Learning Theory and the Adolescent

Sarah Ruff

19 July 2010

ESE5342 sec.799
Introduction

There are many ways to approach the concept of learning. Educators

have been formulating learning theories since the time of the ancient Greeks in

an attempt to describe how people learn. Learning in itself can be defined as a

relatively permanent change in behavior or mental associations due to

experience (Henson, & Eller, 1999, p. 221). Learning theory, then, provides us

with a framework for interpreting learning as it observed. No single theoretical

orientation can give a complete picture of how people learn (Henson & Eller, p.

224), but it is valuable to the educator to be familiar with all facets of learning

theory in order to be effective in the classroom. This is particularly true when

teaching adolescents, who are going through constant change in their physical,

mental, and social world. This paper will begin by describing adolescence and

how an educator can establish community in the classroom. It will then address

the three main categories under which learning theories fall: behaviorial theory,

cognitive theory, and constructivist/social theory.

Adolescence and Community in the Classroom

Adolescence is a stage of human development that usually begins in the

pre-teen years. Transitions arise for both the child and their families, and it is

important to fully understand the changes that occur physically, cognitively, and

psychosocially. A teacher can play a key role in a teenager’s life while they are

going through these changes. Not only does a teacher need to know how to

properly instruct an adolescent, but they also must understand how to interact
with a student who may be struggling with their ongoing development. Teachers

have a responsibility to aid students in their maturation toward adulthood and to

provide them with an education in which they can truly learn and grow. For this

reason it is imperative that a teacher understands the building of an adolescent

student’s self-concept, how to assist students dealing with peer pressure, and the

importance of developing a strong classroom community.

Self-concept is an issue that dramatically escalates during the adolescent

years. Self-concept can be defined as “people’s perceptions of themselves, or

how they feel about themselves and their abilities” (Henson & Eller, p. 99).

Because an adolescent goes through unparalleled changes in their physical

appearance, cognitive abilities, and psychosocial interactions, the self-concept

they may have developed in earlier years is “radically changed” (Henson & Eller,

p. 100) in adolescence. The self-concept that a student develops affects their

self-esteem and then, in turn, their confidence. This directly relates to their

achievement in the classroom, and cyclically, their classroom achievement

affects their self-concept.

This is a fundamental concept for teachers to understand, and teachers

have the ability to positively influence students’ self-concepts. Henson and Eller

state that teachers’ own self-concepts “about their teaching ability influence their

teaching performance” (p. 99). Ergo, a teacher can coach students to have

confidence in their abilities by simply being self-assured in front of the class. A

teacher also can create activities in the classroom that can help boost a student’s

self-concept by giving them more responsibility and a sense of autonomy. It is

important to understand that different students will have different self-concepts,

and it is therefore imperative to “help students set reasonable goals for

themselves” (Henson & Eller, p. 101). Praising students for their individual

strengths and teaching them to praise themselves and each other is also very

important.

If a student is struggling with a negative self-concept, peer pressure can

weigh heavily on them. Many adolescents have a “need for approval”, which is a

“desire to gain the acceptance and positive judgments of other people” (Ormrod,

2000, p. 490). Students who seek this approval have a higher tendency to give in

to peer pressure in order to not feel rejected. During adolescence, students

spend more time talking to their friends than they do anything else during the

day. As a result, adolescents lean heavily on the influence of their peers. When

adolescents experience difficulties in their interpersonal relationships, it can

negatively affect their schoolwork and motivation by becoming a major source of

anxiety (Ormrod, p. 490). While many may say that parents have the primary

responsibility of observing and monitoring an adolescent’s social interactions, a

teacher’s role can be invaluable. Teachers see students in their element- with

their friends! If a student is being noticeably affected by peer pressure, a teacher

can take them aside and compliment them on their own talents and encourage

them to make good decisions. A teacher also can provide group-based activities

that can give students a “greater sense of ‘belongingness’” (Ormrod, p. 481).

Students who feel more accepted will be more interested in doing well in school

and having a sense of personal achievement. This is turn will make them less
likely to give in to peer pressure.

