
PCG P3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 4/27/17
12/10/15
PREFERRED IFR ROUTES Routes established the procedure. However, unless otherwise restricted,
between busier airports to increase system efficiency the point at which the turn may be commenced and
and capacity. They normally extend through one or the type and rate of turn are left to the discretion of the
more ARTCC areas and are designed to achieve pilot.
balanced traffic flows among high density terminals. (See ICAO term PROCEDURE TURN.)
IFR clearances are issued on the basis of these routes PROCEDURE TURN [ICAO] A maneuver in
except when severe weather avoidance procedures or which a turn is made away from a designated track
other factors dictate otherwise. Preferred IFR Routes followed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit
are listed in the Chart Supplement U.S. If a flight is the aircraft to intercept and proceed along the
planned to or from an area having such routes but the reciprocal of the designated track.
departure or arrival point is not listed in the Chart Note 1: Procedure turns are designated left or
Supplement U.S., pilots may use that part of a right according to the direction of the initial turn.
Preferred IFR Route which is appropriate for the Note 2: Procedure turns may be designated as
departure or arrival point that is listed. Preferred IFR being made either in level flight or while
Routes are correlated with DPs and STARs and may descending, according to the circumstances of
be defined by airways, jet routes, direct routes each individual approach procedure.
between NAVAIDs, Waypoints, NAVAID radials/
PROCEDURE TURN INBOUND That point of a
DME, or any combinations thereof.
procedure turn maneuver where course reversal has
(See CENTERS AREA.)
been completed and an aircraft is established inbound
(See INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE
on the intermediate approach segment or final
PROCEDURE.)
approach course. A report of procedure turn
(See PREFERENTIAL ROUTES.)
inbound is normally used by ATC as a position
(See STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL.)
report for separation purposes.
(Refer to CHART SUPPLEMENT U.S.)
(See FINAL APPROACH COURSE.)
(Refer to NOTICES TO AIRMEN PUBLICATION.) (See PROCEDURE TURN.)
PRE-FLIGHT PILOT BRIEFING (See SEGMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENT
(See PILOT BRIEFING.) APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
PROFILE DESCENT An uninterrupted descent
PREVAILING VISIBILITY
(except where level flight is required for speed
(See VISIBILITY.)
adjustment; e.g., 250 knots at 10,000 feet MSL) from
PRIMARY RADAR TARGET An analog or digital cruising altitude/level to interception of a glideslope
target, exclusive of a secondary radar target, or to a minimum altitude specified for the initial or
presented on a radar display. intermediate approach segment of a nonprecision
instrument approach. The profile descent normally
PRM terminates at the approach gate or where the
(See ILS PRM APPROACH and PRECISION glideslope or other appropriate minimum altitude is
RUNWAY MONITOR SYSTEM.) intercepted.
PROCEDURAL CONTROL [ICAO] Term used to PROGRESS REPORT
indicate that information derived from an ATS (See POSITION REPORT.)
surveillance system is not required for the provision PROGRESSIVE TAXI Precise taxi instructions
of air traffic control service. given to a pilot unfamiliar with the airport or issued
PROCEDURAL SEPARATION [ICAO] The sepa- in stages as the aircraft proceeds along the taxi route.
ration used when providing procedural control. PROHIBITED AREA
PROCEDURE TURN The maneuver prescribed (See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish (See ICAO term PROHIBITED AREA.)
an aircraft on the intermediate approach segment or PROHIBITED AREA [ICAO] An airspace of
final approach course. The outbound course, defined dimensions, above the land areas or territorial
direction of turn, distance within which the turn must waters of a State, within which the flight of aircraft
be completed, and minimum altitude are specified in is prohibited.
PCG P4
4/27/17
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
PROMINENT OBSTACLE An obstacle that meets the lateral separation minimum except where
one or more of the following conditions: reduction of protected airspace has been authorized.
a. An obstacle which stands out beyond the PROTECTED SEGMENT- The protected segment is
adjacent surface of surrounding terrain and immedi- a segment on the amended TFM route that is to be
ately projects a noticeable hazard to aircraft in flight. inhibited from automatic adapted route alteration by
b. An obstacle, not characterized as low and close ERAM.
in, whose height is no less than 300 feet above the PT
departure end of takeoff runway (DER) elevation, is (See PROCEDURE TURN.)
within 10NM from the DER, and that penetrates that
airport/heliports diverse departure obstacle clear- PTP
ance surface (OCS). (See POINTTOPOINT.)
c. An obstacle beyond 10NM from an airport/heli- PTS
port that requires an obstacle departure procedure (See POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE.)
(ODP) to ensure obstacle avoidance. PUBLISHED INSTRUMENT APPROACH
(See OBSTACLE.) PROCEDURE VISUAL SEGMENT A segment on
(See OBSTRUCTION.) an IAP chart annotated as Fly Visual to Airport or
Fly Visual. A dashed arrow will indicate the visual
PROPOSED BOUNDARY CROSSING TIME
flight path on the profile and plan view with an
Each center has a PBCT parameter for each internal
associated note on the approximate heading and
airport. Proposed internal flight plans are transmitted
distance. The visual segment should be flown as a
to the adjacent center if the flight time along the
dead reckoning course while maintaining visual
proposed route from the departure airport to the
conditions.
center boundary is less than or equal to the value of
PBCT or if airport adaptation specifies transmission PUBLISHED ROUTE A route for which an IFR
regardless of PBCT. altitude has been established and published; e.g.,
Federal Airways, Jet Routes, Area Navigation
PROPOSED DEPARTURE TIME The time that the Routes, Specified Direct Routes.
aircraft expects to become airborne.
PWS
PROTECTED AIRSPACE The airspace on either (See PREDICTIVE WIND SHEAR ALERT
side of an oceanic route/track that is equal to one-half SYSTEM.)
PCG P5
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
Q
Q ROUTE Q is the designator assigned to as follows: NE quadrant 000-089, SE quadrant
published RNAV routes used by the United States. 090-179, SW quadrant 180-269, NW quadrant
270-359.
QNE The barometric pressure used for the standard
altimeter setting (29.92 inches Hg.). QUEUING
(See STAGING/QUEUING.)
QNH The barometric pressure as reported by a
particular station. QUICK LOOK A feature of the EAS and ARTS
which provides the controller the capability to
QUADRANT A quarter part of a circle, centered on display full data blocks of tracked aircraft from other
a NAVAID, oriented clockwise from magnetic north control positions.
PCG Q1
5/26/16
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
R
RADAR A device which, by measuring the time RADAR APPROACH An instrument approach
interval between transmission and reception of radio procedure which utilizes Precision Approach Radar
pulses and correlating the angular orientation of the (PAR) or Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR).
radiated antenna beam or beams in azimuth and/or (See AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE RADAR.)
elevation, provides information on range, azimuth, (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH
and/or elevation of objects in the path of the PROCEDURE.)
transmitted pulses. (See PRECISION APPROACH RADAR.)
(See SURVEILLANCE APPROACH.)
a. Primary Radar A radar system in which a
(See ICAO term RADAR APPROACH.)
minute portion of a radio pulse transmitted from a site
(Refer to AIM.)
is reflected by an object and then received back at that
site for processing and display at an air traffic control RADAR APPROACH [ICAO] An approach,
facility. executed by an aircraft, under the direction of a radar
controller.
b. Secondary Radar/Radar Beacon (ATCRBS) A
radar system in which the object to be detected is RADAR APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY A
fitted with cooperative equipment in the form of a terminal ATC facility that uses radar and nonradar
radio receiver/transmitter (transponder). Radar capabilities to provide approach control services to
pulses transmitted from the searching transmitter/re- aircraft arriving, departing, or transiting airspace
ceiver (interrogator) site are received in the controlled by the facility.
cooperative equipment and used to trigger a (See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.)
distinctive transmission from the transponder. This a. Provides radar ATC services to aircraft
reply transmission, rather than a reflected signal, is operating in the vicinity of one or more civil and/or
then received back at the transmitter/receiver site for military airports in a terminal area. The facility may
processing and display at an air traffic control facility. provide services of a ground controlled approach
(See INTERROGATOR.) (GCA); i.e., ASR and PAR approaches. A radar
approach control facility may be operated by FAA,
(See TRANSPONDER.)
USAF, US Army, USN, USMC, or jointly by FAA
(See ICAO term RADAR.) and a military service. Specific facility nomencla-
(Refer to AIM.) tures are used for administrative purposes only and
are related to the physical location of the facility and
RADAR [ICAO] A radio detection device which the operating service generally as follows:
provides information on range, azimuth and/or 1. Army Radar Approach Control (ARAC)
elevation of objects. (Army).
a. Primary Radar Radar system which uses 2. Radar Air Traffic Control Facility (RATCF)
reflected radio signals. (Navy/FAA).
b. Secondary Radar Radar system wherein a 3. Radar Approach Control (RAPCON) (Air
radio signal transmitted from a radar station initiates Force/FAA).
the transmission of a radio signal from another 4. Terminal Radar Approach Control
station. (TRACON) (FAA).
5. Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) (FAA).
RADAR ADVISORY The provision of advice and (Only those towers delegated approach control
information based on radar observations. authority.)
(See ADVISORY SERVICE.) RADAR ARRIVAL An aircraft arriving at an
airport served by a radar facility and in radar contact
RADAR ALTIMETER with the facility.
(See RADIO ALTIMETER.) (See NONRADAR.)
PCG R1
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PCG R2
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RADAR SERVICE A term which encompasses one other airports, is instructed to change to tower or
or more of the following services based on the use of advisory frequency.
radar which can be provided by a controller to a pilot d. An aircraft completes a radar approach.
of a radar identified aircraft.
RADAR SURVEILLANCE The radar observation
a. Radar Monitoring The radar flight-following of a given geographical area for the purpose of
of aircraft, whose primary navigation is being performing some radar function.
performed by the pilot, to observe and note deviations
from its authorized flight path, airway, or route. RADAR TRAFFIC ADVISORIES Advisories
When being applied specifically to radar monitoring issued to alert pilots to known or observed radar
of instrument approaches; i.e., with precision traffic which may affect the intended route of flight
approach radar (PAR) or radar monitoring of of their aircraft.
simultaneous ILS,RNAV and GLS approaches, it (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
includes advice and instructions whenever an aircraft RADAR TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE
nears or exceeds the prescribed PAR safety limit or
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
simultaneous ILS RNAV and GLS no transgression
zone. RADAR VECTORING [ICAO] Provision of
(See ADDITIONAL SERVICES.) navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.) specific headings, based on the use of radar.
b. Radar Navigational Guidance Vectoring RADIAL A magnetic bearing extending from a
aircraft to provide course guidance. VOR/VORTAC/TACAN navigation facility.
c. Radar Separation Radar spacing of aircraft in RADIO
accordance with established minima. a. A device used for communication.
