ImmersionResearch Fortune

WHATTHERESEARCHSAYSABOUTIMMERSION
byTaraWilliamsFortune
CenterforAdvancedResearchonLanguageAcquisition
UniversityofMinnesota
Overnearlyhalfacentury,researchonlanguageimmersioneducationhasheralded
benefitssuchasacademicachievement,languageandliteracydevelopmentintwoormore
languages,andcognitiveskills.Thisresearchalsoexposessomeofthechallengesthat
accompanytheimmersionmodel,withitsmultilayeredagendaoflanguage,literacyand
interculturalskillsdevelopmentduringsubjectmatterlearning.Thischapteroutlineskey
findingsforbothadvantagesandchallenges.
BenefitsofLanguageImmersion
AcademicandEducational
Withoutquestion,theissueinvestigatedmostofteninresearchonlanguageimmersion
educationisstudentsabilitytoperformacademicallyonstandardizedtestsadministered
inEnglish.Thisquestionemergesagainandagainindirectresponsetostakeholder
concernsthatdevelopmentofalanguageotherthanEnglishnotjeopardizebasicschooling
goals,highlevelsoforalandwrittencommunicationskillsinEnglish,andgrade
appropriateacademicachievement.Theresearchresponsetothisquestionislongstanding
andconsistent.Englishproficientimmersionstudentsarecapableofachievingaswellas,
andinsomecasesbetterthan,nonimmersionpeersonstandardizedmeasuresofreading
andmath.i
Thisfindingappliestostudentsfromarangeofsocioeconomicandethnicbackgrounds,iias
wellasdiversecognitiveandlinguisticabilities.iiiMoreover,academicachievementontests
administeredinEnglishoccursregardlessofthesecondlanguagebeinglearned.Inother
words,whetherlearningthroughalphabeticlanguages(Spanish,Hawaiian,French,etc.)or
characterbasedlanguages(Mandarin,Japanese,Cantonese),Englishproficientstudents
willkeeppaceacademicallywithpeersinEnglishmediumprograms.iv
Itisimportanttoacknowledgethatearlystudiescarriedoutinonewaytotalimmersion
programs,whereEnglishmaynotbeintroduceduntilgrades25,showevidenceofa
temporarylaginspecificEnglishlanguageskillssuchasspelling,capitalization,
punctuation,wordknowledge,andworddiscrimination.vThatsaid,thesestudiesalsofind
thatwithinayearortwoafterinstructioninEnglishlanguageartsbegins,thelag
disappears.TherewerenolongtermnegativerepercussionstoEnglishlanguageor
literacydevelopment.
Doesthissamefindingapplytostudentsintwowayimmersion(TWI)settingswhosefirst
languageisotherthanEnglish?Inthepastfifteentotwentyyears,USresearchersfound
WhattheResearchSaysaboutImmersionwaswrittenbyDr.TaraWilliamsFortune,ImmersionProjectsCoordinatoratCARLAUniversityofMinnesota.It
waspublishedbytheAsiaSocietyasachapterinthehandbookentitledChineseLanguageLearningintheEarlyGrades.Thefullpublicationcanbefoundat:
http://asiasociety.org/education/chineselanguageinitiatives/chineselanguagelearningearlygrades
p.1
thatEnglishlearnersacademicachievementalsoattainedtheprogramsgoals.Bythe
upperelementary,orinsomecasesearlysecondarygrades,Englishlearnersfromdifferent
ethnicities,languagebackgrounds,socioeconomiclevels,anddevelopmentalprofiles
performatleastaswellassamebackgroundpeersbeingschooledinEnglishonly.viMost
EnglishlearnersinTWIcomefromLatinofamilieswhosehomelanguageisSpanish.Asan
ethnicminorityintheUnitedStates,Latinosareboththefastestgrowingstudent
populationandthegroupwiththehighestrateofschoolfailure.viiResearchin
Spanish/EnglishTWIcontextspointstohighergradepointaveragesandincreased
enrollmentinpostsecondaryeducationforthisstudentgroup,comparedtoLatinopeers
participatinginothertypesofeducationalprogramssuchastransitionalbilingual
educationandvariousformsofEnglishmediumeducation.
