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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 2
History of Cement 3
Types of cement 6
Raw materials 12
Gypsum 28
References 35
PORTLAND CEMENT 1
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Cement Industry
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind
other materials together. Cement is a very important material used in the construction
industry. Cement has replaced all other binding materials, for example, clay and lime. Cement is
the strongest binding material.
Cement is used as one of the materials in making concrete buildings, roads, bridges and
other structures. It is one of the ingredients of concrete, the others being gravel and sand.
Cement has been used as a binder of materiel for millenia. No one knows for sure who
first came up with the idea to use a cement substance to bind materials together to make
concrete, bricks, and other building materials. The process can be traced back to Ancient
Macedonia, but was more widely popularized during the Roman Empire. Early forms of cement
used things like lime and pozzolana, a type of volcanic ash. The Romans were able to produce
massive structures like the Pantheon and the Roman aqueducts using this formula.
Currently, cement comes in two forms: Hydraulic and Non-Hydraulic. Hydraulic cement
refers to any cement that uses water to begin a chemical reaction that hardens the mixture
and, when fully formed, creates a water resistant product. This reaction is independent of the
water content of the mixture so allows for the material to harden even underwater. This makes
PORTLAND CEMENT 2
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
It a very versatile construction material. Most all cements used today are hydraulic
cements. Non-hydraulic cement uses materials that do not harden when exposed to water.
While this type is much cheaper than hydraulic cement, the problems of long drying times,
combined with the inability to use it in wet environments makes it a poor choice in most
applications.
The most common type of modern cement is portland cement (sometimes referred to
as OPC for Ordinary Portland Cement). This type of cement is typically made by grinding
small rock-like bits of sintered limestone and aluminosilicate minerals into a very fine powder.
Its fast drying times combined with its higher compression strength compared to other
cements, makes it a great choice for use in concrete, mortar, grout, and stucco.
Concrete and cement are not synonymous terms. Concrete is artificial stone made from
a carefully controlled mixture of cement, water, and fine and coarse aggregate (usually sand
and coarse rock).
History of Cement
3,000 BC The Egyptians used gypsum mortars and lime mortars to build the
pyramids.
800 BC Greeks and Cretans used lime mortars, which later became the base of
the famous Roman Mortar.
300 AD - 476 AD The Romans used lime and cementing pozzolan from Pozzuoli, Italy, to
build the Apian Way, the Roman baths, the Coliseum, and the Pantheon
in Rome. They used animal milk and blood as additives when preparing
the mixture of two parts of pozzolan and one part of lime. These
structures still exist nowadays.
1779 Bry Higgins promoted a patent for hydraulic cement (stucco) to be used in
exterior plasters.
1793 John Smeaton found that calcining limestone-containing clay formed a
lime that gets hardened under the water (hydraulic lime).
1796 Joseph Parker patented in England a natural hydraulic cement produced
by the calcination of coarse limestone nodules containing clay which was
called Parker Cement or Roman Cement.
1812 - 1813 The Frenchman Louis J. Vicat prepared an artificial hydraulic lime by the
calcination of a mixture of limestone and clay.
PORTLAND CEMENT 3
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
1822 James Frost prepared a hydraulic lime similar to that prepared by Vicat
and called it British Cement.
1824 Joseph Aspdin, a bricklayer and mason in Leeds, England, invented the
Portland cement by the calcination of a mixture of chalk and clay finely
divided. The senterized product was milled and denominated Portland
cement, for its similarity in high quality for construction to that found in
the stones quarried on the isle of Portland, England. His Portland cement
was called 'proto-Portland cement'
1853 William Aspdin made what could be called 'meso-Portland cement' (a mix
of Portland cement and hydraulic lime).
1854 Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of 'meso-Portland
cement' (middle stage of development) and claimed to be the real father
of Portland cement.
1858 The next development with the manufacture of Portland cement was the
introduction of the rotary kiln patented by German Friedrich
Hoffmann called a Hoffmann kiln for brick making
1860 The Hoffman "endless" kiln which gave "perfect control over combustion"
was tested and showed the process produced a better grade of cement.
1875 The first Portland cement was produced by Coplay Cement Company
under the direction of David O. Saylor in Coplay, Pennsylvania.
1878 The Association of German Cement Manufacturers issued a standard on
Portland cement.
20th century American made Portland cement had displaced most of the imported
Portland cement.