(See ICAO term RADAR SERVICE.)
b. Used to refer to a flight service station; e.g.,
RADAR SERVICE [ICAO] Term used to indicate Seattle Radio is used to call Seattle FSS.
a service provided directly by means of radar. RADIO ALTIMETER Aircraft equipment which
a. Monitoring The use of radar for the purpose of makes use of the reflection of radio waves from the
providing aircraft with information and advice ground to determine the height of the aircraft above
relative to significant deviations from nominal flight the surface.
path.
RADIO BEACON
b. Separation The separation used when aircraft (See NONDIRECTIONAL BEACON.)
position information is derived from radar sources.
RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING
RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED Used by ATC (See RADAR.)
to inform a pilot that he/she will no longer be
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR An aircraft
provided any of the services that could be received
navigational instrument coupled with a gyro compass
while in radar contact. Radar service is automatically
or similar compass that indicates the direction of a
terminated, and the pilot is not advised in the
selected NAVAID and indicates bearing with respect
following cases:
to the heading of the aircraft.
a. An aircraft cancels its IFR flight plan, except
within Class B airspace, Class C airspace, a TRSA, RAIS
or where Basic Radar service is provided. (See REMOTE AIRPORT INFORMATION
SERVICE.)
b. An aircraft conducting an instrument, visual, or
contact approach has landed or has been instructed to RAMP
change to advisory frequency. (See APRON.)
c. An arriving VFR aircraft, receiving radar RANDOM ALTITUDE An altitude inappropriate
service to a tower-controlled airport within Class B for direction of flight and/or not in accordance with
airspace, Class C airspace, a TRSA, or where FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 451, VERTICAL
sequencing service is provided, has landed; or to all SEPARATION MINIMA.
PCG R3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
12/10/15
RANDOM ROUTE Any route not established or REMOTE AIRPORT INFORMATION SERVICE
charted/published or not otherwise available to all (RAIS) A temporary service provided by facilities,
users. which are not located on the landing airport, but have
communication capability and automated weather
RC
reporting available to the pilot at the landing airport.
(See ROAD RECONNAISSANCE.)
REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS AIR/GROUND
RCAG FACILITY An unmanned VHF/UHF transmitter/
(See REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS receiver facility which is used to expand ARTCC
AIR/GROUND FACILITY.) air/ground communications coverage and to facilitate
RCC direct contact between pilots and controllers. RCAG
(See RESCUE COORDINATION CENTER.)
facilities are sometimes not equipped with emergen-
cy frequencies 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz.
RCO (Refer to AIM.)
(See REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET.) REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET An
RCR unmanned communications facility remotely con-
(See RUNWAY CONDITION READING.) trolled by air traffic personnel. RCOs serve FSSs.
RTRs serve terminal ATC facilities. An RCO or RTR
READ BACK Repeat my message back to me. may be UHF or VHF and will extend the
RECEIVER AUTONOMOUS INTEGRITY MON- communication range of the air traffic facility. There
ITORING (RAIM) A technique whereby a civil are several classes of RCOs and RTRs. The class is
GNSS receiver/processor determines the integrity of determined by the number of transmitters or
the GNSS navigation signals without reference to receivers. Classes A through G are used primarily for
sensors or non-DoD integrity systems other than the air/ground purposes. RCO and RTR class O
receiver itself. This determination is achieved by a facilities are nonprotected outlets subject to
consistency check among redundant pseudorange undetected and prolonged outages. RCO (Os) and
measurements. RTR (Os) were established for the express purpose
of providing ground-to-ground communications
RECEIVING CONTROLLER A controller/facility between air traffic control specialists and pilots
receiving control of an aircraft from another located at a satellite airport for delivering en route
controller/facility. clearances, issuing departure authorizations, and
RECEIVING FACILITY acknowledging instrument flight rules cancellations
or departure/landing times. As a secondary function,
(See RECEIVING CONTROLLER.)
they may be used for advisory purposes whenever the
RECONFORMANCE The automated process of aircraft is below the coverage of the primary
bringing an aircrafts Current Plan Trajectory into air/ground frequency.
conformance with its track. REMOTE TRANSMITTER/RECEIVER
REDUCE SPEED TO (SPEED) (See REMOTE COMMUNICATIONS OUTLET.)
(See SPEED ADJUSTMENT.) REPORT Used to instruct pilots to advise ATC of
specified information; e.g., Report passing Hamil-
REIL
ton VOR.
(See RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER LIGHTS.)
REPORTING POINT A geographical location in
RELEASE TIME A departure time restriction relation to which the position of an aircraft is
issued to a pilot by ATC (either directly or through an reported.
authorized relay) when necessary to separate a (See COMPULSORY REPORTING POINTS.)
departing aircraft from other traffic. (See ICAO term REPORTING POINT.)
(See ICAO term RELEASE TIME.) (Refer to AIM.)
RELEASE TIME [ICAO] Time prior to which an REPORTING POINT [ICAO] A specified geo-
aircraft should be given further clearance or prior to graphical location in relation to which the position of
which it should not proceed in case of radio failure. an aircraft can be reported.
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PCG R5
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PCG R6
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direction of traffic flow. The adapted optimum flight function. These objects shall be constructed on low
plan from each transition fix to the vertex is impact resistant supports (frangible mounted struc-
determined by the runway configuration for arrival tures) to the lowest practical height with the frangible
metering processing purposes. point no higher than 3 inches above grade.
(Refer to AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design,
RUNWAY LIGHTS Chapter 3.)
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
RUNWAY STATUS LIGHTS (RWSL)
RUNWAY MARKINGS SYSTEMThe RWSL is a system of runway and
(See AIRPORT MARKING AIDS.) taxiway lighting to provide pilots increased
situational awareness by illuminating runway entry
RUNWAY OVERRUN In military aviation exclu- lights (REL) when the runway is unsafe for entry or
sively, a stabilized or paved area beyond the end of a crossing, and take-off hold lights (THL) when the
runway, of the same width as the runway plus runway is unsafe for departure.
shoulders, centered on the extended runway
centerline. RUNWAY TRANSITION
a. Conventional STARs/SIDs. The portion of a
RUNWAY PROFILE DESCENT An instrument STAR/SID that serves a particular runway or
flight rules (IFR) air traffic control arrival procedure runways at an airport.
to a runway published for pilot use in graphic and/or
b. RNAV STARs/SIDs. Defines a path(s) from
textual form and may be associated with a STAR.
the common route to the final point(s) on a STAR. For
Runway Profile Descents provide routing and may
a SID, the common route that serves a particular
depict crossing altitudes, speed restrictions, and
runway or runways at an airport.
headings to be flown from the en route structure to the
point where the pilot will receive clearance for and RUNWAY USE PROGRAM A noise abatement
execute an instrument approach procedure. A runway selection plan designed to enhance noise
Runway Profile Descent may apply to more than one abatement efforts with regard to airport communities
runway if so stated on the chart. for arriving and departing aircraft. These plans are
(Refer to AIM.) developed into runway use programs and apply to all
turbojet aircraft 12,500 pounds or heavier; turbojet
RUNWAY SAFETY AREA A defined surface aircraft less than 12,500 pounds are included only if
surrounding the runway prepared, or suitable, for the airport proprietor determines that the aircraft
reducing the risk of damage to airplanes in the event creates a noise problem. Runway use programs are
of an undershoot, overshoot, or excursion from the coordinated with FAA offices, and safety criteria
runway. The dimensions of the RSA vary and can be used in these programs are developed by the Office of
determined by using the criteria contained within Flight Operations. Runway use programs are
AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design, Chapter 3. administered by the Air Traffic Service as Formal
Figure 31 in AC 150/5300-13 depicts the RSA. The or Informal programs.
design standards dictate that the RSA shall be:
a. Formal Runway Use Program An approved
a. Cleared, graded, and have no potentially noise abatement program which is defined and
hazardous ruts, humps, depressions, or other surface acknowledged in a Letter of Understanding between
variations; Flight Operations, Air Traffic Service, the airport
b. Drained by grading or storm sewers to prevent proprietor, and the users. Once established, participa-
water accumulation; tion in the program is mandatory for aircraft operators
and pilots as provided for in 14 CFR Section 91.129.
c. Capable, under dry conditions, of supporting
snow removal equipment, aircraft rescue and b. Informal Runway Use Program An approved
firefighting equipment, and the occasional passage of noise abatement program which does not require a
aircraft without causing structural damage to the Letter of Understanding, and participation in the
aircraft; and, program is voluntary for aircraft operators/pilots.
d. Free of objects, except for objects that need to RUNWAY VISIBILITY VALUE
be located in the runway safety area because of their (See VISIBILITY.)
PCG R7
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PCG R8
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S
SAA or aircraft/other tangible object) that safety logic has
(See SPECIAL ACTIVITY AIRSPACE.) predicted will result in an imminent collision, based
upon the current set of Safety Logic parameters.
SAFETY ALERT A safety alert issued by ATC to
b. FALSE ALERT
aircraft under their control if ATC is aware the aircraft
is at an altitude which, in the controllers judgment, 1. Alerts generated by one or more false
places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain, surfaceradar targets that the system has interpreted
obstructions, or other aircraft. The controller may as real tracks and placed into safety logic.
discontinue the issuance of further alerts if the pilot 2. Alerts in which the safety logic software did
advises he/she is taking action to correct the situation not perform correctly, based upon the design
or has the other aircraft in sight. specifications and the current set of Safety Logic
parameters.
a. Terrain/Obstruction Alert A safety alert issued
by ATC to aircraft under their control if ATC is aware 3. The alert is generated by surface radar targets
the aircraft is at an altitude which, in the controllers caused by moderate or greater precipitation.
judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to c. NUISANCE ALERT An alert in which one or
terrain/obstructions; e.g., Low Altitude Alert, check more of the following is true:
your altitude immediately. 1. The alert is generated by a known situation
b. Aircraft Conflict Alert A safety alert issued by that is not considered an unsafe operation, such as
ATC to aircraft under their control if ATC is aware of LAHSO or other approved operations.
an aircraft that is not under their control at an altitude 2. The alert is generated by inaccurate secon-
which, in the controllers judgment, places both dary radar data received by the Safety Logic System.
aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other. With the 3. One or more of the aircraft involved in the
alert, ATC will offer the pilot an alternate course of alert is not intending to use a runway (for example,
action when feasible; e.g., Traffic Alert, advise you helicopter, pipeline patrol, nonMode C overflight,
turn right heading zero niner zero or climb to eight etc.).
thousand immediately. d. VALID NONALERT A situation in which
Note: The issuance of a safety alert is contingent the safety logic software correctly determines that an
upon the capability of the controller to have an alert is not required, based upon the design
awareness of an unsafe condition. The course of specifications and the current set of Safety Logic
action provided will be predicated on other traffic parameters.
under ATC control. Once the alert is issued, it is
e. INVALID NONALERT A situation in which
solely the pilots prerogative to determine what
course of action, if any, he/she will take.
the safety logic software did not issue an alert when
an alert was required, based upon the design
SAFETY LOGIC SYSTEM A software enhance- specifications.
ment to ASDE3, ASDEX, and ASSC, that predicts SAIL BACK A maneuver during high wind
the path of aircraft landing and/or departing, and/or conditions (usually with power off) where float plane
vehicular movements on runways. Visual and aural movement is controlled by water rudders/opening
alarms are activated when the safety logic projects a and closing cabin doors.
potential collision. The Airport Movement Area
SAME DIRECTION AIRCRAFT Aircraft are
Safety System (AMASS) is a safety logic system
operating in the same direction when:
enhancement to the ASDE3. The Safety Logic
a. They are following the same track in the same
System for ASDEX and ASSC is an integral part of
direction; or
the software program.
b. Their tracks are parallel and the aircraft are
SAFETY LOGIC SYSTEM ALERTS flying in the same direction; or
a. ALERT An actual situation involving two real c. Their tracks intersect at an angle of less than 45
safety logic tracks (aircraft/aircraft, aircraft/vehicle, degrees.