AlthoughthevastmajorityofTWIresearchhasbeencarriedoutinSpanish/English
settings,Dr.KathrynLindholmLearyviiirecentlyreportedresultsfromastudyoftwo
Chinese/EnglishTWIprograms.Studentsingrades48whosehomelanguagewasChinese
testedatorabovetheirgradelevelandthesameasorwellabovepeerswithsimilar
demographicprofilesparticipatinginnonTWIprograms.Learysfindingsalignwiththose
ofotherTWIprograms.
LanguageandLiteracy
TheimmersionapproachfirstgainedtractioninNorthAmericabecauseeducatorsbelieved
initspotentialtomovestudentsfurthertowardsbilingualismandbiliteracy.Immersion
languageprogramstookrootinareassuchasSt.Lambert,Canada,andMiami,Florida,
whereeducatorsfeltthatmorethanonelanguagewasnecessaryforchildrensfuture
economicandsocialprosperity.Programdesignerswageredthatmakingthesecond
languagethesolemediumforteachingcoresubjectcontent,insteadofteachingthesecond
languageseparately,wouldresultinmorestudentsreachinghigherlevelsofproficiency.
Theseearlyimmersionprogramsstartedbycommittingonehalformoreoftheschoolday
forteachersandstudentstoworkonlyinthesecondlanguage.Studentsweresocializedto
adoptthenewlanguageforallclassroomcommunicationandsubjectlearning.
Thisapproachtosecondlanguageandliteracydevelopmentproveditselftobethemost
successfulschoolbasedlanguageprogrammodelavailable.Englishproficientimmersion
studentstypicallyachievehigherlevelsofminority(nonEnglish)languageproficiency
whencomparedwithstudentsinothertypesoflanguageprograms.ixImmersionstudents
whobegintheprogramasEnglishspeakersconsistentlydevelopnativelikelevelsof
comprehension,suchaslisteningandreadingskills,intheirsecondlanguage.Theyalso
displayfluencyandconfidencewhenusingit.xFurther,themoretimespentlearning
throughthenonEnglishlanguage,thehigherthelevelofproficiencyattained.Todate,
earlytotal(oneway)andnearlytotal(90:10)twowayimmersionprogramsdemonstrate
higherlevelsofminoritylanguageproficiencythanpartialorfiftyfiftyprograms.xi
InitialconcernsaboutthepossibledetrimenttoEnglishlanguageandliteracydevelopment
wereeventuallylaidtorest.Englishproficientimmersionstudentswhoachievedrelatively
highlevelsofsecondlanguageproficiencyalsoacquiredhigherlevelsofEnglishlanguage
p.2
skillsandmetalinguisticawarenessthatis,theabilitytothinkabouthowvariouspartsof
alanguagefunction.Researcherspositthatmetalinguisticskillspositivelyimpactlearning
toreadinalphabeticlanguages,becauseitfacilitatesthedevelopmentofcriticalliteracy
subskillssuchasphonologicalawarenessandknowledgeoflettersoundcorrespondences
forworddecoding.xiiTheimportantrelationshipbetweenphonologicalawarenessand
successfulreadingabilitiesisclearlyestablished.However,wenowalsohaveevidencethat
instructionaltimeinvestedindevelopingimportantdecodingsubskillsinanimmersion
studentssecondlanguagecantransferandbenefitdecodingsubskillsintheirfirst
language.xiii
ResearchabouttherelationshipbetweencharacterbasedandEnglishliteracysubskills
continuestogrow.Todate,evidencepointstothetransferofphonologicalprocessingskills
forchildrenwhosefirstlanguageisChineseandarelearningtoreadinEnglishasasecond
language.xivStudiesalsoindicatearelationshipbetweenvisualorthographicskillsin
Chinese,theabilitytovisuallydistinguishbasicorthographicpatternssuchascorrect
positioningofsemanticradicalsincompoundcharacters,andEnglishreadingand
spelling.xvMuchremainstobelearnedintheseareas,however,whenitcomestoEnglish
proficientchildreninMandarinimmersionprogramswhoareacquiringliteracyinChinese
andEnglish.
