1.

DC BRIDGE NETWORKS

The DC bridge is an electrical circuit for the precise measurement of resistances. The
best known bridge circuit is the Wheatstone bridge, named after Sir Charles
Wheatstone (1802 1875), an English physicist and inventor.

Bridges are an integral part of measurement and measurement devices. Of the many DC bridges
in existence, the Wheatstone bridge is the most often used. One use is to measure unknown
resistance values.

A Wheatstone bridge used to measure resistance is illustrated in Figure 8-1. Ra and Rb in the
figure are called the ratio arms. Rs is a variable standard resistance. It has a calibrated scale, so
as you vary the resistance the scale tells you the resistance within the accuracy of the scale. Rx is
the unknown resistance. Bridges, like the Wheatstone, are used extensively in measurement
because they are a comparison measurement, that is, you are comparing an unknown value to a
known value, much as in comparison calibration.

Introduction to Wheatstone Bridge

In the real world we come across various signals, some of them are measured by
changes in resistance and some of them are with inductance and capacitance.

If we consider the resistance, most of the industrial sensors like temperature, strain,
humidity, displacement, liquid level, etc. produces the change in value of the resistance
for a variable change. Therefore, there is a need for a signal conditioning for every
resistance sensor.

Generally the resistance measurement is divided into three types, low resistance
measurement, medium resistance measurement and the high resistance measurement.
If the resistance measurement is possibly from a few milliohms to micro ohms, then it is
considered as a low resistance measurement.

This measurement is actually used for research purpose. If the measurement is from 1
ohm to 100 k is generally referred as a medium resistance measurement.
Potentiometer, thermistors, etc. measurement comes under this category.

And very high resistance measurement is considered from 100 kilo ohm to greater than
100 mega ohms. For finding the medium value of the resistance different methods are
used, but mostly Wheatstone bridge is used.
The most common and simplest bridge network to find the resistance is the DC
Wheatstone Bridge. This bridge is used where small changes in resistance are to be
measured like in sensor applications. This is used to convert a resistance change to a
voltage change of a transducer.

The Wheatstone bridge was developed in the early days of electronics as a way to
accurately measure the value of resistors without needing an accurate voltage
reference or a high-impedance meter. Although resistive bridges are seldom used for
this original purpose, they are still widely used in sensor applications. This article will
show why bridges are still so popular and discuss some key considerations in
measuring the output of a bridge

The combination of this bridge with operational amplifier is used extensively in

industries for various transducers and sensors. A Wheatstone bridge consists of four
resistors that are connected in the shape of a diamond with the supply source and
indicating instruments as shown in figure.

This is about the resistance measurement using a Wheatstone bridge for precise
measurement. Due to the fractional measurement of resistance, Wheatstone bridges
are mostly used in strain gauge and thermometer measurements.

Wheatstone Bridge Applications:

1. The Wheatstone bridge is used for measuring the very low resistance values
precisely.
2. Wheatstone bridge along with operational amplifier is used to measure the
physical parameters like temperature, strain, light, etc.
3. We can also measure the quantities capacitance, inductance and impedance
using the variations on the Wheatstone bridge.

In DC measurement circuits, the circuit configuration known as a bridge can be a very useful
way to measure unknown values of resistance.

Bridge circuit
Bridge circuits are often used with transducers to convert physical quantities (temperatu
re, displacement, pressure) toelectrical quantities (voltage and current). High-
accuracy voltmeters and ammeters are relatively inexpensive, and the voltageform of a
signal is usually most convenient for information display, control decisions, and data sto
rage. Another importantadvantage of the bridge circuit is that it provides greater measur
ement sensitivity than the transducer.
The bridge circuit is balanced when the output read by the meter is zero. In this conditio
n the voltages on both sides of themeter are identical. The bridge is used in two forms.
The null adjustment method requires adjustment of a calibratedimpedance to balance it.
In this case the meter is usually a highly sensitive current-
measuring galvanometer. The nulladjustment method is often used to measure impedan
ces, with the output read from a dial attached to the adjustableimpedance. The deflectio
n method requires on accurate meter in the bridge to measure the deviation from the bal
ancecondition. The deviation is proportional to the quantity being measured.
There are many special forms of the bridge circuit. When all of the impedances are resis
tive, it is commonly called aWheatstone bridge. Other common forms use a current sour
ce in place of the voltage source, a sinusoidal source in place ofa constant (dc) source,
or branch impedances which are specific combinations of single passive impedances. T
he bridgecircuit is also used in a variety of electrical applications varying from oscillators
to instrumentation amplifier circuits forextremely accurate measurements.

Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector

Balanced bridge circuits find many useful electronics applications such as being used to measure
changes in light intensity, pressure or strain. The types of resistive sensors that can be used
within a wheatstone bridge circuit include: photoresistive sensors (LDRs), positional sensors
(potentiometers), piezoresistive sensors (strain gauges) and temperature sensors (thermistors),
etc.
There are many wheatstone bridge applications for sensing a whole range of mechanical and
electrical quantities, but one very simple wheatstone bridge application is in the measurement of
light by using a photoresistive device. One of the resistors within the bridge network is replaced
by a light dependent resistor, or LDR.
An LDR, also known as a cadmium-sulphide (Cds) photocell, is a passive resistive sensor which
converts changes in visible light levels into a change in resistance and hence a voltage. Light
dependent resistors can be used for monitoring and measuring the level of light intensity, or
whether a light source is ON or OFF.

THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The Wheatstone Bridge is a circuit used to measure unknown resistances. Mechanical and civil

engineers measure resistances of strain gauges to find the stress and strain in machines and
buildings.

The bridge network has three precision resistors and one unknown resistor. Two of the known

resistors are potentiometers, which are adjusted to balance the bridge network and thus determine
the unknown resistor. The accelerometer uses a Wheatstone Bridge arrangement of strain gauges.
ACCELEROMETERS

You can use an array of strain gauges to develop accelerometers. A common strain gauge

consists of a flexible backing that supports a metallic foil pattern. The strain gauge leverages the
changes of its physical dimensions when mechanical force acts on the strain gauge.

The strain gauges on top stretch from the upward acceleration, resulting in an increase in

resistance; meanwhile, the strain gauges at the bottom get compressed, decreasing the resistance

of the strain gage. Because of the difference of resistances in the strain gauges, you can use

voltage divider arrangements and a bridge network (called a Wheatstone Bridge) to determine
the amount of acceleration.

RESISTANCE OF POPULAR SENSORS

n Strain Gages 120W, 350W, 3500W
n Weigh-Scale Load Cells 350W - 3500W
n Pressure Sensors 350W - 3500W
n Relative Humidity 100kW - 10MW
n Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs) 100W , 1000W
n Thermistors 100W - 10MW

BRIDGE CIRCUITS
Resistive sensors such as RTDs and strain gages produce small percentage changes in resistance
in response to a change in a physical variable such as temperature or force. Platinum RTDs have
a temperature coefficient of about 0.385%/C. Thus, in order to accurately resolve temperature
to 1C, the measurement accuracy must be much better than 0.385W for a 100W RTD.
Strain gages present a significant measurement challenge because the typical change in
resistance over the entire operating range of a strain gage may be less than 1% of the nominal
resistance value. Accurately measuring small resistance changes is therefore critical when
applying resistive sensors.
One technique for measuring resistance (shown in Figure 2.2) is to force a constant current
through the resistive sensor and measure the voltage output. This requires both an accurate
current source and an accurate means of measuring the voltage.
Any change in the current will be interpreted as a resistance change. In addition, the power
dissipation in the resistive sensor must be small, in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations, so that self-heating does not produce errors, therefore the drive current
must be small.
Bridges offer an attractive alternative for measuring small resistance changes accurately. The
basic Wheatstone bridge (actually developed by S. H. Christie in 1833) is shown in Figure 2.3. It
consists of four resistors connected to form a quadrilateral, a source of excitation (voltage or
current) connected across one of the diagonals, and a voltage detector connected across the
other diagonal. The detector measures the difference between the outputs of two voltage
dividers connected across the excitation.
Null measurements are principally used in feedback systems involving electromechanical
and/or human elements. Such systems seek to force the active element (strain gage, RTD,
thermistor, etc.) to balance the bridge by influencing the parameter being measured. For the
majority of sensor applications employing bridges, however, the deviation of or more resistors
in a bridge from an initial value is measured as an indication of the magnitude (or a change) in
the measured variable. In this case, the output voltage change is an indication of the resistance
change. Because very small resistance changes are common, the output voltage change may be
as small as tens of millivolts, even with VB = 10V (a typical excitation voltage for a load cell
application).

Significance
The Wheatstone bridge illustrates the concept of a difference measurement, which can
be extremely accurate. Variations on the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure
capacitance, inductance, electrical impedance and other quantities, such as the amount
of combustible gases in a sample, with an explosimeter. The Kelvin bridge was specially
adapted from the Wheatstone bridge for measuring very low resistances. In many
cases, the significance of measuring the unknown resistance is related to measuring the
impact of some physical phenomenon (such as force, temperature, pressure, etc.)
which thereby allows the use of Wheatstone bridge in measuring those elements
indirectly.

The concept was extended to alternating current measurements by James Clerk

Maxwell in 1865 and further improved by Alan Blumlein around 1926.

Application
The practical applications for the Wheatstone Bridge circuit is used for many biomedical
applications to include but not limited to:
MRI/CT - table positioning, accurate movement of the CT scan imaging device
and equal patient weight distribution. High accuracy is needed to perform imaging
 functions while preventing over-travel of the patient placed within the scanning
tube.
Infusion pumps/Syringe pumps - monitors and controls the amount of fluid flow of
intravenous medication that was to be received via the tubing.
Mammography - monitors the amount of physical force that is applied to the
patients breast by the machine itself when attempting to take an image.
Conventional radiography - monitors the amount of x-ray dose received to the
AEC cells and the patient.
Scales, weighing/Patient lifts - with the incorporation of a load cell into the bottom
metal plates these scales routinely require re-zeroing which uses the above
circuit.
Remote robotic surgeries - used so physicians are able to precisely measure both
depth of force and drill bit rotational force during remote hip surgeries
Dialysis machines - ensures uniform fluid flow and circulation of proper rate,
proportion and frequency according to the parameters set by its accompanying
electronic controller device.
Ventilator gas tester - ensures uniform gas flow (i.e I:E, PEEP, TV, fIO2, SIMV,
AC, etc...).
Pressure Meter - ensures uniform negative and positive pressure flow (i.e. mmHg,
cmH20, inH20, PSI, etc...).
Vital signs simulator
Strain gauge circuits
Pressure transducer circuits
and more[2]
An Introduction To Bridge Circuits - Why Do You Need Them?

