Music

"T h is is an im m en sely v alu ab le b o o k an d o n e w h ich is clearly

designed to appeal to all m u sician s n o t ju st string p la y e rs . . .
M r. B lu m h as captu red in g reat detail the little things th at so
nffen malfP a
tparhpr T wnuld .tT~.r'gly rpcr.mmgnd tbic
b o o k to an \ o n t vwlh an in te ie st in the A rt o f In lerp retatio n
Ju lin Lloyd W ebber in M usic feai hcr

T h e \olum e b elo n g s to an cx cep tio n al class o f litei atu re t is to

be w elco m ed a s a sig n ih can t co n tn b u tio n In his Forew ord,
A n to n v H op kin s in a m o st tlo q u e n t w ay m akes us fu lly aw are
o f o u r p o ssible g reat loss h ad the su bject m aterial fo rm in g this
b o o k n o t been p r i s e n e d fo r p o sterilv th rou gh o u t the b o o k
o n e rem am s n o t only an ab so rb ed rtad er, b u t v e ry m uch an a c
tive p articip an !
Jan o s S ch o lz in V iolom elle Socicty N ew sletter

'N o w we h a v e an a u th o rita tiv e guide to this g re at a rtist s ap-

p ro ach to in le rp re tatio n a b o o k w hich should b e com p u lsory
reading fo r ev ery player, co n d u cto r and teach er '
B ern ard K u l i in M t- h 01 ti ot lln
h icorp i i i S r 1/ W Mu n un

Blum h as e leg an tly co n ib in e d p r u i s i nui.il luniinolox,\ m th

m eticu lou s m u sical exam p les lo present lucid and revealing de-
tails o f interpretation that can be qu ickly and easilv giaspPed IJ . O n h
su p erlativ es ap p ly to this b o o k , and all sen o u s m u sicians would
fin d im m ense pleasu re and m u sical p rofit fro m read m g this j
w o rk H ighly recom m end ed a t a ll levels

The Author
D a v id B lu m , b o rn m L os A n g eles in 1935, is prm cip ally k n o w n
a s co n d u c to r o f N ew Y o rk 's E sterh azy O rch e stra H is re c o rd in g s '
o f H ay d n sy m p h o m es w ith th is ensem ble a n d o f M o z a rt w>
w ith th e Enghsh C h am b er O rch estra h av e w o n him interna
acclaim C asals to o k a w arm m terest in D av id B lu m 's m
activities and in 1961 b ecam e H o n o rary President o f the Es
O rch e stra T h e n o tes fo r the b o o k w ere taken t inm
reh earsals a n d m aster tla s s e s in P rad es, S a n Ju a n , M a r lB p r ,
Z e rm a tt, the U m v ersity o f C a lifo rn ia and elsew here, as wgll as \
m m a n y p rv a te d iscu ssion s w ith C asals. D a v id B lu m noyv.lives
in S w itm la n d , g u is t cond u i t s in F aro p e, and is d ir tc tn i o f l O r-
ches^re Sy m p h o m q u e G e n e v o is and o f l'O rch e stre Sym ph oru qu e ,

IN IV I'R S m Of C A I 11 O K N 1 A P R S S

BERKELEY 94720
 CASALS
AND THE ART
OF
INTERPRETARON
DAVID BLUM

W ith
An Introduction by Paul Tortelier
and
A Foreword by Antony Hopkins

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

BERKELEY, LOS ANGELES, LONDON
 University of California Press
Berkeley and Los Angeles, California
University of California Press, Ltd.
London, England
CONTENTS
David Blum 1977
Intrduction b y Paul T ortelier v
First California Paperback Edition 1980
F o rew o rd b y A n to n y Hopkins v ii
ALL RIGHTS RESER VED
Preface x
Libraty of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

I T h e First Principie i

II Finding the Design 15

III D iction for Instrumentalists 50
Blum, David.
Casals and the art of interpretation. IV P erceivin g T im e Relationships 69

Ineludes ndex. V Insights for String Players 10 1

1. Casals, Pablo, 1876-1973. 2. Music -
Performance. I. Tille. VI Casals and Bach 138
ML418.C4B6 780'.92'4 77-1444
ISBN 0-520-04032-5 V II A Casals Rehearsal: The Pastoral Sym phony 164
3456789 E pilogu e 208

Principal References 2 11

Index to M usical W orks 2 14

Theauthor and publisher are grateful to Novello & Company Ltd. for
permission to reprint musical examples from the Elgar Cello Concert,
and to E. P. Dutton & Co., Etc. and Hutchinson & Co., Ltd. for General Index 218
permission to quote extraets from Conversalions with Casals by Jos
Mara Corredor. Copyright 1956 by E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc.

ILLUSTRATIONS
T h e musical exam ples hav been draw n b y M alcolm Lipkin.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AM ERICA