InTWIprograms,researchilluminateswhatLindholmLearyandDr.E.R.Howardreferred
toasanativespeakereffect.xviInanutshell,thenativespeakereffectdescribesthe
tendencyofnativespeakersofalanguagetooutperformsecondlanguagelearnersofthe
samelanguageonstandardizedmeasuresadministeredinthenativespeakerslanguage.
Forexample,ifSpanishproficientsandSpanishlearnersareevaluatedusingstandardized
Spanishmediumtools,SpanishproficientsoutperformSpanishlearners.Similaroutcomes
occurredwhentestsweregiveninEnglishandMandarin.xvii
Ingeneral,researchfindsthatimmersionstudentswhosefirstlanguageisnotEnglish
becomemorebalancedbilingualsanddevelophigherlevelsofbilingualismandbiliteracy
whencomparedwithEnglishproficientstudentsorhomelanguagepeersparticipatingin
othereducationalprogramming.Forexample,Dr.KimPotowskixviiifoundthattheoraland
writtenlanguageskillsofEnglishlearnersinTWIwereonlyslightlybehindthoseofrecent
SpanishspeakingarrivalsandsignificantlybetterthantheirEnglishproficientpeers.
Englishlearnershigherbilingualproficiencylevelsarealsolinkedtohigherlevelsof
readingachievementinEnglish,increasedacademiclanguageproficiency,andsuccessful
schoolingexperiencesingeneral.xix

CognitiveSkillDevelopment
Theresawellestablishedpositiverelationshipbetweenbasicthinkingskillsandbeinga
fullyproficientbilingualwhomaintainsregularuseofbothlanguages.Fullyproficient
bilingualsoutperformmonolingualsintheareasofdivergentthinking,patternrecognition,
andproblemsolving.xx
p.3
Bilingualchildrendeveloptheabilitytosolveproblemsthatcontainconflictingor
misleadingcuesatanearlierage,andtheycandecipherthemmorequicklythan
monolinguals.Whensodoing,theydemonstrateanadvantagewithselectiveattentionand
greaterexecutiveorinhibitorycontrol.xxiFullyproficientbilingualchildrenhavealsobeen
foundtoexhibitenhancedsensitivitytoverbalandnonverbalcuesandtoshowgreater
attentiontotheirlistenersneedsrelativetomonolingualchildren.xxiiFurther,bilingual
studentsdisplaygreaterfacilityinlearningadditionallanguageswhencomparedwith
monolinguals.xxiii
Whilemuchevidencesupportsthebenefitsassociatedwithfullandactivebilingualism,the
relationshipbetweenlanguageimmersioneducationandlongtermcognitivebenefitsisas
yetlesswellunderstood.Someresearchdoesindicategreatercognitiveflexibilityxxivand
betternonverbalproblemsolvingabilitiesamongEnglishproficientlanguageimmersion
students.xxv
Decadesago,Dr.JimCumminscautionedabouttheneedforacertainthresholdlevelof
secondlanguageproficiencybeforecognitiveskillsmightbepositivelyimpacted.xxvi
Accordingly,childrenwhodeveloppartialbilingualisminasecondlanguagemayormay
notexperiencecognitivebenefits.Whilesomestudiesreportpositivecognitiveeffectsfor
partialoremergingbilinguals,Dr.EllenBialystokconcursthatitisbilingualchildrenwitha
morebalancedandcompetentmasteryofbothlanguageswhowillpredictablyexhibitthe
positivecognitiveconsequencesofbilingualism.xxvii
EconomicandSociocultural

Increasingly,proficiencyinasecondlanguageandinterculturalcompetencyskillsopenup
employmentpossibilities.Manysectorsrequireincreasinginvolvementintheglobal
economy,frominternationalbusinessesandtourismtocommunicationsandthe
diplomaticcorps.Highlevel,highpayingemploymentwilldemandcompetenceinmore
thanonelanguage.xxviiiIntheUnitedStates,worldlanguageabilitiesareincreasingly
importanttonationalsecurity,economiccompetitiveness,deliveryofhealthcare,andlaw
enforcement.xxix
Beyondeconomicsarethecountlessadvantagesthatbiandmultilingualindividualsenjoy
bybeingabletocommunicatewithamuchwiderrangeofpeoplefrommanydifferent
linguisticandculturalbackgrounds.Knowledgeofotherlanguagesenrichestravel
experiencesandallowspeopletoexperienceothersocietiesandculturesmore
meaningfully.Besidesaccesstoforeignmedia,literature,andthearts,biandmultilingual
peoplecansimplyconnectandconversemorefreely.Becomingbilingualleadstonewways
ofconceptualizingyourselfandothers.Itexpandsyourworldview,sothatyounotonly
knowmore,youknowdifferently.