PCG S1
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PCG S2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
point where the aircraft is established on the SEVERE WEATHER FORECAST ALERTS
intermediate course or final approach course. Preliminary messages issued in order to alert users
(See ICAO term INITIAL APPROACH that a Severe Weather Watch Bulletin (WW) is being
SEGMENT.) issued. These messages define areas of possible
severe thunderstorms or tornado activity. The
b. Intermediate Approach The segment between
messages are unscheduled and issued as required by
the intermediate fix or point and the final approach
the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) at Norman,
fix.
Oklahoma.
(See ICAO term INTERMEDIATE APPROACH
(See AIRMET.)
SEGMENT.)
(See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
c. Final Approach The segment between the final (See CWA.)
approach fix or point and the runway, airport, or (See SIGMET.)
missed approach point.
(See ICAO term FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT.) SFA
(See SINGLE FREQUENCY APPROACH.)
d. Missed Approach The segment between the
missed approach point or the point of arrival at SFO
decision height and the missed approach fix at the (See SIMULATED FLAMEOUT.)
prescribed altitude.
SHF
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 97.)
(See SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY.)
(See ICAO term MISSED APPROACH
PROCEDURE.) SHORT RANGE CLEARANCE A clearance
issued to a departing IFR flight which authorizes IFR
SEPARATION In air traffic control, the spacing of flight to a specific fix short of the destination while
aircraft to achieve their safe and orderly movement in air traffic control facilities are coordinating and
flight and while landing and taking off. obtaining the complete clearance.
(See SEPARATION MINIMA.)
SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING AIRCRAFT
(See ICAO term SEPARATION.) An aircraft which, at some weight within its approved
operating weight, is capable of operating from a
SEPARATION [ICAO] Spacing between aircraft,
runway in compliance with the applicable STOL
levels or tracks.
characteristics, airworthiness, operations, noise, and
pollution standards.
SEPARATION MINIMA The minimum longitudi-
(See VERTICAL TAKEOFF AND LANDING
nal, lateral, or vertical distances by which aircraft are
AIRCRAFT.)
spaced through the application of air traffic control
procedures. SIAP
(See SEPARATION.) (See STANDARD INSTRUMENT APPROACH
PROCEDURE.)
SERVICE A generic term that designates functions
or assistance available from or rendered by air traffic SID
control. For example, Class C service would denote (See STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE.)
the ATC services provided within a Class C airspace SIDESTEP MANEUVER A visual maneuver
area. accomplished by a pilot at the completion of an
instrument approach to permit a straight-in landing
SEVERE WEATHER AVOIDANCE PLAN An on a parallel runway not more than 1,200 feet to either
approved plan to minimize the affect of severe side of the runway to which the instrument approach
weather on traffic flows in impacted terminal and/or was conducted.
ARTCC areas. SWAP is normally implemented to (Refer to AIM.)
provide the least disruption to the ATC system when
flight through portions of airspace is difficult or SIGMET A weather advisory issued concerning
impossible due to severe weather. weather significant to the safety of all aircraft.
PCG S3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
SIGMET advisories cover severe and extreme include aural and visual alerts and predictive aircraft
turbulence, severe icing, and widespread dust or position software, communications override, ATC
sandstorms that reduce visibility to less than 3 miles. procedures, an Attention All Users Page (AAUP),
(See AIRMET.) PRM in the approach name, and appropriate ground
(See AWW.) based and airborne equipment. High update rate
(See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.) surveillance sensor required for certain runway or
(See CWA.) approach course separations.
(See ICAO term SIGMET INFORMATION.) SIMULTANEOUS (CONVERGING)
(Refer to AIM.) DEPENDENT APPROACHES-An approach
SIGMET INFORMATION [ICAO] Information operation permitting ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to
issued by a meteorological watch office concerning runways or missed approach courses that intersect
the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified where required minimum spacing between the
en-route weather phenomena which may affect the aircraft on each final approach course is required.
safety of aircraft operations. SIMULTANEOUS (CONVERGING)
SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL INFOR- INDEPENDENT APPROACHES- An approach
MATION operation permitting ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to
(See SIGMET.) non-parallel runways where approach procedure
design maintains the required aircraft spacing
SIGNIFICANT POINT A point, whether a named throughout the approach and missed approach and
intersection, a NAVAID, a fix derived from a hence the operations may be conducted
NAVAID(s), or geographical coordinate expressed in independently.
degrees of latitude and longitude, which is
established for the purpose of providing separation, SIMULTANEOUS ILS APPROACHES An
as a reporting point, or to delineate a route of flight. approach system permitting simultaneous ILS
approaches to airports having parallel runways
SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY A separated by at least 4,300 feet between centerlines.
NAVAID used for nonprecision instrument Integral parts of a total system are ILS, radar,
approaches. The final approach course is similar to communications, ATC procedures, and appropriate
that of an ILS localizer except that the SDF course airborne equipment.
may be offset from the runway, generally not more (See PARALLEL RUNWAYS.)
than 3 degrees, and the course may be wider than the (Refer to AIM.)
localizer, resulting in a lower degree of accuracy.
SIMULTANEOUS OFFSET INSTRUMENT
(Refer to AIM.)
APPROACH (SOIA) An instrument landing
SIMULATED FLAMEOUT A practice approach system comprised of an ILS PRM, RNAV PRM or
by a jet aircraft (normally military) at idle thrust to a GLS PRM approach to one runway and an offset
runway. The approach may start at a runway (high LDA PRM with glideslope or an RNAV PRM or
key) and may continue on a relatively high and wide GLS PRM approach utilizing vertical guidance to
downwind leg with a continuous turn to final. It another where parallel runway spaced less than 3,000
terminates in landing or low approach. The purpose feet and at least 750 feet apart. The approach courses
of this approach is to simulate a flameout. converge by 2.5 to 3 degrees. Simultaneous close
(See FLAMEOUT.) parallel PRM approach procedures apply up to the
SIMULTANEOUS CLOSE PARALLEL point where the approach course separation becomes
APPROACHES- A simultaneous, independent 3,000 feet, at the offset MAP. From the offset MAP
approach operation permitting ILS/RNAV/GLS to the runway threshold, visual separation by the
approaches to airports having parallel runways aircraft conducting the offset approach is utilized.
separated by at least 3,000 feet and less than 4300 feet (Refer to AIM)
between centerlines. Aircraft are permitted to pass SIMULTANEOUS (PARALLEL) DEPENDENT
each other during these simultaneous operations. APPROACHES- An approach operation permitting
Integral parts of a total system are radar, NTZ ILS/RNAV/GLS approaches to adjacent parallel
monitoring with enhanced FMA color displays that runways where prescribed diagonal spacing must be
PCG S4
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maintained. Aircraft are not permitted to pass each SPECIAL ACTIVITY AIRSPACE (SAA) Any
other during simultaneous dependent operations. airspace with defined dimensions within the National
Integral parts of a total system ATC procedures, and Airspace System wherein limitations may be
appropriate airborne and ground based equipment. imposed upon aircraft operations. This airspace may
be restricted areas, prohibited areas, military
SINGLE DIRECTION ROUTES Preferred IFR
operations areas, air ATC assigned airspace, and any
Routes which are sometimes depicted on high
other designated airspace areas. The dimensions of
altitude en route charts and which are normally flown
this airspace are programmed into EDST and can be
in one direction only.
designated as either active or inactive by screen entry.
(See PREFERRED IFR ROUTES.) Aircraft trajectories are constantly tested against the
(Refer to CHART SUPPLEMENT U.S.) dimensions of active areas and alerts issued to the
SINGLE FREQUENCY APPROACH A service applicable sectors when violations are predicted.
provided under a letter of agreement to military (See EN ROUTE DECISION SUPPORT TOOL.)
single-piloted turbojet aircraft which permits use of SPECIAL EMERGENCY A condition of air piracy
a single UHF frequency during approach for landing. or other hostile act by a person(s) aboard an aircraft
Pilots will not normally be required to change which threatens the safety of the aircraft or its
frequency from the beginning of the approach to passengers.
touchdown except that pilots conducting an en route
descent are required to change frequency when SPECIAL INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCE-
control is transferred from the air route traffic control DURE
center to the terminal facility. The abbreviation (See INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE.)
SFA in the DOD FLIP IFR Supplement under SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE Airspace of defined
Communications indicates this service is available dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the
at an aerodrome. earth wherein activities must be confined because of
their nature and/or wherein limitations may be
SINGLE-PILOTED AIRCRAFT A military imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of
turbojet aircraft possessing one set of flight controls, those activities. Types of special use airspace are:
tandem cockpits, or two sets of flight controls but
operated by one pilot is considered single-piloted by a. Alert Area Airspace which may contain a high
ATC when determining the appropriate air traffic volume of pilot training activities or an unusual type
service to be applied. of aerial activity, neither of which is hazardous to
aircraft. Alert Areas are depicted on aeronautical
(See SINGLE FREQUENCY APPROACH.)
charts for the information of nonparticipating pilots.
SKYSPOTTER A pilot who has received All activities within an Alert Area are conducted in
specialized training in observing and reporting accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations, and
inflight weather phenomena. pilots of participating aircraft as well as pilots
transiting the area are equally responsible for
SLASH A radar beacon reply displayed as an collision avoidance.
elongated target.
b. Controlled Firing Area Airspace wherein
SLDI activities are conducted under conditions so
(See SECTOR LIST DROP INTERVAL.) controlled as to eliminate hazards to nonparticipating
aircraft and to ensure the safety of persons and
SLOT TIME property on the ground.
(See METER FIX TIME/SLOT TIME.)
c. Military Operations Area (MOA) A MOA is
SLOW TAXI To taxi a float plane at low power or airspace established outside of Class A airspace area
low RPM. to separate or segregate certain nonhazardous
military activities from IFR traffic and to identify for
SN VFR traffic where these activities are conducted.
(See SYSTEM STRATEGIC NAVIGATION.) (Refer to AIM.)