I w ill say on jy elemental things, nothing com -
plicated - as everyth in g ought to be, beginning
w ith Ufe. B u t y o u must k n o w that the simplest
things are the ones that count.
Pablo Casals
INTRODUCTION
by
P A U L T O R T E L IE R
the com m unication
O f the dead is tongued w ith fire beyond the language o f the livin g.
T. S. E liot
It takes as much audacity as faith to w rite such a book as this.
D a vid B lu m has lacked neither o f these qualities and has thus
succeeded in achieving the impossible. T h ere is no page, indeed,
in w hich those w h o kn ew Casals do not feel his presence or
hear his vo ice; there is nothing that is not perfectly trae. In
sum m ary, it is at one and the same time a film o f the rehearsals,
a detailed and minute analysis o f the technique o f interpretation
(elucidated b y means o f clearly illustrated musical quotations),
a com m entary structured in such a manner that the thoughts
o f Casals are transmitted without loss o f continuity in all their
richness, strength and luminous sim plicity. Fin ally, there is no
tendency tow ards any sort o f dogmatism, but on the contrary
the demonstration that the art o f Casals, elabrate as it m ay seem
on cise analysis, w as never separated from the warm th o f the
soul and the heart, and alw ays retained the spontaneous character
o f im provisation.
P ablo Casals, the greatest cellist o f all time, ow ed the
superiority o f his interpretations to the quality o f his convictions
resulting from an exceptional musical intuition, based upon a
broad kn ow ledge and ever-strengthened b y the sacred fire o f
exaltation.
VI
IN T R O D U C T IO N
W e must h ave exaltation, Casals told the musicians around
him - this, in reference to variations (exaltation o f a theme),
to trills (exaltation o f a note), in fact, in regard to everything.
A s he w o u ld say: I f there is no exaltation it is not g o o d . A nd
the fire o f exaltation in w hich he forged his convictions w as fed
b y the constant w onder em anating from his contem plation o f
nature.
I f w ell understood, the teaching o f Casals m ay offer m uch,
not only to those concerned w ith the interpretation o f music,
but also to com posers w h o , w hen entering into the depth o f
Casals thinking, w ill becom e aw are o f the infinite variety o f
nature and w ill rediscover at the same time their innate
originality.
R eturning to the interpreter, let it not be forgotten that real
m usical feeling, through w hich one can find the appropriate
character o f a g ive n page, can on ly tru ly com e from within. It
w o u ld be a m istake to hope that it is possible to recreate the
w orks o f the great masters in all their beauty and truth b y a m erely
theoretical application o f C asals principies. It seems that in the
realm o f m usical creation and recreation, m ore are being called
and few er chosen. T o rem edy this situation, one needs to climb
b eyond the dangerous slope o f mere facility and o f quick recom
pense so contrary to art.1 Y o u n g musicians must honour again
the study o f m usical com position, fo llo w in g the exam ple o f the
great interpreters o f the past, not excludin g Casals w h o , in fact,
devoted time to com position all o f his life.
M a y D a vid B lu m s w o rk inspire the musical reader to d raw
strength again from nature, as did B eeth oven and Schubert
w henever th ey had the possibility, or to contm plate some
M ou n t C an ig o u as Casals often did at sunrise. T h en ones
interpretations w ill be livin g and authentic because they w ill
spring from deep sources, as w ith Casals, w h o , w hen once asked,
H o w do y o u count here, M aestro? answ ered: W ith m y sou l.
1 A work o f art is never completed; it is only abandoned. Paul Valry
FOREWORD
by
A N T O N Y HOPKINS
O be a legend in on es lifetime . . . The phrase has become
T a clich, debased b y the ease w ith w hich the media today
can create legends for a public ever hungry fo r n ew idols to w o r-
ship. Y e t such legendary figures do exist and have existed, figures
whose stature is m ore enduring than that o f the televisin inter-
vie w e r, the newspaper columnist or the pop star. The true
creators, w riters, painters, sculptors and composers are ultim ately
ju d g ed b y the valu posterity places upon their w o rk ; thus the
W o rk is in the lon g run more important than its M aker. Tastes
m ay change; the critical esteem in w hich a composer is held m ay
decline o ver a couple o f decades, as it has w ith Sibelius, or be
enhanced as it has w ith Janacek. The music lives on, renew ing its
vitality through perform ance. Bu t w hat o f the perform er? Is his
contribution to music too evanescent to be preserved? Recordings
today have reached a sufficient perfection for us to be able to con-
vince ourselves that legendary performances o f our time can n o w
be captured fo r generations to come, as though b y some miracle
w e w ere able to hear the actual sound o f Liszt or C hopin across
the g u lf o f years. A lread y w e m ay feel a sense o f aw e as w e listen
to records (or pianola rolls) o f Busoni, G o d o w sk y, K reisler or
Chaliapin. T h e machine conjures up the long-dead sounds, but
though w e m ay m arvel at the performance itself or at the tech-
n o lo gy that makes its resurrection possible, it remains a perfor
mance o f the dead, and as w e listen, our room is filled w ith their
spectral presence. Instinctively and unavoidably w e measure them
against the yardstick o f our contem porary giants, and because the
latter are still w ith us, because they w ill p lay or sing fo r us again
viii FOREWORD
FOREWORD 1X
next w eek, next year, they have the p o w er to put the ghosts in fall into the trap o f saying that the book is not for m e; to do so
their place, to m ake them truly pass. w o u ld be as foolish as it w ould have been to have turned Casals
I o n ly heard Casis once. O f course one says it was unforget- aw a y from m y door had he miraculously appeared there. In these
table, and so, in a w a y , it was. As lon g as I live I shall remember pages there is something more important than memories o f
the sight o f that hom ely almost dum py little figu re, m ore like a Casals, reminders o f performances, annotations to recordings.
village organist than an internationally renow ned soloist; as long H ere is the means w hereby that legend in his lifetim e m ay be
as I live I shall rem em ber the atmosphere he created around him, kept alive so that every youn g musician m ay feel Casals in spirit
the uncanny hush as six thousand o r m ore people in the A lbert
standing b y his side, exhorting, cajoling, teaching.
H a ll seemed to hold their breath fo r the entire duration o f the There have been other examples o f such books; Johnson had his
B a ch sarabande he played as an encore. B u t can I truly say it was B o sw e ll, Stravinsky his Robert C raft; yet there is a danger that
unforgettable? D o I rem em ber every nuance, ev e ry bow -change, i f the disciples notebook is too readily in evidence, the master
ev ery accent? In all honesty I must say N o . Say to me Listen to m ay becom e too self-consciously aw are o f posterity. D avid B lu m
the records then , and I w ill reply that it is not enough. I could
had his notebook to hnd but he never forced him self upon
listen a thousand times and since each repetition w o u ld be Casals as a chronicler; he never even planned to w rite a book at
identical so w o u ld the m arvellous spontaneity o f his interpreta-
the time. H e sim ply wanted to treasure for his ow n use every-
tion seem to diminish. G radually the m achine w o u ld take over thing that he could gather o f Casals experience and w isdm .
and that treasured visual m em ory o f an actual occasion m ight O n ly an intellectual miser w ould w ant to keep such riches to
even g ro w less viv id . Casals w ould cease to be the legend in his him self; it is our go od fortune that this quiet observer has chosen
lifetim e and becom e a legend in his death, and the taint o f death to share this w ealth w ith us so that w e too m ay com e under the
w o u ld lie upon him as he join ed those other ghosts I have
spell o f Pablo Casals and kn ow him as a musician and teacher
mentioned.
supreme.
A n d so w e com e to the purpose o f this book. T w o years ago I
B elgrad e,Ju n e 1976
spent. a h appy d ay in G eneva at the delightful hom e o f D avid
B lu m . T h e conversation turned to Casals and such w as D a v id s
enthusiasm as he spoke o f him that I h a lf expected that never-
forgotten figu re to w alk in from the garden, take out his cello
and p lay for us. Casals was no longer in a b o x o f dises or im -
prisoned betw een the plstic covers o f a record-sleeve. H e was
there, alive again, speaking through anothers voice its true, but
nearer to me than he had ever been in life. W as there a place
for a book about Casals, D avid asked m e, a book for musicians,
detailed enough to g o into the fundamental aspeets o f his art? M y
answ er was an em phatic Yes, since here I felt was a man whose
devotion to Casals was such as to ensure a fidelity to truth
musical truth. N o t being a string-player m yself I m ight easily