Building a positive self-concept and withstanding peer pressure are just

two issues that result from the development of a strong classroom community. By

creating this community, teachers are providing students with a “common and

predictable cultural experience that helps [them] feel connected to others”

(Ormrod, p. 45). Adolescents have several basic needs- “sustenance, safety,

and belonging” (Ormrod, p. 46)”- which must be met in order for them to build

“higher levels” of cognition. In order to meet these needs a teacher must provide

an environment that gives the student an opportunity to “relate positively to

others and become [a] successful learner” (Ormrod, p. 46). This can give them a

place where their resilience to outside circumstances is strengthened, where they

can become better individuals, and where they can learn to be a mature member

of society.

In order for this type of community to be established, teachers can begin

by teaching respect and responsibility. The easiest way for a teacher to do this is

by exhibiting the characteristics themselves. By being shown individual respect,

students learn to view themselves as valuable members of their classroom

community. Teachers can also promote activities that encourage friendships

between students and teach them how to work together collaboratively. Working

together on tasks can improve communication among students, deepen their

understanding of one another, and advance their thinking (Ormrod, p. 74). This in

turn strengthens the community that is created within the classroom.

It is clear that one of the most essential actions a teacher can take in
assisting a student through adolescence is to provide a positive classroom

community. By offering an environment where mutual respect is apparent and

individual achievement is encouraged and praised, a student will be more likely

to develop a positive self-concept. This in turn will help them resist peer pressure

and transition into a confident and mature adult. Teachers need to realize how

much of an influence they have on their students in and out of the classroom and

therefore take the necessary steps to create the positive environment that

adolescents need.

Behavioral Theory

In addition to establishing a classroom community, it is important for

educators to be familiar with various learning theories in order to aid students of

all learning types. The first theory this paper will address is behavioral learning

theory. This theory suggests that “behavior is learned and consequences that

follow behavior can either promote or deter learning” (Henson & Eller, p. 198).

Although no learning theory in particular is able to define what exactly learning is,

many general principles concerning learning have surfaced based on the

research of behavioral learning theory. The basic premise of behavioral learning

theory is that behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences “tends to be

strengthened and repeated and thus learned”, while behavior followed by

unpleasant consequences “tends not to be repeated and thus not to be learned”

(Henson & Eller, p. 198). There are several principles that can be applied in the

classroom that make use of behavioral theory. This paper will consider the
principles of primary and secondary reinforcements, reality therapy, and desist

strategies.

There are several types of reinforcement used in the classroom. A

reinforcer can be defined as “any consequence that increases the probability that

the response it follows will be emitted again” (Henson & Eller, p. 208). They are

a “critical component of behavior modification” (Orlich, 2004, p. 212). There is

obviously no universal reinforcer that will work on any student. Primary

reinforcers are stimuli that are “biologically important” and “significant” to a

student (Henson & Eller, p. 212). They are unlearned, or “unconditioned”,

reinforcers. These include food, water, shelter, sex, and sleep. These are most

commonly seen in classrooms with younger or disabled students with the use of

edibles. For example, if a student answers a question correctly, they might be

given a piece of candy. If the student values this reinforcer, it will be effective in

encouraging the student to continue answering questions correctly. Secondary

reinforcers, on the other hand, are conditioned. They can include such social

stimuli as a smile, a good grade, or praise (Henson & Eller, p. 213). Unlike

primary, secondary reinforcers are not biologically important to students but still

have reinforcement properties because they are in fact correlated with primary

reinforcers. This can be seen in the example of a student striving to get a good

grade in a class. They have learned to value this good grade perhaps because of

a primary reinforcer, but now are being conditioned and motivated by secondary

reinforcers such as scholarships, graduation, and a good college to get into.

Another principle of behavioral theory is the idea of reality therapy. This is

an approach that “helps individuals take responsibility for solving their own

problems” (Orlich p. 204). It requires students being involved in recognizing their

own difficulties and learning to restructure their behaviors in order to meet certain

standards without reinforcements or punishment. It focuses very heavily on

current behaviors- not what the student did yesterday or five minutes ago, but

what they are doing right now. The teacher assists the student in examining their

behavior and what makes it appropriate or inappropriate, and then helps the

student make realistic plans to change it. An example of this would be a teacher

aiding the student in making a contract in order to “develop a plan to help meet

his or her personal or educational goals” (Orlich, p. 205). If the plan is not

fulfilled, the teacher and student can together reexamine it and decide if it needs

to be changed. However, it “must be mutually recognized that the responsibility

lies with the student” (Orlich, p. 206). Positive reinforcement, rather than

punishment, may be used in conjunction with reality therapy to ensure the

student’s growth.