SPEAK SLOWER Used in verbal communications d. Prohibited Area Airspace designated under
as a request to reduce speech rate. 14 CFR Part 73 within which no person may operate
PCG S5
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
an aircraft without the permission of the using value for the purpose of providing desired spacing.
agency. Pilots are expected to maintain a speed of plus or
(Refer to AIM.) minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the specified
(Refer to En Route Charts.) speed. Examples of speed adjustments are:
e. Restricted Area Airspace designated under a. Increase/reduce speed to Mach point
14 CFR Part 73, within which the flight of aircraft, (number.)
while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restriction. b. Increase/reduce speed to (speed in knots) or
Most restricted areas are designated joint use and Increase/reduce speed (number of knots) knots.
IFR/VFR operations in the area may be authorized by
the controlling ATC facility when it is not being SPEED BRAKES Moveable aerodynamic devices
utilized by the using agency. Restricted areas are on aircraft that reduce airspeed during descent and
depicted on en route charts. Where joint use is landing.
authorized, the name of the ATC controlling facility
SPEED SEGMENTS Portions of the arrival route
is also shown.
between the transition point and the vertex along the
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 73.)
optimum flight path for which speeds and altitudes
(Refer to AIM.)
are specified. There is one set of arrival speed
f. Warning Area A warning area is airspace of segments adapted from each transition point to each
defined dimensions extending from 3 nautical miles vertex. Each set may contain up to six segments.
outward from the coast of the United States, that
contains activity that may be hazardous to SQUAWK (Mode, Code, Function) Activate
nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of such specific modes/codes/functions on the aircraft
warning area is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the transponder; e.g., Squawk three/alpha, two one zero
potential danger. A warning area may be located over five, low.
domestic or international waters or both. (See TRANSPONDER.)
PCG S6
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
workload. ATC clearance must always be received sea lane for takeoff. The STEP TURN maneuver
prior to flying a SID. should only be used upon pilot request.
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND STEPDOWN FIX A fix permitting additional
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.)
descent within a segment of an instrument approach
(See OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURE.)
procedure by identifying a point at which a
(Refer to AIM.) controlling obstacle has been safely overflown.
STANDARD RATE TURN A turn of three degrees STEREO ROUTE A routinely used route of flight
per second. established by users and ARTCCs identified by a
STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL A coded name; e.g., ALPHA 2. These routes minimize
preplanned instrument flight rule (IFR) air traffic flight plan handling and communications.
control arrival procedure published for pilot use in STOL AIRCRAFT
graphic and/or textual form. STARs provide (See SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
transition from the en route structure to an outer fix AIRCRAFT.)
or an instrument approach fix/arrival waypoint in the
STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK Used by ATC to
terminal area.
inform an aircraft to turn-off the automatic altitude
STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL CHARTS reporting feature of its transponder. It is issued when
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) the verbally reported altitude varies 300 feet or more
from the automatic altitude report.
STANDARD TERMINAL AUTOMATION RE- (See ALTITUDE READOUT.)
PLACEMENT SYSTEM (STARS) (See TRANSPONDER.)
(See DTAS.)
STOP AND GO A procedure wherein an aircraft
STAR will land, make a complete stop on the runway, and
(See STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL.) then commence a takeoff from that point.
(See LOW APPROACH.)
STATE AIRCRAFT Aircraft used in military,
(See OPTION APPROACH.)
customs and police service, in the exclusive service
of any government, or of any political subdivision, STOP BURST
thereof including the government of any state, (See STOP STREAM.)
territory, or possession of the United States or the
STOP BUZZER
District of Columbia, but not including any
(See STOP STREAM.)
government-owned aircraft engaged in carrying
persons or property for commercial purposes. STOP SQUAWK (Mode or Code) Used by ATC to
tell the pilot to turn specified functions of the aircraft
STATIC RESTRICTIONS Those restrictions that transponder off.
are usually not subject to change, fixed, in place, (See STOP ALTITUDE SQUAWK.)
and/or published. (See TRANSPONDER.)
STATIONARY RESERVATIONS Altitude STOP STREAM Used by ATC to request a pilot to
reservations which encompass activities in a fixed suspend electronic attack activity.
area. Stationary reservations may include activities, (See JAMMING.)
such as special tests of weapons systems or
equipment, certain U.S. Navy carrier, fleet, and STOPOVER FLIGHT PLAN A flight plan format
anti-submarine operations, rocket, missile and drone which permits in a single submission the filing of a
operations, and certain aerial refueling or similar sequence of flight plans through interim full-stop
operations. destinations to a final destination.
STEP TAXI To taxi a float plane at full power or STOPWAY An area beyond the takeoff runway no
high RPM. less wide than the runway and centered upon the
extended centerline of the runway, able to support the
STEP TURN A maneuver used to put a float plane airplane during an aborted takeoff, without causing
in a planing configuration prior to entering an active structural damage to the airplane, and designated by
PCG S7
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the airport authorities for use in decelerating the SUPPLEMENTAL WEATHER SERVICE
airplane during an aborted takeoff. LOCATION Airport facilities staffed with contract
personnel who take weather observations and
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH IFR An instrument
provide current local weather to pilots via telephone
approach wherein final approach is begun without
or radio. (All other services are provided by the parent
first having executed a procedure turn, not
FSS.)
necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or
made to straight-in landing minimums. SUPPS Refers to ICAO Document 7030 Regional
(See LANDING MINIMUMS.) Supplementary Procedures. SUPPS contain
(See STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH VFR.) procedures for each ICAO Region which are unique
(See STRAIGHT-IN LANDING.) to that Region and are not covered in the worldwide
provisions identified in the ICAO Air Navigation
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH VFR Entry into the Plan. Procedures contained in Chapter 8 are based in
traffic pattern by interception of the extended runway part on those published in SUPPS.
centerline (final approach course) without executing
any other portion of the traffic pattern. SURFACE AREA The airspace contained by the
(See TRAFFIC PATTERN.) lateral boundary of the Class B, C, D, or E airspace
designated for an airport that begins at the surface and
STRAIGHT-IN LANDING A landing made on a extends upward.
runway aligned within 30_ of the final approach
course following completion of an instrument SURPIC A description of surface vessels in the area
approach. of a Search and Rescue incident including their
(See STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH IFR.) predicted positions and their characteristics.
(Refer to FAAO JO 7110.65, Para 1064,
STRAIGHT-IN LANDING MINIMUMS INFLIGHT CONTINGENCIES.)
(See LANDING MINIMUMS.)
SURVEILLANCE APPROACH An instrument
STRAIGHT-IN MINIMUMS approach wherein the air traffic controller issues
(See STRAIGHT-IN LANDING MINIMUMS.) instructions, for pilot compliance, based on aircraft
position in relation to the final approach course
STRATEGIC PLANNING Planning whereby
(azimuth), and the distance (range) from the end of
solutions are sought to resolve potential conflicts.
the runway as displayed on the controllers radar
SUBSTITUTE ROUTE A route assigned to pilots scope. The controller will provide recommended
when any part of an airway or route is unusable altitudes on final approach if requested by the pilot.
because of NAVAID status. These routes consist of: (Refer to AIM.)
a. Substitute routes which are shown on U.S. SWAP
Government charts. (See SEVERE WEATHER AVOIDANCE PLAN.)
b. Routes defined by ATC as specific NAVAID SWSL
radials or courses.
(See SUPPLEMENTAL WEATHER SERVICE
c. Routes defined by ATC as direct to or between LOCATION.)
NAVAIDs.
SYSTEM STRATEGIC NAVIGATION Military
SUNSET AND SUNRISE The mean solar times of activity accomplished by navigating along a
sunset and sunrise as published in the Nautical preplanned route using internal aircraft systems to
Almanac, converted to local standard time for the maintain a desired track. This activity normally
locality concerned. Within Alaska, the end of evening requires a lateral route width of 10 NM and altitude
civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil range of 1,000 feet to 6,000 feet AGL with some route
twilight, as defined for each locality. segments that permit terrain following.
PCG S8
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
T
TACAN this pertains to the act of becoming airborne after
(See TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION.) departing a takeoff area.
TACAN-ONLY AIRCRAFT An aircraft, normally TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA) The
military, possessing TACAN with DME but no VOR runway length declared available and suitable for the
navigational system capability. Clearances must ground run of an airplane taking off.
specify TACAN or VORTAC fixes and approaches. (See ICAO term TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE.)
TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION An ultra-high TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE [ICAO] The length
frequency electronic rho-theta air navigation aid of runway declared available and suitable for the
which provides suitably equipped aircraft a ground run of an aeroplane take-off.
continuous indication of bearing and distance to the TARGET The indication shown on an analog
TACAN station. display resulting from a primary radar return or a
(See VORTAC.) radar beacon reply.
(Refer to AIM.) (See ASSOCIATED.)
(See DIGITAL TARGET.)
TAILWIND Any wind more than 90 degrees to the (See DIGITIZED RADAR TARGET.)
longitudinal axis of the runway. The magnetic (See FUSED TARGET)
direction of the runway shall be used as the basis for
(See PRIMARY RADAR TARGET.)
determining the longitudinal axis.
(See RADAR.)
TAKEOFF AREA (See SECONDARY RADAR TARGET.)
(See LANDING AREA.) (See TARGET SYMBOL.)
(See ICAO term TARGET.)
TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA) The (See UNASSOCIATED.)
takeoff run available plus the length of any remaining
runway or clearway beyond the far end of the takeoff TARGET [ICAO] In radar:
run available. a. Generally, any discrete object which reflects or
(See ICAO term TAKEOFF DISTANCE retransmits energy back to the radar equipment.
AVAILABLE.) b. Specifically, an object of radar search or
surveillance.
TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE [ICAO] The
length of the takeoff run available plus the length of TARGET RESOLUTION A process to ensure that
the clearway, if provided. correlated radar targets do not touch. Target
resolution must be applied as follows:
TAKEOFF HOLD LIGHTS (THL) The THL
a. Between the edges of two primary targets or the
system is composed of in-pavement lighting in a
edges of the ASR-9/11 primary target symbol.
double, longitudinal row of lights aligned either side
of the runway centerline. The lights are focused b. Between the end of the beacon control slash and
toward the arrival end of the runway at the line up the edge of a primary target.
and wait point, and they extend for 1,500 feet in c. Between the ends of two beacon control slashes.
front of the holding aircraft. Illuminated red lights Note 1: Mandatory traffic advisories and safety
indicate to an aircraft in position for takeoff or rolling alerts must be issued when this procedure is used.
that it is unsafe to takeoff because the runway is Note 2: This procedure must not be used when
occupied or about to be occupied by an aircraft or utilizing mosaic radar systems or multisensor
vehicle. mode.
TAKEOFF ROLL The process whereby an aircraft TARGET SYMBOL A computer-generated indica-
is aligned with the runway centerline and the aircraft tion shown on a radar display resulting from a
is moving with the intent to take off. For helicopters, primary radar return or a radar beacon reply.