PREFACE
M A G I N E ! P ab lo Casals once said. T h e y cali me a great
I cellist. I am not a cellist; I am a musician. Th at is m uch more
im portant.
D u ring the last decades o f his life, Casals rarely appeared as a
soloist; he devoted him self principally to conducting
and teaching, passing on the depth and scope o f a k n ow led ge
and understanding culled over a lifetim e dedicated to the art o f
interpretation. H e repeatedly stressed certain fundam ental con-
cepts w hich he sometimes called law s o f m usic or law s o f
nature concepts w hich he considered to be essential elements
o f m eaningful interpretation and applicable to all form s o f
musical expression. M y purpose in w ritin g this book is to
provide a study o f these principies and, by g iv in g selected ex-
amples from the repertoire, to d raw a portrait o f Casals the in-
terpreter at w ork. Thus this book is not a b iography, although
the luminous strength o f personality w hich so animated Casals
and replenished his art cannot be entirely excluded from its
pages; or is it a manual for cellists, although it does incorprate
the basic features o f Casals teaching in regard to string playin g.
It is an attempt to record in print the oral tradition o f C asals
teaching o f interpretation, to preserve this heritage for a n ew
generation o f musicians to whom he is n o w a legend.
Casals w ou ld sometimes refer to the innovations in technique
w hich he had introduced ideas w hich revolutionized cello
playing in the tw entieth century. H o w e ver, he did not consider
his musical concepts to be innovations. He was, in fact, in the his-
torical mainstream o f great interpreters. Casals teaching shares
much in com m on w ith the w ritings o f C . P. E . B ach , Q uantz,
the M ozarts, father and son, C z ern y s account o f B eeth o ven s
PREFACE xi
playin g, Liszt s description o f C h opin s perform ance, the treatises
o f W agn er. I f Casals ideas sometimes seemed startlingly n ew , it
was, as he pointed out, because the od natural rules have been
forgotten .
W h ile Casals the cellist is a household expression, some
w ords m ay be in order about Casals, the conductor. Conducting
w as for him not an occasional avocation as it has often been for
m any famous instrumentalists. I f I have been happy scratching
aw ay at m y cello , he once wrote to Ju liu s Rntgen, h o w shall I
feel when I can possess the greatest o f all instruments the
orchestra? His conducting career, w hich began w ith the
Lam oureux O rchestra in 1908, extended over sixty-five years. In
1920 he founded the Orquestra Pau Casals in Barcelona, w hich
he conducted until the outbreak o f the Spanish civil w ar. Sir
A drin B o u lt, w ho attended Casals rehearsals in 19 23, com -
ments, . . . the rehearsals were really lessons . . . every member
o f the orchestra was made to feel the passage him self in its in
evitable relation to the expression o f the moment and the style o f
the w hole w o r k . . . . W e all kn ow Casals playing o f the classics.
Casals, the conductor, is no less great an artist. D u rin g this
period, Casals also made frequent appearances as guest conductor
w ith such ensembles as the London Sym phony O rchestra and the
V ienna Philharm onic. From 1950, his principie form o f public
perform ance w as in the capacity o f conductor, whether at the
Prades or M arlboro Festivals or w ith the Festival Casals Orchestra
o f Puerto R ico , an ensemble draw n from am ong the finest o f
A m ericas musicians, m any first-desk players in m ajor orchestras
taking secondary positions for the p rivilege o f playing under his
direction. A t no time did Casals com m unicate his ideas about
music more clearly or eloquently than w hen rehearsing an
orchestra. For this reason I have devoted much space to this
aspect o f his m usic-m aking. The rehearsals in question, unless
otherwise stated, took place when he w as conducting the Festival
Casals or M arlboro Festival orchestras.
In planning the form at o f this book I have divided the m aterial
under chapter headings w hich are, I believe, representative o f the
 xi PREFACE
m ain aspects o f Casals teaching. M usic being w hat it is, m uch o f
the material is interrelated, and some overlapping is unavoidable.
T o cite but one instance, the principies o f clarity o f articulation,
as set out in C hapter III, are closely related to string technique,
discussed in C hapter V . The final chapter, A Casals Rehearsal:
T h e Pastoral Sym phony , provides an exam ple o f h o w the
: various elements o f interpretation, w hich are dealt w ith in-
d ivid u ally during the course o f the book, jo in together in perfor
i mance.
T h e musical exam ples are taken in nearly equal proportion
from am ong the cello and orchestral w orks w hich Casals taught
and perform ed. If, in w ritin g this book, I have been obliged to
select on ly a lim ited num ber o f musical quotations w h ich I
thought w o u ld best exem p lify the text, the reader is not so
bound. Th is book cou ld serve no better purpose than to stimulate
the reader to discover for him self, am ong the vast repertoire o f
great music, the w a y in w h ich C asals principies m ay find
extensive application. W hen, in the progress o f the text, a piece
o f music is exam ined in a n e w context, I have occasionally
repeated an exam ple rather than im pose a frequent need fo r cross-
referencing. Since not e v e ry music lover is w ell versed in the C
clefs, the musical exam ples are quoted in the G o r F clef; (cellists
w ill, I hope, forgive m e). T h e music o f transposing instruments
has been w ritten at actual pitch.
Casals interpretative indications are contained w ithin curved
brackets that they m ay be distinguished from com posers m ark-
v :
i ings, w hich remain unbracketed. G en erally, w here C asals indi
cations elabrate upon those o f the printed score, I have left the
tw o sets o f m arkings standing side b y side. The insertion o f the
composers m arkings has presented certain problem s, since unani-
m ity is often lacking am ong the various sources. W here possible,
I have consulted LJrtext editions. (O ne notable exception is the
Boccherini B b m ajor C oncert w hich Casals payed in the
Griitzm acher edition the on ly one available during the first
part o f this century, and w hich, despite the publication o f an
authentic score, is still popular today am ong cellists.) W ith
;!
L
PREFACE xiii
Casals indications other difficuties arse. There is, in any case,
the general problem posed when one attempts to transate a liv -
ing re-creation into signs and symbols. Furtherm ore, Casals
interpretations w ere not set in an inflexible m ould, bow in gs and
fingerings w ere frequently thanged; expressive inflections w ere
subject to subtle variation. T o the extent that an im perfect
system o f notation permits, I have endeavoured to indcate Casals
interpretation as it w as at a given point in time. The reader
should take the bracketed markings to be butterflies observed for
a m om ent w hile on the w in g not w hen pinned dow n in the
lepidopterists case.
The great m ajority o f Casals statements quoted m this book
w ere originally spoken in English; his use o f this language, w hile
sometimes im perfect, was alw ays expressive and com pelhng.
O n ly in those few places where I felt that his gram m atical usage
left his m eaning unclear have I slightly m odified the syntax. The
epigraph placed b elo w each chapter title is quoted from Casals.
A lthough I began to w rite this book in 1975 w as, in a sense,
born tw en ty-tw o years previously when, as a student, I first visited
Prades. M y notes w ere taken at rehearsals and master classes in
Prades, Zerm att, San Ju an , M arlboro, the U n iversity o f C alifo r
nia, in prvate discussions with Casals and at chamber music
rehearsals at his hom e. B u t this has been for me m ore than note-
takin g . Casals brought a love and dedication to every phrase he
played; he transmitted an aura o f tangible jo y in his music-
m aking w h ich touched one not on ly at a cerebral level. O ne can-
not w rite o f these things in a spirit o f abstraction and I make no
ap ology if, in setting dow n these recollections, I have not
w ithheld m y o w n enthusiasm. H o w e ver, it goes w ithout saying
that the inform ation presented about Casals teaching is recorded
as faithfully and accurately as possible.
As w ith all great artists, Casals approach to a given w o rk
could be h igh ly individual. O bviou sly there w ill be m ore than
ne w a y to interpret any piece. H o w e ver, it is the aim o f this
book to set forth C asals ideas as clearly as possible, and it is
beyond its province to discourse extensively upon alternative
XIV PREFACE

w ays o f taaching and perform ing.

W h at Casals left to us was not a doctrinaire System but an open
d oor to ou r o w n experience. The strength o f his spirit w orked
CHAPTERI
not to confine but to librate; he guided a youn ger generation
not tow ards a rig id cop ying o f his w ays, but tow ards an enriched
T H E FI RST P R I N C I P L E
understanding o f the art o f interpretation. H e show ed us,
through his exam ple, h o w w e m igh t open a musical score even
fo r the hundredth time and yet n ever lack courage - as Shelley T ec hniq ue, w o n d e rfu l sound . . . a ll o f this is sometimes astonishing
expressed it to feel that w h ich w e perceive, and to im agine
b u t i t is n o t enough.
that w hich w e k n o w .