Portland cements are composed of four basic chemical compounds, shown with their
names, chemical formulas, and abbreviations:
PORTLAND CEMENT 4
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Tricalcium silicate hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength. In general, the early strength of Portland cement concretes will be higher with
increased percentage of C3S. Dicalcium silicate hardens slowly, and its effect on strength
increases occurs at ages beyond one week. Tricalcium aluminate contributes to strength
development in the first few days because it is the first compound to hydrate. It is, however,
the least desirable component because of its high heat generation and its reactiveness with
soils and water containing moderate-to-high sulfate concentrations. Cements made with low
C3A contents usually generate less heat, develop higher strengths, and show greater resistance
to sulfate attacks. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite assists in the manufacture of Portland cement by
allowing lower clinkering temperature. C4AFe contributes very little to the strength of concrete
even though it hydrates very rapidly.
1. Fineness
One factor which affects the
hydration of cement, regardless of its
chemical composition, is its fineness.
The finer a cement is ground, the
higher the heat of hydration and
resulting accelerated strength gain.
PORTLAND CEMENT 5
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
2. Soundness
Soundness is the ability of a cement to maintain a stable volume after
setting. An unsound cement will exhibit cracking, disruption, and eventual
disintegration of the material mass. This delayed-destruction expansion is caused
by excessive amounts of free lime or magnesium.
3. Setting Time
A cement used in concrete must not set too fast, for then it would be
unworkable, that is, it would stiffen and become hard before it could be placed
or finished. When it sets too slowly, valuable construction time is lost. Most
Portland cements exhibit initial set in about 3 hours and final set in about 7
hours. If gypsum were not added during final grinding of normal Portland
cement, the set would be very rapid.
4. Compressive Strength
The ability of a cement to develop compressive strength in a concrete is
an important property. Compressive strength is the ability of the cement to
resist squeezing (compressive) load without fracture.
Types of Cement
1. Portland Cements
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
2. Pozzolans
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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
5. Silicate Cements
PORTLAND CEMENT 8
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
7. White Cement
8. Colored Cement
1. ASTM Type I
This type is a general concrete construction cement utilized when the special
properties of the other types are not required. It is used where the concrete will not be
subjected to sulfate attack from soil or water or be exposed to severe weathering
conditions. It is generally not used in large masses because of heat generated due to
hydration. Its uses include pavements and sidewalks, reinforced concrete buildings,
bridges, railway structures, tanks, reservoirs, culverts, water pipes, masonry units.
PORTLAND CEMENT 9
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
and the process of manufacture is controlled to produce the white color. Its
primary use is for architectural concrete products, cement paints, tile grouts and
decorative concrete.
8. Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cements
In these cements, granulated blast-furnace slag of selected quality is interground
with Portland cement. The slag is obtained by rapidly chilling or quenching molten slag
in water, steam, or air. Portland blast-furnace slag cements include two types; Type IS
and Type IS-A, conforming to ASTM C595. These cements can be used in general
concrete construction when the specific properties of other types are not required.
However, moderate heat of hydration (MH), moderate sulfate resistance (MS), or both
are optional provisions. Type IS has about the same rate of strength development as
Type I cement, and both have the same strength requirements.
9. Portland-Pozzolan Cements
IP, IP-A, and P-A designate the Portland-pozzolan cements with the A denoting
air-entraining additives as specified in C595. They are used principally for large hydraulic
structures such as bridge piers and dams. These cements are manufactured by
intergrinding Portland cement clinker with a suitable pozzolan such as volcanic ash, fly
ash from power plants, or diatomaceous earth, or by blending the Portland cement or
Portland blast-furnace slag cement and a pozzolan.
10. Masonry Cements
Type I and type II masonry cements are manufactured to conform to ASTM C91
and contain Portland cement, air-entraining additives, and materials selected for their
ability to impart workability, plasticity, and water-retention properties to the masonry
mortars.
11. Special Portland cements
a. Oil well cement
Oil well cement is used for sealing oil wells. It is usually slow setting and resistant
to high pressures and temperatures. The American Petroleum Institute
Specifications for Oil Well Cements (API standard 10A) cover requirements for six
classes of cements. Each class is applicable for use at a certain range of well depths.
b. Waterproof Portland cement
Waterproof Portland cement is manufactured by the addition of a small amount
of calcium, aluminum, or other stearate to the clinker during final grinding. It is
manufactured in either white or gray color and is used to reduce water penetration
through the concrete.
PORTLAND CEMENT 11
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Portland Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them
are listed below:
Raw Materials
The main raw materials used in the cement manufacturing process are limestone, sand,
shale, clay, and iron ore.
Calcareous
Argillaceous
Clay
Shale
Others (includes Staurolite, bauxite, aluminum dross, pumice and volcanic materials)
Siliceous
Sand
Sandstone and Quartz
Ferrous
PORTLAND CEMENT 12
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Other
For its raw materials, cement uses minerals, containing the four essential elements for its
creation: calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron.