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TARMAC DELAY The holding of an aircraft on the TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTION (TFR) A
ground either before departure or after landing with TFR is a regulatory action issued by the FAA via the
no opportunity for its passengers to deplane. U.S. NOTAM System, under the authority of United
States Code, Title 49. TFRs are issued within the
TARMAC DELAY AIRCRAFT An aircraft whose
sovereign airspace of the United States and its
pilotincommand has requested to taxi to the ramp,
territories to restrict certain aircraft from operating
gate, or alternate deplaning area to comply with the
within a defined area on a temporary basis to protect
Threehour Tarmac Rule.
persons or property in the air or on the ground. While
TARMAC DELAY REQUEST A request by the not all inclusive, TFRs may be issued for disaster or
pilotincommand to taxi to the ramp, gate, or hazard situations such as: toxic gas leaks or spills,
alternate deplaning location to comply with the fumes from flammable agents, aircraft accident/in-
Threehour Tarmac Rule. cident sites, aviation or ground resources engaged in
wildfire suppression, or aircraft relief activities
TAS following a disaster. TFRs may also be issued in
(See TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEMS.) support of VIP movements; for reasons of national
TAWS security; or when determined necessary for the
(See TERRAIN AWARENESS WARNING management of air traffic in the vicinity of aerial
SYSTEM.) demonstrations or major sporting events. NAS users
or other interested parties should contact a FSS for
TAXI The movement of an airplane under its own TFR information. Additionally, TFR information can
power on the surface of an airport (14 CFR be found in automated briefings, NOTAM publica-
Section 135.100 [Note]). Also, it describes the tions, and on the internet at http://www.faa.gov. The
surface movement of helicopters equipped with FAA also distributes TFR information to aviation
wheels. user groups for further dissemination.
(See AIR TAXI.)
TENTATIVE CALCULATED LANDING TIME A
(See HOVER TAXI.)
projected time calculated for adapted vertex for each
(Refer to 14 CFR Section 135.100.)
arrival aircraft based upon runway configuration,
(Refer to AIM.) airport acceptance rate, airport arrival delay period,
TAXI PATTERNS Patterns established to illustrate and other metered arrival aircraft. This time is either
the desired flow of ground traffic for the different the VTA of the aircraft or the TCLT/ACLT of the
runways or airport areas available for use. previous aircraft plus the AAI, whichever is later.
This time will be updated in response to an aircrafts
TCAS progress and its current relationship to other arrivals.
(See TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION
AVOIDANCE SYSTEM.) TERMINAL AREA A general term used to describe
airspace in which approach control service or airport
TCH traffic control service is provided.
(See THRESHOLD CROSSING HEIGHT.)
TERMINAL AREA FACILITY A facility provid-
TCLT ing air traffic control service for arriving and
(See TENTATIVE CALCULATED LANDING departing IFR, VFR, Special VFR, and on occasion
TIME.) en route aircraft.
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.)
TDLS
(See TOWER.)
(See TERMINAL DATA LINK SYSTEM.)
TERMINAL AUTOMATION SYSTEMS (TAS)
TDZE TAS is used to identify the numerous automated
(See TOUCHDOWN ZONE ELEVATION.) tracking systems including ARTS IIE, ARTS IIIA,
TELEPHONE INFORMATION BRIEFING SER- ARTS IIIE, STARS, and MEARTS.
VICE A continuous telephone recording of TERMINAL DATA LINK SYSTEM (TDLS) A
meteorological and/or aeronautical information. system that provides Digital Automatic Terminal
(Refer to AIM.) Information Service (DATIS) both on a specified
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radio frequency and also, for subscribers, in a text d. Class B Service This service provides, in
message via data link to the cockpit or to a gate addition to basic radar service, approved separation
printer. TDLS also provides Predeparture Clear- of aircraft based on IFR, VFR, and/or weight, and
ances (PDC), at selected airports, to subscribers, sequencing of VFR arrivals to the primary airport(s).
through a service provider, in text to the cockpit or to (See CONTROLLED AIRSPACE.)
a gate printer. In addition, TDLS will emulate the (See TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA.)
Flight Data Input/Output (FDIO) information within (Refer to AIM.)
the control tower. (Refer to CHART SUPPLEMENT U.S.)
TERMINAL-VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNI-
TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA Airspace
DIRECTIONAL RANGE STATION A very high
surrounding designated airports wherein ATC
frequency terminal omnirange station located on or
provides radar vectoring, sequencing, and separation
near an airport and used as an approach aid.
on a full-time basis for all IFR and participating VFR
(See NAVIGATIONAL AID.)
aircraft. The AIM contains an explanation of TRSA.
(See VOR.)
TRSAs are depicted on VFR aeronautical charts.
Pilot participation is urged but is not mandatory. TERRAIN AWARENESS WARNING SYSTEM
(TAWS) An onboard, terrain proximity alerting
TERMINAL VFR RADAR SERVICE A national system providing the aircrew Low Altitude
program instituted to extend the terminal radar warnings to allow immediate pilot action.
services provided instrument flight rules (IFR)
TERRAIN FOLLOWING The flight of a military
aircraft to visual flight rules (VFR) aircraft. The
aircraft maintaining a constant AGL altitude above
program is divided into four types service referred to
the terrain or the highest obstruction. The altitude of
as basic radar service, terminal radar service area
the aircraft will constantly change with the varying
(TRSA) service, Class B service and Class C service.
terrain and/or obstruction.
The type of service provided at a particular location
is contained in the Chart Supplement U.S. TETRAHEDRON A device normally located on
uncontrolled airports and used as a landing direction
a. Basic Radar Service These services are
indicator. The small end of a tetrahedron points in the
provided for VFR aircraft by all commissioned
direction of landing. At controlled airports, the
terminal radar facilities. Basic radar service includes
tetrahedron, if installed, should be disregarded
safety alerts, traffic advisories, limited radar
because tower instructions supersede the indicator.
vectoring when requested by the pilot, and
(See SEGMENTED CIRCLE.)
sequencing at locations where procedures have been
(Refer to AIM.)
established for this purpose and/or when covered by
a letter of agreement. The purpose of this service is to TF
adjust the flow of arriving IFR and VFR aircraft into (See TERRAIN FOLLOWING.)
the traffic pattern in a safe and orderly manner and to THAT IS CORRECT The understanding you have
provide traffic advisories to departing VFR aircraft. is right.
b. TRSA Service This service provides, in THREEHOUR TARMAC RULE Rule that relates
addition to basic radar service, sequencing of all IFR to Department of Transportation (DOT) requirements
and participating VFR aircraft to the primary airport placed on airlines when tarmac delays are anticipated
and separation between all participating VFR to reach 3 hours.
aircraft. The purpose of this service is to provide
separation between all participating VFR aircraft and 360 OVERHEAD
all IFR aircraft operating within the area defined as a (See OVERHEAD MANEUVER.)
TRSA. THRESHOLD The beginning of that portion of the
c. Class C Service This service provides, in runway usable for landing.
addition to basic radar service, approved separation (See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
between IFR and VFR aircraft, and sequencing of (See DISPLACED THRESHOLD.)
VFR aircraft, and sequencing of VFR arrivals to the THRESHOLD CROSSING HEIGHT The
primary airport. theoretical height above the runway threshold at
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Pilot/Controller Glossary
PCG T4
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b. Concerning a precision radar approach (PAR), TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL SERVICE The
it is the point where the glide path intercepts the control of IFR en route traffic within delegated
landing surface. airspace between two or more adjacent approach
(See ICAO term TOUCHDOWN.) control facilities. This service is designed to expedite
traffic and reduce control and pilot communication
TOUCHDOWN [ICAO] The point where the requirements.
nominal glide path intercepts the runway.
TOWER TO TOWER
Note: Touchdown as defined above is only a datum
and is not necessarily the actual point at which the (See TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL
aircraft will touch the runway. SERVICE.)
TRACEABLE PRESSURE STANDARD The
TOUCHDOWN RVR facility station pressure instrument, with certifica-
(See VISIBILITY.) tion/calibration traceable to the National Institute of
Standards and Technology. Traceable pressure
TOUCHDOWN ZONE The first 3,000 feet of the
standards may be mercurial barometers, commis-
runway beginning at the threshold. The area is used
sioned ASOS/AWSS or dual transducer AWOS, or
for determination of Touchdown Zone Elevation in
portable pressure standards or DASI.
the development of straight-in landing minimums for
instrument approaches. TRACK The actual flight path of an aircraft over the
(See ICAO term TOUCHDOWN ZONE.) surface of the earth.
(See COURSE.)
TOUCHDOWN ZONE [ICAO] The portion of a (See FLIGHT PATH.)
runway, beyond the threshold, where it is intended (See ROUTE.)
landing aircraft first contact the runway. (See ICAO term TRACK.)
TOUCHDOWN ZONE ELEVATION The highest TRACK [ICAO] The projection on the earths
elevation in the first 3,000 feet of the landing surface. surface of the path of an aircraft, the direction of
TDZE is indicated on the instrument approach which path at any point is usually expressed in
procedure chart when straight-in landing minimums degrees from North (True, Magnetic, or Grid).
are authorized. TRACK OF INTEREST (TOI) Displayed data
(See TOUCHDOWN ZONE.) representing an airborne object that threatens or has
TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTING the potential to threaten North America or National
Security. Indicators may include, but are not limited
(See AIRPORT LIGHTING.)
to: noncompliance with air traffic control instructions
TOWER A terminal facility that uses air/ground or aviation regulations; extended loss of communica-
communications, visual signaling, and other devices tions; unusual transmissions or unusual flight
to provide ATC services to aircraft operating in the behavior; unauthorized intrusion into controlled
vicinity of an airport or on the movement area. airspace or an ADIZ; noncompliance with issued
Authorizes aircraft to land or takeoff at the airport flight restrictions/security procedures; or unlawful
controlled by the tower or to transit the Class D interference with airborne flight crews, up to and
airspace area regardless of flight plan or weather including hijack. In certain circumstances, an object
conditions (IFR or VFR). A tower may also provide may become a TOI based on specific and credible
approach control services (radar or nonradar). intelligence pertaining to that particular aircraft/
(See AIRPORT TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE.) object, its passengers, or its cargo.
(See APPROACH CONTROL FACILITY.) TRACK OF INTEREST RESOLUTION A TOI
(See APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE.) will normally be considered resolved when: the
(See MOVEMENT AREA.) aircraft/object is no longer airborne; the aircraft
(See TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL complies with air traffic control instructions, aviation
SERVICE.) regulations, and/or issued flight restrictions/security
(See ICAO term AERODROME CONTROL procedures; radio contact is reestablished and
TOWER.) authorized control of the aircraft is verified; the
(Refer to AIM.) aircraft is intercepted and intent is verified to be
PCG T5
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
12/10/15
nonthreatening/nonhostile; TOI was identified based system based on radar beacon signals which operates
on specific and credible intelligence that was later independent of ground-based equipment. TCAS-I
determined to be invalid or unreliable; or displayed generates traffic advisories only. TCAS-II generates
data is identified and characterized as invalid. traffic advisories, and resolution (collision avoid-
ance) advisories in the vertical plane.