A s W estern students o f O riental culture have discovered, the

I w ish to express m y gratitude to A n to n y H opkins w ithout
w hose encouragem ent this book m ight n ever have been w ritten ;
to Peter Gras for his discerning attention given to m y literary
effort; to B ern ard Greenhouse fo r his invaluable musical advice;
and to E m ile E llb erger, Beaum ont Glass and G eo ffrey Sutton for
their m any helpful suggestions. A m o n g others w ho have k in d ly
provided counsel or assistance are O rlanda B ru gn o la, Isidore
C oh n , P ro f. V incent D uckles, C liv e Fairbairn, Sidney H arth,
M ichael K en n ed y, N ath an K ro ll, A u ro ra N atola-G inastera,
M enahem Pressler, Franz W alter and W o lfg a n g Zuckerm ann.
T h e photographs o f Casals teaching w ere taken b y Perren -
B arberin i, Z erm att, and provided b y Constant Cachin.
Fin ally, I w ish to thank M ary W orth in gto n o f H einem ann
Educational B o o k s for patiently seeing this volum e through
e v e ry editorial stage; and m y w ife a musician in her o w n right
and also a friend to Casals fo r g ivin g this w o rk the benefit o f
her perceptive criticism.
X X First P rincipie does not lend itself to precise translacin,
said m y Chnese friend, an art historian. It is something defimte,
yet it is indescribable. It is how yo u feel w hen you enter a room
and sense that everything in it is som ehow harm om ous;
y o u k n o w that y o u are at peace there. It is h o w yo u r lile
suddenly seems to change when you fall in love. It is the w a y in
w hich y o u r spirit comes into subtle accord w ith the m ovem ent of
life around you ; at the same time it is an experience w tthm yo u r-
s e l f - at the very centre. It is active and passive, em bracm g and
releasing; it is a profound sense o f being.'
W e w ere discussing chi-yn, the first o f the S ix Principies set
dow n b y the art critic Hseih H o in the fifth century A.D. m w hat
is thought to be the arliest document statmg the fundamental
canons o f Chinese painting. It w as maintained that m order to
becom e a master, the artist must prove him self m the fo lio w in g
skills: vitality o f brushstroke, accuracy in portrayal, versatility in

Vandceuvres, David B lum
Sw itzerland 19 7 6
N ote : the English terms m inim , crotchet , qu aver , semi-
q u a v e r and dem isem iquaver are equivalent to the A m erican
h a lf n ote, quarter note , eighth n ote , sixteenth n ote and
thirty-second note respectively; w hile sem itone and tone
correspond to h a lf step and w h ole step (or w h o le ton e).
colouring, care in arrangement o f com position, transm isin o
tradition through co p yin g the w orks o f earlier masters. B u t the
foremost task lay in the fulfilm ent o f the First Principie, w hich
has sometimes been defm ed as breath-resonance life-m otion .
For on ly b y com ing into harm ony w ith the vital cosmic spirit or
breath could the painter convey through the m ovem ent of his
brush the mysterious vitality o f life itself.

2 CASALS A N D THE ART OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
T h e other five principies m ay be acquired through study and
perseverance, said m y friend, but ch i-yn comes from w ithin. It
develops in the silence o f the sou l.
I recall one m orning when Casals rehearsed
Siegfried Id y ll - the sym phonic birthday greeting to his
Cosim a from her R ichard , w ritten in com m em oration o f their
son s birth. A fter the opening bars had been played very
i 'i i b eau tifu lly, Casals stopped the orchestra, closed his eyes, and
) i
quietly clasped his hands together. For a lon g m om ent he became
quite still, absorbed in contem plation. His transfigured expres-
sion reflected a oneness w ith the spirit from w h ich this music is
orn. infinite devotion, profoundest love. Then, w ith out a single
w o rd , he indicated that the orchestra should begin again. A w a re
or not o f h o w or w h y they had been m oved, the musicians
brough t to their p layin g a more in w ard quality o ffe e lin g , draw n
from a source o f deep tenderness; and from this source the entire
w o rk sang as i f shim m ering from a golden m irror, A lth ou gh
Casals paused to rehearse points o f detail, the continuity o f feel-
ing rem ained unbroken. The lon g transitional passage has never
1 1 T 1 .......................... .................A A 0
been m ore delicately w oven : the trills w ere suspended like
threads o f m agic light; there was alchem y in the air. T h e w o o d -
w ind and strings, in turn, gave gentle invocation to the new
theme:
Ex. i
L e ic h t bew eg t
ll L S*rS - , __________________
A lth ou gh it is pianissimo, Casals said, every note must sin g!
T h e pulse quickened; the music flo w e d ardently in evitably
T H E FIRST P R IN C IP L E 3
tow ards its clim ax. A t the entrance o f the horn cali Casals
stopped, desperate fo r w ords; finally he blurted out: J o y l It is the
announcement o f the birth o f his son. H e is so happy.
I have never heard anyone so utterly express the m eaning o f a
given w o rd as did Casals. ^5^hen he said jo y . . . lo v e ly . . .
W a g n e rs tender . . . each w o rd conveyed a resonance o f feeling, as did his
p layin g o f a phrase b y Bach. N o person meeting Casals fo r the
first time w ou ld com e aw ay unm oved - i f not unshaken - b y
these simple w ords w hich had not lost their connection w ith
their origin in spirit. W h o else could risk saying B e sincere and
strike to the heart s core?
Th is sense o f w on der, o f touching upon an original experi-
ence, w as the essence o f Casals art; the manner in w h ich this
w onder was crystallized into supreme m usic-m aking w as the
secret o f his greatness.
Far from the bliss o f the Siegfried Id y ll is the Schumann C ello
C oncert, a w o rk o f feverish unrest and dark foreboding. C lara
Schumann recounts the harrow ing scene in w hich her husband,
h aving been torm ented b y the alternating visitations o f angels
and demons, began correcting his C ello C oncert, hoping that
this w o u ld deliver him from the perpetual sound o f the voices .
A A V -V ^ J .
In keeping w ith his usual teachng procedure Casals first asked his
student to p lay through a large section o f this w o rk , after w hich
he made appropriate comments about intonation, im proved
fingering and other pertinent matter. A s alw ays, his explan -
ations w ere b rie f and directly to the point. Casals then began to
p lay, taking the student through the piece phrase b y phrase. A s
he did so, he becam e increasingly immersed in the em otional
atmosphere o f the w o rk . Pain, p a in . . . he called out. A ll is
pain the poor m a n ! In one passage Casals b o w slashed upon
the string and then forged a hair-raising crescendo, culm m ating
in a sforzando that had the intensity o f a shriek; the answ ering
phrase carne as an inconsolable lament:
 T H E F IR S T P R 1 N C 1 P LE 5
4 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
T h e Saint-Sans C ello Concert in A m inor presented another
Ex. 2 kind o f drama. Casals reminisced: T h is w o rk is an o d fn en d o f
Nicht zu schnell m ine; I played it w ith Saint-Sans w hen 1 w as tw elve. Saint-
Sans explained to me that this concert w as mspired b y t e
Pastoral Sym phony o f Beethoven. It opens w ith a storm, then

come moments o f calm. . i t

Here, where the theme comes m D major, we begin o

(espr.)