p.4
ChallengesFacedbyLanguageImmersion
Designing,implementing,andprovidingongoingsupportforlanguageimmersion
educationisnoeasytask.Pressingchallengesincludestaffing,curriculumdevelopmentand
programarticulation.Programadministratorsstruggletofindhighquality,licensed
teacherswhocandemonstrateadvancedlevelsoforalandwrittenproficiencyinthe
chosenlanguage.Onceteachersarehired,thesearchbeginsfordevelopmentally
appropriatecurriculum,materials,andresourcesthatmeetlocaldistrictandstate
standards.Elementarylevelchallengesaremetwithadditionalsecondarylevelissuessuch
asschedulingandbalancingstudentseducationalprioritiesastheprogrammovesupand
throughthemiddleandhighschoolyears.
Inadequateteacherpreparationforimmersionprogramsremainsachallengeinthisfield.
Teachersneedspecializedprofessionaldevelopmentsupporttomeetthecomplextaskof
concurrentlyaddressingcontent,language,andliteracydevelopmentinanintegrated,
subjectmatterdrivenlanguageprogram.xxxHowever,teachereducatorsandimmersion
specialistswhocanprovideusefulandrelevantprofessionallearningexperiencesforthe
immersionstaffareinshortsupply.Inadditiontoprofessionaldevelopmentrelatedto
curriculumdesignandpedagogicaltechniques,bothnativeandnonnativeteachersreport
theneedforongoingsupportfortheirownproficiencyintheimmersionlanguage.xxxi
Chineseteacherswhoseeducationalexperiencestookplaceinmoretraditional,teacher
centeredclassroomsareawareofsignificantculturaldifferencesandparticipant
expectations.Forexample,USschoolsplaceastrongemphasisonsocialskillsandlanguage
forcommunicativepurposes.Childrenexpectlearnercenteredactivitieswithreallifetasks.
Chineseteachersoftenholdadifferentsetofexpectationsforstudentsandthus,they
frequentlyneedsupportforclassroommanagementstrategiesandtechniques.xxxii
Immersionteachersfacesignificanthurdlesinthesheerrangeoflearnerdifferences.The
impactofstudentsvariationsinlanguageproficiency,literacydevelopment,learning
supportavailabletothestudentinthehome,achievementabilities,learningstyles,and
specialneedsgrowsexponentiallywhenteachingandlearningoccursintwolanguages.xxxiii
Educatorsandparentsstruggletoidentifyandimplementresearchbasedpoliciesand
practicesforlearnerswhohavelanguage,literacy,andlearningdifficulties.Many
immersionprogramslackthenecessaryresourcesandbilingualspecialiststoprovide
appropriateinstructionalsupport,assessment,andinterventions.xxxiv
Promotingstudentunderstandingofmoreabstractandcomplexconceptsbecomes
increasinglydifficultintheupperelementarygradesandbeyond.Someupperelementary
immersionteachers,inparticularthosewhoteachinpartialor50:50programs,report
difficultiesinteachingadvancedlevelsubjectmatterbecausestudentscognitive
developmentisatahigherlevelthantheirproficiencyinthesecondlanguage.xxxvThis
challengebecomesmorepronouncedinprogramswheretheimmersionlanguageis
characterbased,sinceliteracydevelopmentismoretimeconsuminganddemanding.xxxvi
p.5
Oneofthegreatestchallengesforimmersionteachersistokeeptheirstudentsusingthe
secondlanguage,especiallywhenworkingandtalkingamongstthemselves.Thischallenge
isparticularlypronouncedoncethechildrenhavemovedbeyondtheprimarygrades.For
instance,studiesinbothonewayandtwowayimmersionclassespointtofifthgrade
studentsusingEnglishmorefrequentlythantheirnonEnglishlanguage.xxxviiFacilitating
studentuseoftheimmersionlanguageinwaysthatpromoteongoinglanguage
developmentisanuphillbattleforteachers.xxxviii
Finally,outcomeorientedresearchrevealsthatimmersionstudents,especiallythosewho
begintheprogramasnativeEnglishspeakers,dontquiteachievenativelikelevelsof
speakingandwritingskills.StudiesconsistentlyfindthatEnglishspeakingimmersion
studentsorallanguagelacksgrammaticalaccuracy,lexicalspecificity,nativepronunciation,
andislesscomplexandsociolinguisticallyappropriatewhencomparedwiththelanguage
nativespeakersofthesecondlanguageproduce.xxxixFurther,studentsuseofthe
immersionlanguageappearstobecomeincreasinglyanglicizedovertime,xlandcanbe
markedbyamoreformalacademicdiscoursestyle.xliEveninhighperformingimmersion
programs,advancingstudentssecondlanguageproficiencybeyondtheintermediatelevels
remainsamuchsoughtafterendgoal.