TRAFFIC
a. A term used by a controller to transfer radar TRAFFIC INFORMATION
(See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
identification of an aircraft to another controller for
the purpose of coordinating separation action. Traffic TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE
is normally issued: BROADCAST (TISB) The broadcast of ATC
1. In response to a handoff or point out, derived traffic information to ADSB equipped
(1090ES or UAT) aircraft. The source of this traffic
2. In anticipation of a handoff or point out, or information is derived from groundbased air traffic
3. In conjunction with a request for control of an surveillance sensors, typically from radar targets.
aircraft. TISB service will be available throughout the NAS
b. A term used by ATC to refer to one or more where there are both adequate surveillance coverage
aircraft. (radar) and adequate broadcast coverage from
ADSB ground stations. Loss of TISB will occur
TRAFFIC ADVISORIES Advisories issued to alert when an aircraft enters an area not covered by the
pilots to other known or observed air traffic which GBT network. If this occurs in an area with adequate
may be in such proximity to the position or intended surveillance coverage (radar), nearby aircraft that
route of flight of their aircraft to warrant their remain within the adequate broadcast coverage
attention. Such advisories may be based on: (ADSB) area will view the first aircraft. TISB may
a. Visual observation. continue when an aircraft enters an area with
b. Observation of radar identified and nonidenti- inadequate surveillance coverage (radar); nearby
fied aircraft targets on an ATC radar display, or aircraft that remain within the adequate broadcast
c. Verbal reports from pilots or other facilities. coverage (ADSB) area will not view the first
aircraft.
Note 1: The word traffic followed by additional
information, if known, is used to provide such TRAFFIC IN SIGHT Used by pilots to inform a
advisories; e.g., Traffic, 2 oclock, one zero miles, controller that previously issued traffic is in sight.
southbound, eight thousand. (See NEGATIVE CONTACT.)
Note 2: Traffic advisory service will be provided to (See TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.)
the extent possible depending on higher priority TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAM ALERT
duties of the controller or other limitations; e.g., A term used in a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) issued
radar limitations, volume of traffic, frequency
in conjunction with a special traffic management
congestion, or controller workload. Radar/
nonradar traffic advisories do not relieve the pilot program to alert pilots to the existence of the program
of his/her responsibility to see and avoid other and to refer them to either the Notices to Airmen
aircraft. Pilots are cautioned that there are many publication or a special traffic management program
times when the controller is not able to give traffic advisory message for program details. The contrac-
advisories concerning all traffic in the aircrafts tion TMPA is used in NOTAM text.
proximity; in other words, when a pilot requests or TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT UNIT The entity in
is receiving traffic advisories, he/she should not
ARTCCs and designated terminals directly involved
assume that all traffic will be issued.
in the active management of facility traffic. Usually
(Refer to AIM.) under the direct supervision of an assistant manager
TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign), TURN for traffic management.
(left/right) IMMEDIATELY, (climb/descend) AND TRAFFIC NO FACTOR Indicates that the traffic
MAINTAIN (altitude). described in a previously issued traffic advisory is no
(See SAFETY ALERT.) factor.
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOID- TRAFFIC NO LONGER OBSERVED Indicates
ANCE SYSTEM An airborne collision avoidance that the traffic described in a previously issued traffic
PCG T6
5/26/16
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advisory is no longer depicted on radar, but may still TRAJECTORY A EDST representation of the path
be a factor. an aircraft is predicted to fly based upon a Current
Plan or Trial Plan.
TRAFFIC PATTERN The traffic flow that is (See EN ROUTE DECISION SUPPORT TOOL.)
prescribed for aircraft landing at, taxiing on, or taking TRAJECTORY MODELING The automated pro-
off from an airport. The components of a typical cess of calculating a trajectory.
traffic pattern are upwind leg, crosswind leg,
downwind leg, base leg, and final approach. TRAJECTORY OPTIONS SET (TOS)- A TOS is an
electronic message, submitted by the operator, that is
a. Upwind Leg A flight path parallel to the used by the Collaborative Trajectory Options
landing runway in the direction of landing. Program (CTOP) to manage the airspace captured in
b. Crosswind Leg A flight path at right angles to the traffic management program. The TOS will allow
the landing runway off its upwind end. the operator to express the route and delay trade-off
options that they are willing to accept.
c. Downwind Leg A flight path parallel to the
landing runway in the direction opposite to landing. TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST A
The downwind leg normally extends between the continuous recording of meteorological and aeronau-
crosswind leg and the base leg. tical information that is broadcast on L/MF and VOR
facilities for pilots. (Provided only in Alaska.)
d. Base Leg A flight path at right angles to the (Refer to AIM.)
landing runway off its approach end. The base leg
TRANSFER OF CONTROL That action whereby
normally extends from the downwind leg to the
the responsibility for the separation of an aircraft is
intersection of the extended runway centerline.
transferred from one controller to another.
e. Final Approach. A flight path in the direction of (See ICAO term TRANSFER OF CONTROL.)
landing along the extended runway centerline. The
TRANSFER OF CONTROL [ICAO] Transfer of
final approach normally extends from the base leg to
responsibility for providing air traffic control service.
the runway. An aircraft making a straight-in approach
VFR is also considered to be on final approach. TRANSFERRING CONTROLLER A controller/
(See STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH VFR.) facility transferring control of an aircraft to another
controller/facility.
(See TAXI PATTERNS.)
(See ICAO term TRANSFERRING
(See ICAO term AERODROME TRAFFIC UNIT/CONTROLLER.)
CIRCUIT.)
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.) TRANSFERRING FACILITY
(See TRANSFERRING CONTROLLER.)
(Refer to AIM.)
TRANSFERRING UNIT/CONTROLLER [ICAO]
TRAFFIC SITUATION DISPLAY (TSD) TSD is a Air traffic control unit/air traffic controller in the
computer system that receives radar track data from process of transferring the responsibility for
all 20 CONUS ARTCCs, organizes this data into a providing air traffic control service to an aircraft to
mosaic display, and presents it on a computer screen. the next air traffic control unit/air traffic controller
The display allows the traffic management coordina- along the route of flight.
tor multiple methods of selection and highlighting of Note: See definition of accepting unit/controller.
individual aircraft or groups of aircraft. The user has
TRANSITION
the option of superimposing these aircraft positions
over any number of background displays. These a. The general term that describes the change from
background options include ARTCC boundaries, any one phase of flight or flight condition to another; e.g.,
stratum of en route sector boundaries, fixes, airways, transition from en route flight to the approach or
military and other special use airspace, airports, and transition from instrument flight to visual flight.
geopolitical boundaries. By using the TSD, a b. A published procedure (DP Transition) used to
coordinator can monitor any number of traffic connect the basic DP to one of several en route
situations or the entire systemwide traffic flows. airways/jet routes, or a published procedure (STAR
PCG T7
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
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PCG T8
5/26/16
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U
UHF UNMANNED AIRCRAFT (UA) - A device used or
(See ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCY.) intended to be used for flight that has no onboard
pilot. This device can be any type of airplane,
ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band helicopter, airship, or powered-lift aircraft.
between 300 and 3,000 MHz. The bank of radio Unmanned free balloons, moored balloons, tethered
frequencies used for military air/ground voice aircraft, gliders, and unmanned rockets are not
communications. In some instances this may go as considered to be a UA.
low as 225 MHz and still be referred to as UHF.
UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEM (UAS)- An
ULTRALIGHT VEHICLE A single-occupant unmanned aircraft and its associated elements related
aeronautical vehicle operated for sport or recreational to safe operations, which may include control
purposes which does not require FAA registration, an stations (ground, ship, or air based), control links,
airworthiness certificate, nor pilot certification. support equipment, payloads, flight termination
Operation of an ultralight vehicle in certain airspace systems, and launch/recovery equipment. It consists
requires authorization from ATC of three elements: unmanned aircraft, control station,
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 103.) and data link.
UNABLE Indicates inability to comply with a UNPUBLISHED ROUTE A route for which no
specific instruction, request, or clearance. minimum altitude is published or charted for pilot
UNASSOCIATED A radar target that does not use. It may include a direct route between NAVAIDs,
display a data block with flight identification and a radial, a radar vector, or a final approach course
altitude information. beyond the segments of an instrument approach
procedure.
(See ASSOCIATED.)
(See PUBLISHED ROUTE.)
UNDER THE HOOD Indicates that the pilot is (See ROUTE.)
using a hood to restrict visibility outside the cockpit
UNRELIABLE (GPS/WAAS) An advisory to
while simulating instrument flight. An appropriately
pilots indicating the expected level of service of the
rated pilot is required in the other control seat while
GPS and/or WAAS may not be available. Pilots must
this operation is being conducted.
then determine the adequacy of the signal for desired
(Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
use.
UNFROZEN The Scheduled Time of Arrival (STA) UPWIND LEG
tags, which are still being rescheduled by the time (See TRAFFIC PATTERN.)
based flow management (TBFM) calculations. The
aircraft will remain unfrozen until the time the URGENCY A condition of being concerned about
corresponding estimated time of arrival (ETA) tag safety and of requiring timely but not immediate
passes the preset freeze horizon for that aircrafts assistance; a potential distress condition.
stream class. At this point the automatic rescheduling (See ICAO term URGENCY.)
will stop, and the STA becomes frozen. URGENCY [ICAO] A condition concerning the
UNICOM A nongovernment communication facil- safety of an aircraft or other vehicle, or of person on
ity which may provide airport information at certain board or in sight, but which does not require
airports. Locations and frequencies of UNICOMs are immediate assistance.
shown on aeronautical charts and publications. USAFIB
(See CHART SUPPLEMENT U.S.) (See ARMY AVIATION FLIGHT INFORMATION
(Refer to AIM.) BULLETIN.)
PCG U1
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
V
VASI descents and of using very short runways or small
(See VISUAL APPROACH SLOPE INDICATOR.) areas for takeoff and landings. These aircraft include,
but are not limited to, helicopters.
VCOA (See SHORT TAKEOFF AND LANDING
(See VISUAL CLIMB OVER AIRPORT.) AIRCRAFT.)
VDP VERY HIGH FREQUENCY The frequency band
(See VISUAL DESCENT POINT.) between 30 and 300 MHz. Portions of this band, 108
to 118 MHz, are used for certain NAVAIDs; 118 to
VECTOR A heading issued to an aircraft to provide 136 MHz are used for civil air/ground voice
navigational guidance by radar. communications. Other frequencies in this band are
(See ICAO term RADAR VECTORING.) used for purposes not related to air traffic control.
VERIFY Request confirmation of information; VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIDIRECTION-
e.g., verify assigned altitude. AL RANGE STATION
(See VOR.)
VERIFY SPECIFIC DIRECTION OF TAKEOFF
(OR TURNS AFTER TAKEOFF) Used by ATC to VERY LOW FREQUENCY The frequency band
ascertain an aircrafts direction of takeoff and/or between 3 and 30 kHz.
direction of turn after takeoff. It is normally used for
VFR
IFR departures from an airport not having a control
(See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
tower. When direct communication with the pilot is
not possible, the request and information may be VFR AIRCRAFT An aircraft conducting flight in
relayed through an FSS, dispatcher, or by other accordance with visual flight rules.
means. (See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.)