Ex. 4
= r n jp ) s Allegro non troppo

Within the space o f a few minutes the lesson had imperceptibly

transformed itself from a fascinating account o f cello playing into
a uniquely moving human experience. D oloroso. . . doloroso! A nd, as in Beethoven, there is a peasants dance; here w e must
Casals voice rose almost in a wail. Everything in this concert is play ligh tly and sim ply - w ith v ery little vibrato :
espressivo.
For Casals, the formulation o f feeling and the interpretation o f
Ex. 5
music emanated from a single source and flowed together in a
Allegretto con moto
single stream. Notes which stood apart from this stream were
Vlc.Solo
coid without meaning.
Announce the hero! he exclaimed, when a student was about
to begin the Dvork Concert. This was no mere rhetoric.
Dvorks work was, to Casals, an heroic drama, passing through
every vicissitude o f expression. The tale o f Casals refusal to per-
form the concert with a conductor who disparaged it is no myth
but a true instance o f his deep involvement. Towards the end o f
the last movement where the cello subsides in a long diminuen N o t all his descriptions w ere so precise. Sometimes no m ore
do, Casals conceived the moment o f final expiration as portray- than a few w ords, barely spoken above a whisper w ou ld give
ing the death o f the hero. hint o f the inner visin -w h ich illum inated the re-creative

Ex. 3 process. r ,
A s in a dream , he said, when rehearsing a passage from the
Andante rit. slow m ovem ent o f Beeth oven s Fourth Sym phony:

' At which time the composer called Casals performance the finest he had ever
X>X> m o lto creso.
heard.
 6 T H E FIRST P R IN C IP L E
C A SA LS A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
Ex. 6
A t the beginning o f the third m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s D
m ajor C ello Sonata:
Ex. 7
Allegro
IV >
leggiermente
he com mented, These are not notes - they are on ly a first im -
pression, they seem to say w hat comes n o w ? m ystery,
m y s t e r y ...
Casals did not consider the fococo ' style, as foun d for. instance
in works^ o f H ayd n and Boccherini, to be an archaic remnant o f
the past. W e must p lay this m usic w ith all its grace - it is so free,
fresh and lo vely. N o t one note d r y ! In the first m ovem ent o fth e
H ayd n D m ajor C oncert, he assigned leading operatic roles:
here, in the lo w register, the cello w as to sing lke a basso can
tante there, in the upper register, w ith the elegance o f a prim a
donna . T h e v e ry highest notes w ere form ed into enchanting
arabesques: A lw a y s something lo v e ly , alw ays singing . . .
B m Casals w ell understood that the w o rld o ft h e rococo was
but one side o f H ayd n s art. His interpretations brought to v iv id
realization the contrasts o f dark and light in the S ym p h o n y o .
95. the interplay o f charm and rusticity in the Surpris
7
Sym p h o n y, the rom antic longing in the A d agio fro m the
F are w e ll Sym phony. W h en reading through the scoe o f the
M o u rn in g Sym ph o n y (N o . 44) he exclaim ed to me: H ayd n
could do an yth in g!
Som e musicians w ou ld restrict and categorize the degree o f ex
pression w h ich m ay be brought to the perform ance o f music o f
the classical period. Casals was not the person to w ithhold the
First Principie from any musical interpretation. H e did not
undervalue the depth o f feeling- w ith w h ich our ancestors
experienced the music that they com posed and perform ed. Those
livin g in the eighteenth century did not regard their art as
classical ; it w as a livin g event.
W o u ld y o u like to kn ow h o w I h ave expressed and even m -
dicated the beating, lovin g heart? w rote M ozart. B y tw o violins
playin g in octaves . . . . Y o u feel the trem bling - the faltering -
y o u see h o w the throbbing breast begins to heave; this I have
indicated b y a crescendo. Y o u hear the w hispering and the
s ig h in g . . . '
W h en Casals conducted M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40, ( the
m ood o f impassioned agitation spoke to us im m ediately. W e
must not be afraid to g ive expression, Casals exclaim ed. There
are v e ry fe w m arkings o f course. M ozart kn ew all that was in the
piece. H e was the com poser; he w as the one w h o suffered. W here
the second subject comes in G minor (E x . 8), Casals gave voice to
the feeling inherent in the phrase w ith but a single w o rd : G rief!
- indicating w ith his baton that the initial note should com e like
a heartw ound. T h e descending chrom atic notes w ere allow ed
time to speak their sorrow . In the fifth bar carne a new w ave o f
expression, m ore intensive than the first. A t the conclusin o f
each phrase there arse lesser w aves o f unstilled anguish:
1 In this, Mozart showed himself to be a true son to his father, for Leopold once
wrote: It is as clear as sunlight that every effort must be made to put the player m the
mood which reigns in the piece itself, in order thereby to pentrate the souls o the
listeners and to excite their emotions.
 CASALS AND THE ART OF INTERPRETA TIO N
T H E F IR S T P R IN C IP L E 9
x. 8

Molto allegro a score, in his advanced years sat on a chair, and approached the
conductor s art w ith true simplicity. H e w o u ld often begin a
rehearsal b y w o rk in g in detail; a quarter o f an hour cou ld be
devoted to tw o or three phrases. His aixn exceeded technical
prfection; it w as to reveal the pow er o f life inherent in music.
For exam ple, the opening bars o f B a ch s First O rchestral Suite
are easy to play, but, as Casals pointed out, they can just as easily
sound h eavy and m onotonous . Rehearsing w ith care that each
sem iquaver be given dynam ic gradation, he shaped a lyric con-
When, m the coda, the first subject is passed from one instrumen- tour. E v e ry note has to have a different son ority, he insisted; it
al group to another Casals urged that the phrases be sung with is a song.
fervent mtensity: I hear only notes - no despair!
Ex. 9
Ex. io
Ouve f ture

T h e phrase w as gone o ver repeatedly, each time gaining in elo-

quence and vitality. Fin ally Casals said, Som ething like that
(h ow often w ere these w ords heard from h im !), m eaning that the
goal, though elusive, had been touched upon. N o w , stopping less
often, he gave the orchestra rein to play through longer sections,
the musicians, already brought to a high pitch o f awareness and
sensibility, responding to his every indication o f expression.
___ L Casals rehearsals w ere challenging, Creative experiences for all
present. H avin g played as principal cellist under both Toscanini
and Casals, Frank M iller comments: Casals, such a great musi-
f i Vla- cian both as cellist and conductor, w ou ld seek out the essential
m eaning o f a w o rk as did Toscanini, but each in his o w n w ay,
for they w ere such different personalities. L ik e Toscanini, Casals
tolerated nothing less than the complete reveltio n o f the m usics
Casals gestures when conducting were never riaiA heart and soul and inspired the profoundest respect from the
meChn ! Ca ; thCl W,ent WA the mUSCal Phrase ^ d had a L u r a musicians w h o played under his direction.
ofbeam y wh.ch o school o f c o A i g ach. H d Casals com m unicated an unreserved jo y in the process o f
m usic-m aking. A s a cellist he kn ew full w ell that one must some-