1. Volcanic Tuff
2. Limestone
PORTLAND CEMENT 13
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
3. Pyrite
4. Silica sand
5. Gypsum
PORTLAND CEMENT 14
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
1. HOLCIM PHILIPPINES
Mailing Address: 7th Floor Two World Square McKinley Hill, Fort Bonifacio, Taguig City, 1634
Philippines Telephone No.: + (632) 459 3333
Website: www.holcim.ph
Plant Locations:
Holcim Philippines - La Union Plant
Quirino, Bacnotan, La Union (Region
I)
Holcim Philippines - Bulacan Plant
Barangay Matictic, Norzagaray, Bulacan (Region III)
Holcim Philippines - Lugait Plant
Lugait, Misamis Oriental (Region X)
Holcim Philippines - Davao Plant
Bo. Ilang, Davao (Region XI)
Mailing Address: 151 Epifanio Delos Santos (EDSA), Brgy.Wack-Wack, Mandaluyong City,
Philippines Telephone Number: +(63 2) 667-5676
Fax Number: +(63 2) 320-3155
Website: www.ncc.com.ph
Plant Location: Bo. Labayug, Sison, Pangasinan (Region I)
PORTLAND CEMENT 15
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PORTLAND CEMENT 16
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PORTLAND CEMENT 17
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Manufacturing Process
1. Wet Process
The wet process has survived for over a century because many raw materials are suited
to blending as a slurry. Also, for many years, it was technically difficult to get dry
powders to blend adequately.
Quite a few wet process kilns are still in operation, usually now with higher-tech bits
bolted on. However, new cement kilns are of the 'dry process' type.
PORTLAND CEMENT 18
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
2. Dry process
Secondly, and less obviously, the process of transferring heat is much more efficient in a dry
process kiln.
An integral part of the process is a heat exchanger called a 'suspension preheater'. This is a
tower with a series of cyclones in which fast-moving hot gases keep the meal powder
suspended in air. All the time, the meal gets hotter and the gas gets cooler until the meal is at
almost the same temperature as the gas.
The basic dry process system consists of the kiln and a suspension preheater. The raw
materials, limestone and shale for example, are ground finely and blended to produce the raw
meal. The raw meal is fed in at the top of the preheater tower and passes through the series of
cyclones in the tower. Hot gas from the kiln and, often, hot air from the clinker cooler are
blown through the cyclones. Heat is transferred efficiently from the hot gases to the raw meal.
The heating process is efficient because the meal particles have a very high surface area in
relation to their size and because of the large difference in temperature between the hot gas
and the cooler meal. Typically, 30%-40% of the meal is decarbonated before entering the kiln.
PORTLAND CEMENT 19
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PORTLAND CEMENT 20
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PORTLAND CEMENT 22
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Clinker Formation:
CaO = C; 2= S; 2 3= A; 2 3= F
Length: 45m
Internal diameter: 2.5 to 6 m Composition of Portland Cement:
Rotational speed: 0.5 to 2 rpm 1. Belite (2 ) constitutes 15-30%. It is dicalcium
Rotation period: 1 to 3 h
PORTLAND CEMENT 23
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
CEMENT MILLING
PORTLAND CEMENT 24
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Tube Mill
PORTLAND CEMENT 25
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PORTLAND CEMENT 26
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
PORTLAND CEMENT 27
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
B. Gypsum Process
1 1
CaSO4 2H2O(c) CaSO2 2H2O(c) +12H2O(g)
A mineral occurs in large deposits throughout the world. It is the second softest
mineral following after talc in Mohrs Hardest Scale. It is hydrated calcium sulfate, the
formula CaSO4.(2H2O).
If heating is at a higher temperature, gypsum loses all its water and becomes
anhydrous sulfate or anhydrite. It is hydraulic and hardens under water, but is also
slightly soluble in water.
PORTLAND CEMENT 28
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
Calcining kettle
Hardening of plaster
1 1
CaSO4 2H2O +12H2O CaSO4 2H2O
This equation is the reverse of that for the
dehydration of gypsum.
PORTLAND CEMENT 29
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
CALCIUM CARBONATE
CALCIUM SULFIDE.
PORTLAND CEMENT 30
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
HALIDE SALTS
CALCIUM ARSENATE
PORTLAND CEMENT 31
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
MAGNESIUM CARBONATES
PORTLAND CEMENT 32
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
MAGNESIUM SULFATE
MAGNESIUM CHLORIDE
MAGNESIUM SILICATES
PORTLAND CEMENT 34
Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
College of Engineering and Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering
References
Coffey, J.C., Lafeur, C.B., LaPlante,C., Marotta,T.W. (2011). Basic Construction materials 8 th
edition
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