The most traditional technique for classroom management relating to

behavioral theory is desist strategy. It is a means of “systematically

communicating the teacher’s desire for a student’s behavior to stop or change”

(Orlich p. 208). It involves a systematic framework that applies the teacher’s

authority to maintain previously established group norms. This technique involves

two basic concepts: levels of force and types of communication. When it comes

to classroom discipline, it is usually best to use a low level of force and a private

rather than a public form of communication (Orlich, p. 208). This can be as

simple as a nonverbal signal or headshake. It is essential for a teacher to

establish what the appropriate behavior is for particular activities so that the

students are aware of the behavioral expectations. In contrast to reality therapy,

desist strategy allows for punishment, most commonly loss of privilege. For

example, if a student is made aware of behavioral standards and does not

comply, they may lose their recess or the right to work with a partner.

There are so many types of reinforcement and techniques related to

behavioral theory that it is difficult to decide which one is best or most

appropriate until they can be tried in the classroom. As a middle/high school Latin

teacher, I would be prone to use secondary rather than primary reinforcers

simply because of the students’ age. B.F. Skinner, a behaviorist, taught that

language acquisition is learned by reinforcement (Kymissis & Poulson, p. 121),

and though that primarily deals with children learning to speak, I believe it is an

applicable theory in my classroom. Although I like the idea of reality therapy, I

would probably use desist strategy more often. I imagine it would depend on the

student and the level of inappropriate behavior being displayed. I do believe it is

essential for every teacher to learn different behavioral theory techniques in order

to be better prepared for classroom management.

Cognitive Theory

The next theory we will look at is Cognitive Learning Theory. This

can be defined as “the scientific study of the relationship of cognition and

learning” (Henson & Eller, p. 244). This theory is particularly important in relation
to adolescent students because of the significant changes in thinking which

occurs in these years. During adolescence, students’ thinking becomes more

abstract, logical, and multidimensional. (Steinberg, 2005, p. 64). Many teachers

fail to encourage adolescents to think in abstract or relativistic ways, instead

rewarding them for the rote memorization of concrete facts (Steinberg, p. 93).

However, most teachers would argue that developing students’ cognitive

processes should be a primary goal in the classroom. This includes fostering and

advancing students’ cognitive processes, such as their memory, problem solving,

and creativity, while making learning functional and relevant inside and outside of

the classroom. A few principles that can be applied in the classroom to promote

cognitive learning are the discovery approach to learning, the development of

metacognitive skills, and enhancing student memory.

Teaching students to become better problem solvers is essential in their

development. One method for developing this is by the discovery approach to

learning. This was first suggested by J.S. Bruner, who differed in views from

many of his behavioral contemporaries. Bruner suggested that by helping

students discover the context and information within the context of a field of

study, teachers can help them both remember and apply what they have learned

(Henson & Eller, p. 247). Bruner promoted the idea of teaching students how to

solve problems, rather than just supplying an answer. This in turn produces in

students better problem-solving skills and higher confidence in their own learning

abilities. In this theory, students learn on their own, which makes their

knowledge more meaningful than if they had learned it solely as a result of

others. An example of this could be as simple as a kindergarten teacher allowing

her students to mix paint colors and see the results (ex. blue and yellow make

green) prior to teaching them exactly what happens when different colors are

mixed.

Metacognition can be defined as the mental activities used to monitor,

control, and plan problem solving, comprehension, memory, and other cognitive

processes (Henson & Eller, p. 256). This relates to the discovery learning theory,

as in involves knowing how to think and learn. There are many unique ways to

introduce metacognitive strategies in the classroom. Henson and Eller relate a

story about a teacher whose government class was uninterested in his lessons

until he created an environment where they had to form their own governments in

order to save their grades (p. 258-260). However, facilitating metacognitive skills

does not have to be dramatic. Teachers can find simpler ways to allow students

to be self-tested or discover new problem-solving techniques. However

implemented, the development of metacognitive skills in the classroom is

essential to adolescent students’ growth in the classroom.

An obvious necessity in learning is memory, which refers to the students’

ability to “save” things mentally that they have previously learned (Ormrod, p.