iC'Z-'-yW;
tri I.
10 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
times take risks to be expressive. T o encourage the horns to
produce an uninhibited crescendo in a difficult passage from the
third m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s E ro ica , he said: Let us m ake
the crescendo right to the end o f the phrase. P la y w ithout fear. I f
the note doesnt com e out, y o u re w elcom e all the sam e.
Ex. n
T h e note did com e out, and w ith rousing vig o u r.
In the Andante con m oto from M o zarts S ym p h o n y N o . 39, at
the arrival o f the fo llo w in g forte passage:
Ex. 12
Strs. Andante con moto
Casals called out, Full f u l l f H e rose from his chair and spread
out his arms in a great gesture o f openness and acceptance,
saying, L ik e this like this! T h e musicians responded w ith
p layin g o f lum inous warm th. T h eir capacity fo r expression had
suddenly been enlarged b y Casals fidelity to the vo ice o f his o w n
feeling.
A rem ark that Casals often made, and w hich typified him as
man and musician, was p lay fran k ly . H e w o u ld apply these
T H E F IR S T P R 1 N C IP L E 11
w ords to the end o f a phrase w hich had to con vey a sense o f com -
pleteness:
Ex. 13 Beethoven: Symphony No. 4, 2nd mvt.
to semiquavers w hich should be stated directly and sim ply:
Ex. 14 Dvorak: Cello Concert, 2nd mvt.
to the forte chord w h ich follow s each lyrical phrase at the open-
ing o f the Andante cantabile from M ozarts J p iter Sym phony:
Ex. 15
T o p lay fran k ly is not to eschew subtlety and refmement.
It is to play, w here the music so demands, forthrightly, w ith
out sentimentality; to State w hat w e feel unashamedly and
unhesitatingly.
H o w can one do justice in w ords to the range o f Casals ex
pression? N o musician could evoke m ore sense o f p o w er from an
instrument or declaim a passage w ith m ore intensity. His perfor
m ance o f the Finale o f Brahm s E m inor C e llo Sonata w as a
 12 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A T IO N
titanio expenence; relentless in its drive, the quavers fell like hail-
stones. Give all your strength, he said, when teaching the
lollowmg passage from the first movement o f Beethovens D
major Sonata:
Ex. 16
Allegro con bro
Break your cello! It is better to have character in what you play
than to have a beautiful sound.
It was a different Casals teaching the second movement o f the
Lalo Concert:
Ex. 17
Lovely, lovely - there is nothing o f violence here. It is so
e egant, so Spanish. With grace - beautiful, poetic! I havent
played that for thirty-five years at least, and I still remember.1
Casals brought to the Elgar Concert an intensity o f feeling
and wealth o f mflection which had not hitherto been associated
wtth that work. Neville Cardus describes Casals performance:
' ' I16, qUef,t10" f the evenmg was whether the so-called
Enghshness o f Elgar would elude him . . . Jet it emphatically
' It was with this work that Casals made his dbut Pars on November l899.
T H E F IR S T P R IN C IP L E 13
be said that the work has never before sounded so eloquent, so
beautifully and so finely composed as now . . . . The slow move
ment put some o f us for a while under an obligation not to
breathe. The falling sequences o f the coda, one o f the most
heartfelt in existence and one of the most original in shape ,
were as though sorrow and sympathy stood before us wringing
their hands. Some critics complained that Casals approach
lacked a certain austerity ; it was too foreign (i.e. emotional).
Elgar had thught differently. He valued Casals interpretation,
he said, because Casals had made the concert sound like such a
big work.
Such a big work but Casals was such a small man, and a
simple man. The music carne not from histrionics, flourishes,
excesses, but from the way it moved him in his inner life.
Such was the richness o f his soul that, on the one hand, his music
touched the peasant earth with all its indomitable strength
and exuberance; on the other, it held discourse with the
sublime.
An indelible impression: Casals playing a slow movement o f
Bach, his eyes closed, his concentration removed from all daily
anxieties and ambitions. He seems surrounded by a vast, un-
fathomable silence from which emerges the voice o f his cello. He
plays for himself and yet not only for himself; for each o f us is, in
his own way, alone with that voice, speaking to us in tones o f
inexpressible purity.
While the painters o f ancient China agreed that the indispens
able attribute o f a great artist was his ability to convey the in-
definable quality embodied in the First Principie, it was also
understood that an artist will not succeed in expressing the First
Principie until he has mastered each o f the requisite skills. Form
remains lifeless when not animated by spirit; yet, lacking
knowledge and method, the energy o f spirit will not be trans-
mitted to the work o f art.
H C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

In subsequent chapters w e w ill lo o k at the m ain features o f

C asals teaching, the canons o f his artistry, each o f w h ich is
related to a u n ifyin g goal, that w h ich the C hnese cali chi-yn. CHAPTER II
Casals once said: Y o u w ill see w here to malte the vibrato, the
crescendo, the dim inuendo o f the notes - all those things yo u F1NDING THE DESIGN
have to have present, but present m ore in y o u r feelings. N o t pre-
sent on ly h ere, he said, as he tapped on his head, because it is not
profound enough; but here and he drew his hand to his heart. Remember that all music, ingeneral, is a succession of rainbows.

first encounter is often the most m em orable. T h e year was

A 19 53; the setting: the venerable ab bey o f St-M ichel-de-

C u x a in the foothills o f the Pyrenees; the w o rk : M ozarts
Sym phony N o . 39 in E \> major. O n that occasion Casals was
rehearsing the second movement.
A t the beginning o f the principal theme, M ozart has provided
the indication piano', there is no change in dynam ic m arking for
tw enty-nine bars. I had heard this passage perform ed, even b y
eminent conductors, w ith so little dynam ic nuance as to verge
upon the m onotonous, and by virtue o f these interpretations I felt
the theme som ehow to fall short o f being tru ly beautiful and
deeply stirring. I w anted to be m oved b y it m ore than I actually
was; the m elody rem ained for me something o f an enigma. W hat
solution m ight Casals offer, I wondered.
A lth ou gh on ly piano is w ritten, he said, w e must fo llo w the
line o f the music; w e must fm d the d esign ! H e began to
conduct.
T h e b rie f opening phrase was indeed played piano, nobly and
sim ply, falling a w a y at the end in diminuendo. H e then in-
dicated that the ascending .line should develop in a gradual
crescendo, the demisemiquavers p rovidin g a life-com m unicating
pow er o f m ovem ent.1 A s the theme approached its summit,
Casals rose from his chair, greeting the clim ax w ith open arms,

' See Chapter IV on the vitality of dotted rhythms.