(See IFR TAKEOFF MINIMUMS AND VFR CONDITIONS Weather conditions equal to
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES.)
or better than the minimum for flight under visual
VERTEX The last fix adapted on the arrival speed flight rules. The term may be used as an ATC
segments. Normally, it will be the outer marker of the clearance/instruction only when:
runway in use. However, it may be the actual a. An IFR aircraft requests a climb/descent in
threshold or other suitable common point on the VFR conditions.
approach path for the particular runway configura- b. The clearance will result in noise abatement
tion. benefits where part of the IFR departure route does
VERTEX TIME OF ARRIVAL A calculated time of not conform to an FAA approved noise abatement
aircraft arrival over the adapted vertex for the runway route or altitude.
configuration in use. The time is calculated via the c. A pilot has requested a practice instrument
optimum flight path using adapted speed segments. approach and is not on an IFR flight plan.
Note: All pilots receiving this authorization must
VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV) A function of comply with the VFR visibility and distance from
area navigation (RNAV) equipment which calculates, cloud criteria in 14 CFR Part 91. Use of the term
displays, and provides vertical guidance to a profile does not relieve controllers of their responsibility to
or path. separate aircraft in Class B and Class C airspace
or TRSAs as required by FAAO JO 7110.65. When
VERTICAL SEPARATION Separation between used as an ATC clearance/instruction, the term
aircraft expressed in units of vertical distance. may be abbreviated VFR; e.g., MAINTAIN
(See SEPARATION.) VFR, CLIMB/DESCEND VFR, etc.
PCG V1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 12/10/15
VFR MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES Routes distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted
used by the Department of Defense and associated objects by day and prominent lighted objects by
Reserve and Air Guard units for the purpose of night. Visibility is reported as statute miles, hundreds
conducting low-altitude navigation and tactical of feet or meters.
training under VFR below 10,000 feet MSL at (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
airspeeds in excess of 250 knots IAS. (Refer to AIM.)
VFR NOT RECOMMENDED An advisory a. Flight Visibility The average forward horizon-
provided by a flight service station to a pilot during tal distance, from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight,
a preflight or inflight weather briefing that flight at which prominent unlighted objects may be seen
under visual flight rules is not recommended. To be and identified by day and prominent lighted objects
given when the current and/or forecast weather may be seen and identified by night.
conditions are at or below VFR minimums. It does
not abrogate the pilots authority to make his/her own b. Ground Visibility Prevailing horizontal visi-
decision. bility near the earths surface as reported by the
United States National Weather Service or an
VFR-ON-TOP ATC authorization for an IFR accredited observer.
aircraft to operate in VFR conditions at any c. Prevailing Visibility The greatest horizontal
appropriate VFR altitude (as specified in 14 CFR and visibility equaled or exceeded throughout at least half
as restricted by ATC). A pilot receiving this the horizon circle which need not necessarily be
authorization must comply with the VFR visibility, continuous.
distance from cloud criteria, and the minimum IFR
altitudes specified in 14 CFR Part 91. The use of this d. Runway Visibility Value (RVV) The visibility
term does not relieve controllers of their responsibil- determined for a particular runway by a transmis-
ity to separate aircraft in Class B and Class C airspace someter. A meter provides a continuous indication of
or TRSAs as required by FAAO JO 7110.65. the visibility (reported in miles or fractions of miles)
for the runway. RVV is used in lieu of prevailing
VFR TERMINAL AREA CHARTS visibility in determining minimums for a particular
(See AERONAUTICAL CHART.) runway.
PCG V2
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
3. Rollout RVR The RVR readout values runway as an alternative to complying with climb
obtained from RVR equipment located nearest the gradients greater than 200 feet per nautical mile.
rollout end of the runway. Pilots are responsible to advise ATC as early as
(See ICAO term FLIGHT VISIBILITY.) possible of the intent to fly the VCOA option prior to
(See ICAO term GROUND VISIBILITY.) departure. These textual procedures are published in
(See ICAO term RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE.) the TakeOff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure
(See ICAO term VISIBILITY.) Procedures section of the Terminal Procedures
Publications and/or appear as an option on a Graphic
VISIBILITY [ICAO] The ability, as determined by ODP.
atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of (See AIM.)
distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted
objects by day and prominent lighted objects by VISUAL DESCENT POINT A defined point on the
night. final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in
approach procedure from which normal descent from
a. Flight VisibilityThe visibility forward from the MDA to the runway touchdown point may be
the cockpit of an aircraft in flight. commenced, provided the approach threshold of that
b. Ground VisibilityThe visibility at an aero- runway, or approach lights, or other markings
drome as reported by an accredited observer. identifiable with the approach end of that runway are
c. Runway Visual Range [RVR]The range over clearly visible to the pilot.
which the pilot of an aircraft on the centerline of a VISUAL FLIGHT RULES Rules that govern the
runway can see the runway surface markings or the procedures for conducting flight under visual
lights delineating the runway or identifying its conditions. The term VFR is also used in the
centerline. United States to indicate weather conditions that are
VISUAL APPROACH An approach conducted on equal to or greater than minimum VFR requirements.
an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan which In addition, it is used by pilots and controllers to
authorizes the pilot to proceed visually and clear of indicate type of flight plan.
clouds to the airport. The pilot must, at all times, have (See INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES.)
either the airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. (See INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGICAL
This approach must be authorized and under the CONDITIONS.)
control of the appropriate air traffic control facility. (See VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL
Reported weather at the airport must be ceiling at or CONDITIONS.)
above 1,000 feet and visibility of 3 miles or greater. (Refer to 14 CFR Part 91.)
(See ICAO term VISUAL APPROACH.) (Refer to AIM.)
PCG V3
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
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PCG V4
11/10/16
12/10/15 Pilot/Controller Glossary
W
WA instructions have been met. When able, should not
(See AIRMET.) be used when expeditious compliance is required.
(See WEATHER ADVISORY.) WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
WAAS (WAAS) The WAAS is a satellite navigation system
(See WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM.) consisting of the equipment and software which
augments the GPS Standard Positioning Service
WAKE TURBULENCE Phenomena resulting from (SPS). The WAAS provides enhanced integrity,
the passage of an aircraft through the atmosphere. accuracy, availability, and continuity over and above
The term includes vortices, thrust stream turbulence, GPS SPS. The differential correction function
jet blast, jet wash, propeller wash, and rotor wash provides improved accuracy required for precision
both on the ground and in the air. approach.
(See AIRCRAFT CLASSES.)
WIDE AREA MULTILATERATION (WAM) A
(See JET BLAST.) distributed surveillance technology which may
(See VORTICES.) utilize any combination of signals from Air Traffic
(Refer to AIM.) Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) (Modes A
WARNING AREA and C) and Mode S transponders, and ADS-B
transmissions. Multiple geographically dispersed
(See SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE.)
ground sensors measure the time-of-arrival of the
WAYPOINT A predetermined geographical posi- transponder messages. Aircraft position is determ-
tion used for route/instrument approach definition, ined by joint processing of the
progress reports, published VFR routes, visual time-difference-of-arrival (TDOA) measurements
reporting points or points for transitioning and/or computed between a reference and the ground
circumnavigating controlled and/or special use stations measured time-of-arrival.
airspace, that is defined relative to a VORTAC station WILCO I have received your message, understand
or in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates. it, and will comply with it.
WEATHER ADVISORY In aviation weather WIND GRID DISPLAY A display that presents the
forecast practice, an expression of hazardous weather latest forecasted wind data overlaid on a map of the
conditions not predicted in the area forecast, as they ARTCC area. Wind data is automatically entered and
affect the operation of air traffic and as prepared by updated periodically by transmissions from the
the NWS. National Weather Service. Winds at specific
(See AIRMET.) altitudes, along with temperatures and air pressure
(See SIGMET.) can be viewed.
WHEN ABLE WIND SHEAR A change in wind speed and/or wind
a. In conjunction with ATC instructions, gives the direction in a short distance resulting in a tearing or
pilot the latitude to delay compliance until a shearing effect. It can exist in a horizontal or vertical
condition or event has been reconciled. Unlike pilot direction and occasionally in both.
discretion, when instructions are prefaced when WIND SHEAR ESCAPE An unplanned abortive
able, the pilot is expected to seek the first maneuver initiated by the pilot in command (PIC) as
opportunity to comply. a result of onboard cockpit systems. Wind shear
b. In conjunction with a weather deviation escapes are characterized by maximum thrust climbs
clearance, requires the pilot to determine when he/she in the low altitude terminal environment until wind
is clear of weather, then execute ATC instructions. shear conditions are no longer detected.
c. Once a maneuver has been initiated, the pilot is WING TIP VORTICES
expected to continue until the specifications of the (See VORTICES.)
PCG W1
Pilot/Controller Glossary 5/26/16
12/10/15
WORDS TWICE WS
a. As a request: Communication is difficult. (See SIGMET.)
Please say every phrase twice. (See WEATHER ADVISORY.)
b. As information: Since communications are WST
difficult, every phrase in this message will be spoken (See CONVECTIVE SIGMET.)
twice. (See WEATHER ADVISORY.)