227). Every student develops differently and may memorize things differently, so

it is important for a teacher to know a variety of techniques to enhance students’

memory. One technique is what is known as rehearsal, in which information is

repeated verbatim. This can set information into long-term memory (Henson &

Eller, p. 269) and is most useful in elementary school. Meaningful learning and
organization both involve making connections with the new information and either

prior knowledge (meaningful) or other various pieces of new information

(organization). Creating relationships between pieces of information usually is

effective if the associations are appropriate. Elaboration is a technique in which

additional ideas are added to new information based on what is already known-

for example, students can be encouraged to speculate about why a historical

figure behaved as they did in order to remember what it was they were known

for. Another technique is the use of visual imagery, such as thinking about what

characters in a book might look like. This can be illustrated with various materials

such as maps or diagrams (Ormrod, p. 238).

I think it is incredibly important to incorporate more than just behavioral

theory into the classroom and to include cognitive theory. After all, behavioral

theory focuses on the external environment, but cognitive theory emphasizes the

mental processes- equally important! I think that allowing students to learn

through the discovery approach and through developing metacognitive skills is

essential. Not only will students learn new information, but they also will learn

how to solve problems on their own and attach meaning to what they have

learned. Metacognitive strategies can be particularly useful in a language-

learning classroom like I will be teaching in. For example, many studies suggest

that “teaching reading strategies can have positive effects on the reading

performance of second language learners” (Hinkel, 2005, p. 576). I also think it is

important for teachers to be aware that not all students memorize information the

same way and therefore should be aware of the different methods of memory. I
know that personally I am prone to rote learning with the use of note cards,

particularly when it comes to learning Latin vocabulary. It has been shown that

“such learning is very efficient and effective” (Hinkel, p. 576), but I know it is also

important to remember not all students will be able to memorize it that way.

Constructivist/Social Learning Theory

Related to both behavioral and cognitive theory is that of constructivism

and social learning theory. Constructivism holds that meaningful learning occurs

when “people actively try to make sense of the world-when they construct an

interpretation of how and why things are- by filtering new ideas and experiences

through existing knowledge structure” (Snowman & Biehler, p. 301). A

constructivist-oriented lesson will provide students with realistic problems that

can only be solved with new levels of understanding that they can acquire

through social interactions. This in turn is related to social learning theory. Social

learning theory states that “an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the

behavior of a model” (Bandura). There are several ways these theories can be

implemented into the classroom. This paper will discuss the ideas of situated

learning, low road transfer, and using technology in the classroom for social

learning.

Certain conditions will foster constructivism in the classroom. One

condition is the use of realistic problems and conditions, or, situated learning.

Snowman & Biehler write that a realistic context is one “in which students must

solve a meaningful problem by using a variety of skills and information” (p. 306).
There are two rationales behind this idea. One is the thought that learning is

more likely to be meaningful, that is, related to previously learned knowledge,

when it is embedded in a realistic context (Snowman & Biehler, p. 306). In

addition, traditional forms of classroom learning and instruction tend to be

decontextualized because they relate what the students are learning only to

taking tests and other performance tasks. This can lead to a condition called

“inert knowledge”, which means the student fails to use their previous knowledge

to solve real-life or other school-related problems because they “don’t see any

relationship between the two” (Snowman & Biehler, p. 307). There are many

ways that teachers can avoid this in the classroom. Snowman & Biehler provide

an excellent example of using baseball in science, mathematics, and sociology

classrooms. Students can use their knowledge of physics to explain curve or

drop balls or use their knowledge of mathematics to figure out how far a home

run travels (Snowman & Biehler, p. 307). They also could read about the Negro

Leagues and why it took so long for integration to occur in major league baseball.

Similar to situated learning, low-road transfer refers to a situation in which

a “previously learned skill or idea is almost automatically retrieved from memory

and applied to a highly similar current task” (Snowman & Biehler, p. 328). There

are two main conditions that need to be present in order for low-road transfer to

occur. First, students must be given plenty of opportunities to practice using this

target skill. They then must be able to practice with a variety of materials in a

variety of settings. The more varied the practice is, “the greater is the range of

tasks to which the skill can be applied” (Snowman & Biehler, p. 328). For
example, if I as a Latin teacher want my students to memorize their vocabulary

words well, I can help them practice good memory skills and soon they will likely

apply this skill to memorizing terms in science, history, etc.