15
16 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A D O N
lingering w ith heartfelt tenderness on the crotchet before a llo w -
ing it to expire like a sigh.
E x. 18
B ars 58 w ere sim ilarly transfigured into a flo w in g w a v e a
w a v e w hich fb llow ed a natural urge towards its crest, attained
fulfilm ent and then subsided w ith ineffable loveliness.
T h is w as the first musi lesson I received from Casals and it
w ent through me like lightning. A lth ou gh dynam ic inflections
are not ndicated in the score, Casals had allo w ed the intensity o f
expression to evolve organ ically w ith the m elodic curve. T h e
phrasing seemed inevitable, logical and perfectly natural. T h e
theme w as revealed in all its splendour - classical in the beauty o f
its proportions, rom antic in its declaration o f feeling.
It w as not until some years later that I w as to read R ichard
W a g n e rs com m entary upon M ozart interpretation w ith its
reference to this v e ry theme.
Take Mozart s instrumental pieces . . . two things are at once ap-
parent: the melodies must be beautifully sung\ yet there are very few
marks in the score to show how they are to be sung. It is well known
that Mozart wrote the scores o f his symphonies hurriedly, in most
cases simply for the purpose o f performance at some concert he was
about to give; on the other hand, it is also well known that he made
great demands upon the orchestra in the matter o f expression. Ob-
viously he trusted to his personal influence over the musicians. In the
orchestra parts it was thus sufficient t note the main tempo and
F IN D 1 N G T H E D E S IG N 17
piano or forte for entire periods, since the master, who conducted the
rehearsals, could give spoken direction as to details, and, by singing
his themes, communicate the proper expression to the players. . . .
The traditions o f such casual performances are completely lost. N o
trace is preserved, except the scantily-marked scores. And these
classical relies o f a once warmly vibrating work are now accepted,
with mistaken trust, as the sol guide towards a new living perfor
mance . . . . Let us examine a particular case for example, the first
eight bars o f the second movement o f Mozarts celebrated
Symphony in Eb. Take this beautiful theme as it appears on paper,
with hardly any marks o f expression faney it played smoothly and
complacently, as the score apparently has it and compare the result
with the manner in which a true musician would feel and sing it!
How much o f Mozart does the theme convey, i f played, as in nine
cases out o f ten it is played, in a perfectly colourless and lifeless way?
Poor pen-and-paper music, without a shadow o f soul or sense.
T h e manner in w hich a true musician w o u ld feel and sing it !
C o u ld a better description be found o f Casals, the interpreter?
Lest it be thought that W agn er and Casals w ere view in g
M ozart through the spectacles o f w hat is sometimes called nine-
teenth-century rom anticism , let us take note o f some com m en-
taries on interpretation set dow n b y composers livin g in the
eighteenth century.
Leopold M ozart:
Every care must be taken to find and to render the affect which
the composer wished to have brought o u t . . . . Indeed, one must
know how to change from soft to loud without directions and o f
ones own accord, each at the right time; for this, in the familiar
language o f painters, means light and hade.
Gem iniani:
One o f the principal Beauties o f the Violin is the swelling or encreas-
ing and softening the Sound.
18 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
Q uantz:
Good execution must be diversified. Light and shadow must be con-
tinuously interchanged. For in truth you will never move the listener
if you render all the notes at the same strength or the same weakness;
if you perform, so to speak, always in the same colour, or do not
know how to raise or modrate the tone at the proper time.
C . P. E. B ach :
Play from the soul, not like a trained bird !.1
Expressive inflection as an indispensable element in musical
perform ance, and the introducton o f expressive m arkings into
m usical scores, are historically tw o different m atters.2 T h e m anu-
script o f the E lg a r C ello C o ncert is liberally m arked w ith in
dicad ons o f dynam ic nuance; that o f a B ach solo cello suite
contains not a single one. Y e t both these w orks confess secrets o f
the heart; both abound in a subtlety and variety o f inflection that
surpass b y far the most fastidious o f interpretative m arkings.
V a rie ty , Casals w ou ld say, is a great w o rd in music as in
everyth in g; variety is a laW o f nature. G o o d m usic has never
m onotony. I f it is m onotonous it is our ow n fault i f w e dont play
it as it has to be played . . . . W e must g ive to a m elo d y its natural
life. W h en the simple things and natural rules that are forgotten
are put in the m usic then the m usic com es o u t!
These natural rules , w hich he con veyed tim e and again in his
teaching, w ere born o f logic based upon intuition. T h e y expressed
elemental truths often hidden fro m us b y the fam iliarity
' All who have heard [C. P. E.] Bach play the clavichord must have been struck by
the endless nuances o f shadow and light that he casts over his performance. C. F.
Cramer, Magazin der Musik; Hamburg 1 7 8 3 .
2 Bernard Shaw, recounting that Oscar W ilde sent the MS o f An Ideal Husband to
the Haymarket Theatre without taking the trouble to note the entrances and exits of
the persons on the stage, comments: There is no degree o f carelessness that is not
credible to men who know that they will be present to explain matters when serious
work begins.
FIN D IN G TH E D ESIG N 19
engendered by habit and routine. T h e y recalled to m ind the kin-
ship betw een music and the elemental forces around and w ithin
us.
N ature is permeated w ith an unceasing ebb and flo w , manifest
in the change o f seasons, the alternation o f day and night, the
m ovem ent o f tides. Perpetual oscillation is at the core o f
biological life the beating o f our hearts, the rhythm o f our
breathing. o r are these fluctuations restricted to physical
phenomena. O u r thoughts, fantasies, emotions, dreams flo w in
w aves, expanding to v ary in g points o f culm ination before sub-
siding. N ature never stays at one le v e l, Casals reflected; there is
a constant vibration .
M usic, too, partakes in this ebb and flo w in the interplay
betw een tonality and m odulation, in the counter-poise o f unity
and diversity w hich together comprise form . W ith in the large
structural spans there are smaller w aves - expressive o f m elodic,
rhythm ic and harm onic intensities - w herein is contained the
m om ent-to-m om ent life o f music.
Casals has stated, Each note is like a lin k in a chain - important
in itself and also as a connection between w hat has been and w hat
w ill b e . W h en he p layed, these links becam e livin g art. E v e ry
phrase w as borne upon a m ovem ent o f energy w hich flo w e d
from one note through the next, go in g tow ards a point or
com ing from another, ever in flu x, ever form ulating a contour.
A fundamental aim o f his teaching w as to show h o w the inter-
preter m ay com e to recognize the expressive im plication o f
each phrase, and h o w he can bring that expression to full realiza-
tion b y the use o f dynam ic variety, rhythm ic flexib ility, tone
colour, intonation. O f these, dynam ic variety is perhaps the most
immediate and elemental w a y in w hich the perform er m ay give
to a m elody its natural life .1
Let us look at the theme o f the A d agio from H a yd n s D m ajor
C e llo C oncert, observing the manner in w hich Casals revealed
its design b y means o f dynam ic inflection:
1 The other factors, mentioned above* will be dealt with in Chapters IV and V,
re
20 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
A nalysis o f C asals interpretacin tells us the fo llo w in g :
T h e dynam ic lev el does not rem ain constant; w ith in the forte
there is room fo r the nuances to ev o lv e fle x ib ly .
Repetitions bring about a subtle variance in intensity, w hether
in the reiteration o f the same note (for exam ple, the tw o E s in
B a r i) or the repetition o f a phrase (B ar 2, w h ich restates B a r i
sequentially).
T h e dynam ic inflections respond to the rise and fall in pitch.
T h e lon g notes (in Bars 5 and 6) increase in intensity, thereby
contributing to the developm ent o f the o verall line.
These life-g ivin g nuances reflect certain basic concepts o f
phrasing w hich Casals often expressed in w ords concepts
w hich, w hile not autom atically and thoughtlessly applied, have
sufficient general valid ity to be included here as a selection o f his
guiding principies in interpretation.
If the design goes up we must give a little more tone; i f it goes down,
a little less tone. This does not mean that there are not exceptions;
there are always exceptions. But this is the general rule. Dont be
afraid; let us be natural.
Generally, a long note w ill mean crescendo or diminuendo___ W e
must know how much to give, depending on what the music does.
The note has to say something; one must. give form, expression, in-
terest.
F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 21
An immediate repetition should provide contrast a little more forte
or piano; a change o f colour. Otherwise it is not music. Variety - the
art consists in that!
' A n d the principie w hich embraced all the others:
; When we see piano, the composer means in the range o f piano. The
range o f piano extends all the way to forte and the range o f forte ex-
tends all the way to piano. One has to follow the line o f the music. If
it goes up you have to give more, despite the piano. Otherwise it is
something that is not ffee not what the music intends.
In Casals hands, these simple things , these natural rules w ere
; -i lice the trusted tools o f an od w ood-carver w h o knew w e ll their
form ative pow er. Let us observe Casals at Work w ith these tools,
delineating those timeless features w h ich stir w ithin us an im -
f 3 ; medate sense o f recognition.
W e w ill begin by considering the first o f the concepts stated
.'
ti- above: nam ely, the manner in w hich dynam ic inflection gives
expressive form to the melodic curve. A s in all essential things,
i Casals expressed him self simply. Rem em ber, he said, that all
r: music, in general, is a succession o f rainbows.' H e demonstrated
this b y playin g a passage from B a ch s First C ello Suite:
H ere is a rain b o w : A n d here, another :
A n d n o w , a longer rain b o w :
viv;' Ex. 20c
_J _
 22 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 23