Making measurements with sensors is a common way in which many engineers

and scientists encounter electrical devices. There are many different ways in
which physical variables like temperature, light intensity, pressure and numerous
other physical variables can be measured electrically. Devices used to measure a
physical variable are called sensors.

Some different kinds of sensors include the following.

Sensors which change resistance as the physical variable changes.

Thermistors for temperature measurement
Photo-resistors for light measurement
Strain gages for measurement of mechanical strain
Sensors which produce a voltage change for a change in a physical variable.
Thermocouples for temperature
Solar cells for light.
Other kinds of sensors might include:

Sensors which produce some other sort of electrical change. Some examples
might include the following.
o A tachometer that produces a frequency proportional to rpm.
o Sensors which produce a set of signals in binary code proportional to
pressure.
o Sensors which produce a voltage signal with a frequency proportional
to flow rate.

Application of Wheatstone Bridge

One of the application of the Wheatstone bridge is a light detector circuit using a
Wheatstone bridge circuit.

The applications of the balanced bridge circuits mainly involve in various electronic
applications to measure variations in light intensity, pressure or strain. The various kinds
of resistive sensors are used in a Wheatstone bridge circuit are light dependent resistors,
Thermistors, potentiometers and strain gauges, etc.

The applications of a Wheatstone bridge circuit are used to detect electrical and
mechanical quantities. But, the simple application of the Wheatstone bridge is a
measurement of the light using photoresistive device. In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, a
LDR is positioned in the place of one of the resistors.A Light Dependent Resistor is a one
kind of passive resistive sensor, used to change the levels of visible light into a change in
a voltage and resistance.

Light dependent resistor is used to measure and monitor the level of light intensity .The
resistance of the LDR is high in dim light or dark light about 900ohms at a 100 Lux of
a light intensity and low to around 30ohms in a bright light.By connecting the LDR to the
Wheatstone bridge circuit, we can measure & monitor the deviations in the light levels.

This is all about what is Wheatstone bridge, Wheatstone bridge circuit diagram, working
principle with the application. We believe that you have got a better understanding of this
concept. Furthermore, any queries or doubts regarding this article or electronics project
kits, please give your feedback by commenting in the comment section below.
The basic applications of a bridge circuits are instrumentation and as signal rectifiers.
Advanced applications would be like for DC motor control or as envelope detectors in
receivers with amplitude modulation, where information lies in the envelope.
But in any circuit topology you have to generalize the idea behind it. For example in the
bridge circuit's case, the idea is to use the difference potential across the bridge points or
the difference current flowing through the bridge, for getting output.
Let's consider two examples.
1. In case of instrumentation, for example when using bridge circuitas Ohm meter, you
use the bridge in balanced condition where the current flowing through the bridge is
zero. Thus the unknown value of resistor, which is placed along one of the arms is found
by using the ratio formula you get under balanced condition.

2. Now lets see the application of unbalanced bridge. This can be used to control the DC
motor speed. Motor speed depends on the voltage you apply to its terminals. So under
unbalance condition of bridge, the voltage difference between the bridge point is non
zero value and current flows due to potential difference. Thus motor runs. If you want to
change the speed, use rheostats along the arms of bridge which can be used to control
the voltage across the bridge points.

A bridge circuit is one kind of electrical circuit wherein the two branches of the circuit
are linked to a third branch which is connected in between the first two branches at
some middle point along them. The bridge circuit was mainly designed for measurement
purpose in the laboratory. And, one of the middle linking points is adjusted when it is
used for a specific purpose. These circuits are used in linear, nonlinear, power
conversion, instrumentation, filtering, etc.

The best known bridge circuit is the Wheatstone bridge; the term was invented by
Samuel Hunter Christie and popularized by Charles Wheatstone. A bridge circuit is
mainly used to measure resistance. This circuit is built with four resistors: R1, R2, R3
and RX; wherein the two resistors are with known values R1 & R3, one resistors
resistance is to be concluded Rx, and one which is changeable and adjusted R2. Two
opposite vertices are associated with a supply of electric current like a battery, and a
galvanometer is connected across the additional two vertices. The variable resistor is
familiarized until the galvanometer reads zero.

It is known that the relation between the variable resistor and its neighbor resistor R1 is
equivalent to the relation between the unknown resistor and its neighbor R3, which
permits the unknown value of the resistor to be calculated. The Wheatstone bridge
circuit has also been widespread to calculate impedance in AC circuits, and also to
calculate inductance, resistance, capacitance, and dissipation factor individually.