PCG W2
4/27/17 AIM
INDEX
[References are to page numbers]
Aerodrome Forecast (TAF), 7166, 7167, 7168 Aircraft Conflict Alert, 4111
Airport
Aeronautical
Aids, Marking, 231
Charts, 911
Holding Position, 2312
Publications, 911
Pavement, 231
Aeronautical Light Beacons, 221 Holding Position, 231
AFIS. See Automatic Flight Information Service Other, 231
Runway, 231
AHRS. See Attitude Heading Reference System Taxiway, 231
Air Ambulance Flights, 424 Airport Advisory/Information Services, 351
Lighting Aids, 211
Air Defense Identification Zones, 5613 Local Airport Advisory (LAA), 414
Air Route Surveillance Radar, 457 Operations, 431
Communications, 4319
Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 411
Exiting the Runway, After Landing, 4324
Air Traffic Control Flight Check Aircraft, In Terminal Areas, 4326
Aircraft Separation, 441 Flight Inspection, 4326
Clearances, 441 Gate Holding, Departure Delays, 4320
Pilot Services, 411 Intersection Takeoffs, 4315
Air Route Traffic Control Centers, 411 Low Approach, 4318
Airport Reservations, 4118 Low Level Wind Shear/Microburst Detection
Approach Control Service, Arriving VFR Aircraft, Systems, 4312
412 Option Approach, 4325
Automatic Terminal Information Service, 417 Signals, Hand, 4327
Communications, Release of IFR Aircraft, Airports Taxi During Low Visibility, 4323
without Operating Control Tower, 411 Traffic Control Light Signals, 4318
Control Towers, 411 Traffic Patterns, 431, 432
Flight Service Stations, 411 Use of Aircraft Lights, 4326
Ground Vehicle Operations, 416 Use of Runways, 437
IFR Approaches, 416 VFR Flights in Terminal Areas, 4320
Operation Rain Check, 412 VFR Helicopter at Controlled Airports, 4320
Radar Assistance to VFR Aircraft, 4111 With Operating Control Tower, 431
Radar Traffic Information Service, 419 Without Operating Control Tower, 436
Recording and Monitoring, 411 Remote Airport Advisory (RAA), 351
Index I1
AIM 4/27/17
Remote Airport Information Service (RAIS), 351, Alignment of Elements Approach Slope Indicator,
414 215
Signs, 231, 2319 Alphabet, Phonetic, 425
Destination, 2328
Direction, 2325 ALS. See Approach Light Systems
Information, 2329 Altimeter
Location, 2323 Density Altitude, 754
Mandatory Instruction, 2320 Errors, 723
Runway Distance Remaining, 2329 Setting, 721
Airport Reservations, 4118 High Barometric Pressure, 724
Low Barometric Pressure, 724
Airport Surface Detection Equipment, 457
Altitude
Airport Surface Surveillance Capability, 457 Automatic Reporting, 4116
Airport Surveillance Radar, 457 Effects, 813
Hypoxia, 813
Airspace, 311 High Altitude Destinations, 5127
Basic VFR Weather Minimums, 311 Mandatory, 547
Class D, 328 Maximum, 547
Class E, 329 Minimum, 547
Class G, 331
Controlled, 321 Ambulance, Air, 424
Advisories, Traffic, 321 Amended Clearances, 442
Alerts, Safety, 321
Approach
Class A, 322
Advance Information, Instrument Approach, 544
Class B, 322
Approach Control, 543
Class C, 324
Clearance, 5424
IFR Requirements, 321
Contact, 5462, 552
IFR Separation, 321
Instrument, 552
Parachute Jumps, 322
Instrument Approach Procedure, Charts, 545
Ultralight Vehicles, 322
Instrument Approach Procedures, 5426
Unmanned Free Balloons, 322
Low, 4318
VFR Requirements, 321
Minimums, 5452
Flight Levels, 312
Missed, 5455, 553
General Dimensions, Segments, 311
NoGyro, 5435
Military Training Routes, 351
Option, 4325
Other Areas, 351
Overhead Approach Maneuver, 5462
Parachute Jumping, 355
Precision, 5434
Special Use, 341
Surveillance, 5434
Temporary Flight Restrictions, 352 Visual, 5460, 555
Terminal Radar Service Areas, 359
VFR Cruising Altitudes, 312 Approach Control Service, VFR Arriving Aircraft,
VFR Routes, Published, 355 412
Class B Airspace, VFR Transition Routes, 357 Approach Light Systems, 211
VFR Corridors, 357
Approaches
VFR Flyways, 355
IFR, 416
Airway, 535 Parallel Runways, ILS/RNAV/GLS, 5436
Airways, Course Changes, 537 Radar, 5434
Timed, 5431
Alcohol, 811
Area Navigation (RNAV), 5114, 536, 557See
Alert, Safety, 4110, 553 also Area Navigation
Alert Areas, 342 Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes, 536
I2 Index
4/27/17 AIM
ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Emergency Aeronautical Light, 221
Hand Signals, 651 Code, 221
ARFF (Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting) Radio Call Marker, 1110
Sign, 651 Nondirectional Radio, 111
Index I3
AIM 4/27/17
I4 Index
4/27/17 AIM
EFVS. See Enhanced Flight Vision Systems Over National Forests, 741
ELT. See Emergency Locator Transmitters Over National Parks, 741
Over National Refuges, 741
Emergency, 611 Safety, Meteorology, 711
Air Piracy, 636 Vision, 816
Airborne Aircraft Inspection, 758
Aircraft, Overdue, 625 Flight Check Aircraft, 4326
Body Signals, 626 Flight Information ServiceBroadcast, 4519
Ditching Procedures, 633
Flight Information Services, 7118
Explosives Detection, FAA K9 Team Program,
623 Flight Inspections Aircraft, 4326
Fuel Dumping, 637 Flight Management System, 124, 5112
Inflight Monitoring and Reporting, 623
Intercept and Escort, 621 Flight Plan
Locator Transmitters, 622 Change, 5130
Obtaining Assistance, 631 Proposed Departure Time, 5130
Pilot Authority, 611 Closing
Pilot Responsibility, 611 DVFR, 5130
Request Assistance Immediately, 611 VFR, 5130
Search and Rescue, 624 Composite, VFR/IFR, 5111
Services, 621 DVFR Flights, 5110
Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty, Explanation of IFR, 5115
621 Explanation of VFR, 519
Survival Equipment, 626 Form 72331, 519, 5116
Transponder Operation, 621 IFR, Canceling, 5130
VFR Search and Rescue Protection, 625 IFR Flights, Domestic, 5111
VFR Flights, 517
Emergency Locator Transmitter, 622
Flight Restrictions, Temporary, 352
Enhanced Flight Vision Systems, 5457
Flight Service Stations, 411
Escort, 621
Flights, Outside the United States, 5128
Explosives, FAA K9 Detection Team Program, 623
Flying, Mountain, 753
FMS. See Flight Management System
F Forms
FAROS. See Final Approach Runway Occupancy Bird Strike Incident/Ingestion Report, Appendix 11
Signal (FAROS) Volcanic Activity Reporting Form, Appendix 21
Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (FAROS), Frequency, Instrument Landing System, 1111
219 FSS. See Flight Service Stations
Final Guard, 351 Fuel Dumping, 637
FISB. See Flight Information ServiceBroadcast
Fitness, Flight
Alcohol, 811 G
Emotion, 812
Fatigue, 812 Gate Holding, 4320
Hypoxia, 813 GBAS. See Ground Based Augmentation System
Stress, 812
Glideslope, Visual Indicators, 211
Flight
Aerobatic, 818 Global Navigation Satellite System, 1115, 1134,
5112
Fitness, 811
Illusions, 815 Global Positioning System, 1116
Index I5
AIM 4/27/17
I6 Index
4/27/17 AIM
International Flight Plan (FAA Form 72334) IFR LLWAS. See Low Level Wind Shear Alert System
Flights (For Domestic or International Flights),
5117 Local Airport Advisory (LAA), 351, 414
IR. See IFR Military Training Routes LocalizerType Directional Aid, 119
IRU. See Inertial Reference Unit Locator, Compass, 1111
ITWS. See Integrated Terminal Weather System Long Range Navigation, 1116
LORAN. See Long Range Navigation
Index I7
AIM 4/27/17
I8 Index
4/27/17 AIM
Index I9
AIM 4/27/17
Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Operations, RWSL System, Runway Status Light (RWSL) System.
5131, 557 See Runway Status Light (RWSL) System
Rescue Coordination Center Runway, Visual Range, 7136
Air Force, 625 Runways, Use, 437
Alaska, 625
Coast Guard, 624 RVR. See Runway Visual Range
Joint Rescue, Hawaii, 625
Reservations, Airport, 4118 S
Responsibility Safety
Controller, 538, 5461, 551 Alert, 553
Pilot, 4114, 441, 444, 5461, 551, 611, Alerts, 321
736 Aircraft Conflict, 321
Mode C Intruder, 321
Restricted Areas, 341
Terrain/Obstruction, 321
Restrictions Aviation, Reporting, 761
Departure, 524 Seaplane, 756
Flight, Temporary, 352 Safety Alert, 4110
RIL. See Runway Intersection Lights (RIL) Aircraft Conflict Alert, 4111
Obstruction Alert, 4111
RNAV. See Area Navigation Terrain Alert, 4111
Route SAR. See Search and Rescue
Coded Departure Route, 443
Course Changes, 537 SCATI DGPS. See Special Category I Differential
GPS
Route System, 535
Scuba Diving, Decompression Sickness, 814
Runway SDF. See Simplified Directional Facility
Aiming Point Markings, 232
Centerline Markings, 232 Seaplane, Safety, 756
Closed Search and Rescue, 621, 624
Lighting, 2318
Security Identification Display Area, 2331
Marking, 2318
Condition Reports, 4313 See and Avoid, 554
Demarcation Bar, 234 Separation
Designators, 232 IFR, Standards, 447
Holding Position Markings, 2312 Runway, 4410
Markings, 231 Visual, 4410, 556
Separation, 4410 Wake Turbulence, 737
Shoulder Markings, 233
Sequenced flashing lights (SFL), 2111
Side Stripe Markings, 233
Signs, Distance Remaining, 2329 SFL. See Sequenced flashing lights
Threshold Bar, 234 SIDA. See Security Identifications Display Area
Threshold Markings, 233
Touchdown Zone Markers, 232 SideStep Maneuver, 5452
Signs
Runway
Airport, 231
Edge Light Systems, 216
HalfWay, 755
End Identifier Lights, 216
Entrance Lights, 217 Simplified Directional Facility, 1113
Centerline Lighting System, 216 Sinus Block, 814
Status Light (RWSL) System, 217, 218
Special Category I Differential GPS (SCATI DGPS),
Runway Intersection Lights (RIL), 219 1135
I10 Index
4/27/17 AIM
Special Instrument Approach Procedures, 1134, Taxiway Centerline LeadOff Lights, 216
5427
Taxiway Lights, 2115
Special Traffic Management Programs, 4118 Centerline, 2115
Special Use Airspace, 341 Clearance Bar, 2115
Alert Areas, 342 Edge, 2115
Runway Guard, 2115
Controlled Firing Areas, 342
Stop Bar, 2115
Military Operations Areas, 342
Prohibited Areas, 341 TCAS. See Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance
Restricted Areas, 341 System
Warning Areas, 341 TDWR. See Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
Special Use Airspace (SUA) NOTAMs, 513 TDZL. See Touchdown Zone Lights
Special VFR Clearances, 443 TEC. See Tower En Route Control
Speed, Adjustments, 447, 554 Telephone Information Briefing Service, 7115
Spoofing, 128 Temporary Flight Restrictions, 352
Standard Instrument Departures, 527 Terminal Arrival Area (TAA), 548
Standard Terminal Arrival, 541 Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), 4312,
STAR. See Standard Terminal Arrival 7149
Terminal Radar Service Areas, 359
Surface Painted Holding Position Signs, 2312
Terminal Radar Services for VFR Aircraft, 4112
Surveillance Approach, 5434
Terminal Weather Information For Pilots System
Surveillance Radar, 457 (TWIP), 7154
Surveillance Systems, 451 Terrain Alert, 4111
THL. See Takeoff Hold Lights
T TIBS. See Telephone Information Briefing Service
TACAN. See Tactical Air Navigation Time
Clearance Void, 524
Tactical Air Navigation, 114
Release, 524
TAF. See Aerodrome Forecast
TIS. See Traffic Information Service
Takeoff Hold Lights (THL), 218 TISB. See Traffic Information ServiceBroadcast
Takeoffs, Intersection, 4315 TLS. See Transponder Landing System
Taxi Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL), 216
Clearance, 522
During Low Visibility, 4323 Tower, Antenna, 751
Index I11
AIM 4/27/17
I12 Index
U.S. Department
Of Transportation
Federal Aviation
Administration
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300