(Precision Conciseness) (Beauty).

1 Basic ones
Negating a bi-implication creates a loop. It never stops being a bi-
implication.

The only two possible states of a proposition are true and false. Its
never both or neither. Its in exactly one of those two states.

Theres exactly two possibilities for every proposition: Its true, its
false. Theres no other possibility. If both possibilities have been cov-
ered, every possibility has been covered.

Whats important about a proposition is that its either true or false

(and nothing else), and not its meaning.

If a proposition isnt false, then its true. Is it false? No? Then its
true.

Being able to negate propositions correctly and quickly is extremely

important.

All Xs are Ys means theres not an X that isnt a Y.

p asserts that p is false.

(p q ... z) asserts that all its conjuncts are true.

(p q ... z) is defined as (p q ... z). It asserts that not

all its disjuncts are false.

(p q) is defined as (p q).

(p q) is defined as ((p q) (p q)).

No connective but determines a specific state of the world. , ,

and dont determine a specific state of the world.

p q allows us to prove q by proving p.

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 p q also means that if you know p is true, you also know q was true
all along. q didnt become true once you learned that p was also
true: q became true the very moment p became true. Remember
that Formal Logic is timeless: q doesnt happen after p, they happen
at the same time if you will. It may also help you to think that
once a statement p is assumed to be true (or once a statement that
implies p is assumed to be true), all statements that p implies become
instantaneously true, even you dont know them yet or know them but
arent aware that p implies them.

Try not to think (or to think as rarely as possible) of p q as saying

that p and q are equivalent or that they mean the same thing. Try
to see it as a mere double implication (that is, if either is true then the
other is guaranteed to be true, but theyre still different statements*).

p p.

(p q r) (p q r).

(p q r) (p q r).

(p q) (p q).

(p q) (p q).

(p q) ((p q) (p q)).

(p q) ((p q) (p q)).

(p (q r)) ((p q) (p r)).

(p (q r)) ((p q) (p r)).

((p q) (p q)) q.

((p q) p) (p q). Whats true remains true.

(p (q r)) ((p q) r).

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 (p q) (q p).

((p q) (q r)) (p r).

((p q) r) ((p r) (q r)).

(p q) (p q).

(p q) (p q).

To use a proposition of the form x(P x) you can instantiate it directly

onto P x. To use a proposition of the form x(P x) you first have to
pick an arbitrary object x and then P x becomes automatically true.

x(P x) x(P x) if, and only if, the UD isnt empty.

x(P x) guarantees the existence of something.

x(P x) is defined as x(P x). It doesnt guarantee the existence of

anything.

x(P x) x(P x Qx). Odd result from the truth-functional

definition of .

x(P x Qx) x(P x Qx).

x(P x Qx) (x(P x) x(Qx)). The converse is false, however.

x(P x Qx) x(P x Qx).

x(P x Qx) x(P x Qx).

x(P x Qx) x(Qx P x).

2 Advanced ones
((p r) (q s)) ((p q) (r s)).

((p q) r) ((p r) (q r)).

p (p q).

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 (p (q r)) ((p q) r).

(p q) (p q).

((p q) (p r)) (q r).

2.1 Basic set-theoretic facts

Ax(x A x
/ A).

A(x(x A) x(x
/ A)).

(x A B) (x A x B).

(x A \ B) (x A x
/ B).

(x A B) (x A x B) (x
/ A x B).

(x A 4 B) ((x A x
/ B) (x B x
/ A)) ((x A x
B) (x
/ Ax / B)).

(x F) y(y F x y).

(x F) y(x y y F).

(A B) x(x A x B).

(A = B) (A B B A).

(x
/ A B) (x
/ Ax
/ B) (x A x
/ B).

(x
/ A \ B) (x
/ A x B) (x A x B).

(x
/ A B) (x
/ Ax
/ B).

(x
/ A 4 B) ((x A x B) (x
/ Ax
/ B)) ((x A x
/
B) (x
/ A x B)).

(x
/ F) y(x
/ y y F).

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 (x
/ F) y(y F x
/ y).

(A * B) x(x A x
/ B).

(A 6= B) (A * B B * A) (A B B * A).

(A B 6= ) x(x A x B).

(A \ B 6= ) x(x A x
/ B).

(A B 6= ) x(x A x B) x(x
/ A x B).

(A 6= ) x(x A).

(A B = ) x(x
/ Ax
/ B) x(x A x
/ B).

(A \ B = ) x(x
/ A x B) x(x A x B).

(A B = ) x(x
/ Ax
/ B).

(A = ) x(x
/ A).

((p q) r) (p (q r)) ((p r) q).

((p q r) s) (p (q r s)) ((p s) (q r)).

((p q r) (r (p q)).

((x(P x Qx) x(P x)) (x(Qx)).

Theorem. Suppose x(P x Qx). Prove x(Qx). Proof. Sup-

pose P x. Then, since x(P x Qx) and P x, Qx. Thus, Qx for some x.

(a > 0) (a < 0 a < a).

(a < 0) (a > 0 a < a).

|a| 0.