iGenesee,2008;LindholmLeary,2001,2011;Turnbull,Lapkin,&Hart,2001
iiBruck,Tucker,&Jakimik,1975;Caldas&Boudreaux,1999;Holobow,Genesee,&Lambert,1991;Krueger,2001;LindholmLeary,2001;
Slaughter,1997
iiiBruck,1982;Genesee,2007;Myers,2009
ivLindholmLeary,2011;Patterson,Hakam,&Bacon,2011
vSwain&Barik,1976
vi Christian,2011;LindholmLeary&Genesee,2010;LindholmLeary&Hernandez,2011;Myers,2009;Thomas&Collier,1997,2002
viiFry,2010;Passel&Cohn,2008
viii2011
ixCampbell,Gray,Rhodes,&Snow,1985;Curtain&Dahlberg,2010;Forrest,2007,2011;LindholmLeary&Howard,2008
xGenesee,1987,2004
xiGenesee,1987;LindholmLeary,2001;Turnbull,Lapkin,&Hart,2001
xiiBournotTrites&Denizot,2005;Harley,Hart&Lapkin,1986
xiiiErdos,Genesee,Savage&Haigh,2010;Genesee&Jared,2008
xivGottardo,Yan,Siegel,&WadeWoolley,2001;Wang,Perfetti,&Liu,2005
xvLeong,Tan,Cheng,&Hau,2005
xvi 2008
xviiLindholmLeary,2011;LindholmLeary&Howard,2008
xviii2007
xixHoward,Sugarman,&Christian,2003;Kovelman,Baker,&Petitto,2008;LindholmLeary&Genesee,2010;LindholmLeary&Howard,
2008;Ramirez,Perez,Valdez,&Hall,2009;Rolstad,1997
xxBialystok,2001;Cenoz&Genesee,1998;Hakuta,1986;Education,AudiovisualandCultureExecutiveAgency,2009;Peal&Lambert,
1962
xxiBialystok,2009
xxiiLazaruk,2007
xxiiiCenoz&Valencia,1994;Sanz,2000
xxivBruck,etal.,1975
xxvBamford&Mizokawa,1991
xxvi 1981
xxvii 2001,page228
xxviiiFixman,1990;Garca&Otheguy,1994;Halliwell,1999;Mann,Brassell,&Bevan,2011
xxixJackson&Malone,2009
xxxFortune,Tedick&Walker,2008;Howard&Loeb,1998;Kong,2009;Met&Lorenz,1997;Snow,1990;Walker&Tedick,2000
xxxiCaldern&MinayaRowe,2003;Fortune,Tedick&Walker,2008
xxxiiHallHaley&Ferro,2011
xxxiiiWalker&Tedick,2000
xxxivGenesee,2007;Fortune,withMenke,2010
p.6

xxxv Met&Lorenz,1997
xxxvi Met,2002
xxxvii Carrigo,2000;Fortune,2001;Potowski,2004
xxxviiiLavan,2001
xxxixHarley,1986;Menke,2010;Mougeon,Nadaski&Rehner,2010;Pawley,1985;Salomone,1992;Spilka,1976
xlLyster,1987
xli Fortune,2001;Potowski,2004;TaroneandSwain,1995
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