Technology has become increasingly important in aiding students with

problem-solving skills and multi-faceted learning. Additionally, technology can

provide ways for students to interact with each other and discover information

actively and in a more self-directed fashion. There are plenty of constructivist

internet-based activities, for example, which allow students to gather their own

information and, by evaluating that information, make informed decisions while

collaborating with others (Whitworth, S. slide 19). A teacher can place two to four

students in a group, assigning various tasks such as researching and recording,

and ask the students to work together to find information for a project. Not only

are students learning together in a social environment, but they are also using

their previous knowledge of topics and technology to further research what

interests them. They could be asked to design a PowerPoint presentation or to

use a computer program like HyperAuthor (Snowman & Biehler, p. 330) to design

a media-based webpage.

I think it is important for teachers to incorporate constructivist and social

theories into their classrooms. As noted when studying other learning theories,

students always learn better when they can relate the new knowledge to real-life

situations. Both situated learning and low-road transfer deal with this. This could

be particularly effective in my Latin classroom- situated learning relates to

enculturation, which sensitizes the student to the values inherent to the foreign
language and its culture (Boufoy-Bastick, 2001, p. 3). My students are much

more willing to read Latin while wearing togas! In addition, classroom activities

that include social interactions will help the students learn together and be more

interested in the subject matter. Technology can also be a great tool for social

learning. It not only sparks interest in student, but it also gives them a great

opportunity to work and learn together.

Summary/Closing

In conclusion, it is clear that all the highlighted learning theories can be put

to use in the classroom of adolescents. Because adolescents are going through

significant changes physically, cognitively, and socially, teachers need to be

aware of how best to educate them during this time. Using a variety of

techniques will best reach all students. Many of these techniques can be related

to the Florida Accomplished Practices. For example, I would use professional

communication skills to encourage the development of community within my

classroom as well as carrying out reinforcement and desist strategy as part of

implemented behavioral theory. I would also use the appropriate techniques and

strategies to promote and enhance critical and creative thinking skills in my

classroom. This would be especially applicable to cognitive theory and helping

my students develop metacognitive skills and good memory. I also think that as a

foreign language teacher, I will pay particular attention to diversity and ensuring

the use of teaching strategies that will reflect on students’ culture and various

learning styles. This will be particularly relevant in my constructivist practices of

situated learning and low-road transfer, especially if I can relate my students’

cultural backgrounds to the Roman culture we will be studying. The use of

technology in the classroom will further my teaching practices and can help

facilitate social learning as well. Ultimately, as a teacher of adolescents, I hope to

concentrate on my role as a professional in the students’ lives and to

demonstrate knowledge of my subject matter to better help the students’

learning. I hope to create and maintain a positive learning environment which

fosters the development the adolescents are going through and encourages

them in their furthering education. I am convinced that a mixture of all learning

theories will yield the best results.

REFERENCE LIST
http://www.funderstanding.com/observational_learning.cfm based on:

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive

theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Boufoy-Bastick, Beatrice. (2001). Constructivist Pedagogy for Authentically

Activating Oral Skills in the Foreign Language Classroom. A Colloquium

on the Languages, Literatures and Cultures of the French and Spanish

Caribean at the Foreign Language Forum, Cave Hill, Barbardos. Retrieved

from http://www.eric.ed.gov/

Henson, K., & Eller, B. (1998). Education psychology for effective teaching.

Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Hinkel, Eli. (2005). Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and

Learning (edited). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kymissis, E. and Poulson, C.L. (1990). The History of Imitation in Learning

Theory: The Language Acquisition Process. Journal of the Experimental

Analysis of Behavior, 54(2): 113-127

Orlich, D.C., Harder, R.J., Callahan, R.C., Trevisan, M.S., & brown, A.H. (2004).

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Houghton Mifflin Company.

Ormrod, J.E. (2000). Learning and Cognitive Processes in Educational

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Snowman, J., & Biehler, R. (2003). Psychology applied to teaching. Boston,

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Steinberg, L. (2005). Adolescence. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill

Whitworth, S. “Technology in the Classroom: Constructivist Activities for the

Adolescent Learner”. ESE5342. University of South Florida.