R a in b o w s . . . rainbow s; nearly all the music is like that. I f one
on ly makes this observation it is already a gu id e.
It w ill be noted that each o f these rainbow s is different, the
second being o f lesser dynam ic intensity than the first, w h ile the
third is lifted o v e r an extended span. T h e rain b o w ares w hich
Casals traced in m usic w ere im bued w ith the secret o f p ropor-
tion. T h e y expressed the innate architecture o f the phrase, be it
the gradually unfolding m elody w hich begins B a c h s Second
C e llo Suite:
Ex. 21
In the above exam ple the diminuendo in B a r 6 provides a softer
starting point fo r the beginning o f the rain bo w . This m om entary
easing o f intensity gives the interpreter greater freedom to m ould
dynam ic nuances w ithin the phrase w ithout exceeding the just
proportions o f the overall level o f volum e. In this w a y , Casals
w o u ld say, the dim inuendo gives econom y to the crescendo that
fo llo w s.
W e see a sim ilar pattern o f tensin and relaxation w ithin the
fo llo w in g theme from the first m ovem ent o f Schum ann s Fourth
Sym pho ny:

the noble cantilena o f B eeth oven s A m ajor Sonata:

i: Ex. 22
l

1I

or the radiant cu rve o f the singing line in M o zarts L in z Casals asked the first violins to begin w ith singing tone in mezzo
Sym phony: piano, m ake a dim inuendo w ith the descending line, and then rise
Ex. 23 in a crescendo to the high D - w hich crow ns the phrase even
though it comes at a rhythm ically w eak point o f the bar. Shaped
Allegro spiritoso (espr) in this w a y , the theme w as freed from the dictates o f the bar line;
w ithin these ten notes w as contained a w o rld o f passion. T h e
accom panying figure in the second violins w as to be brought into
prom inence: H ere is the anguish! Casals cried out.
In his urge to complete a phrase, to soar throgh its higher notes,
Casals feeling fo r m elody was closely allied to vocal art. H o w
often w o u ld he ask his students to transate the natural flo w o f
song into their b o w s: Sing at the top o f the phrase!
24 C A SA LS A N D THE A RT OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N FIN D IN G TH E D ESIG N 2S

Ex. 25 Schumann: Cello Concert, 3rdmvt.
In the closing theme o f the first m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s
C ello Sonata in F m ajor, the composer has placed a sforzando on
the D preceding the highest note (F). Casals observed this sfor
zando and then brought attention to the F b y a subtle rhythm ic
elon gation .1

Ex. 27
T h ere was, in fact, a rem arkable sim ilarity betw een C asals
teaching o f interpretation and that o f Lotte Lehm ann, not on ly in
the w a y in w h ich these tw o great artists brought into being the
spiritual atmosphere o f a musical com position, but in terms o f
their fundam ental approach to phrasing. In her book M ore than
Singing, Lotte Lehm ann has w ritten: Som e themes begin on the note o f uppermost pitch. G enerally
It almost seems superfluous to say: never forget that a phrase must in such cases (as in E xs. 28-30), Casals, w ith characteristic
always have a main word and with it a musical high point. Y et it is directness, w o u ld start at the high point o f expression, bringing
incredible how often this elementary and self-evident fact is an immediate w arm th to the first note. T h e specific quality o f ex
neglected. . . . Again and again I am astonished anew by a lack o f
pression w o u ld be in keeping w ith the m ood o f the given w o rk .
musical feeling for the essential nature o f the phrase. . . . Singing
should never be just a straight going ahead, it should have a sweep-
ing flow, it should glide in soft rhythmical waves which follow one Ex. 28 Mozart: Symphony No. 40, 2nd mvt.
another harmoniously.
W h ile Casals norm ally counselled his students that w h en the
notes g o up there is a natural crescendo , he w o u ld add, y o u r in -
tuition w ill tell y o u w hen the exceptions o ccu r. A change o f
tim bre o r a rhythm ic elongation w as often the preferred means o f
com m unicating the desired nuance. F o r instance, w hen p layin g
the opening them e o f the Brahm s E m inor Sonata, Casals w o u ld
arrive at the high point (G ) w ith a sudden understatement; the
note w as im bued w ith a sense o f m ystery.
Ex. 26
Allegro non troppo
espr. legato Ex. 29 Beethoven: Symphony No. 4, 2nd mvt.
Adagio
 FIN D IN G THE D ESIG N 27
26 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

Ex. 30 Schumann: Adagio and A llegro', Op. 70

ln E x . 32 the crescendo w ithin the lon g note provides the

gro w in g w eigh t w hich supports the m elodic arch. L ack in g this,
W e have observed in the theme o f the A d a g io from the H ayd n w e w o u ld have just another case o f poor pen-and-paper music .
D m ajor C e llo C oncert the valu w hich Casals placed upon the
expressive capacity o f long notes, those sustained links in the Ex. 32 Bach: Viola da Gamba Sonata No. 2 , ist mvt.
chan o f m elodic evolution. L ik e a slo w gesture in dance, a lon g
note must preserve the continuity o f line; otherw ise it w ill arrest A d a g io
the sense o f m otion. W h en teaching the opening m ovem ent o f
B a c h s First V io la da Gam ba Sonata, Casals com m ented, I f the
lon g note stays on the same level it becomes m onotonous. O n e is
w aiting for something. W e ll, that something is to g ive colour to
that long note. I f you do a little crescendo, then the interest con A delicate. crescendo o v e r the sustained notes in E x . 33 leads us
' S e -
tines; you w ill see h o w beautiful it is. to the summit o f this most lyrical o f phrases:

Ex. 31
Ex. 33 Schumann: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.
Adagio
N ic h t zu s c h n e ll
(V)

Casals brought to the principal subject o f W agn er s Siegfried

Id y ll a gentle, sw ayin g m otion. T h e lon g notes, com ing in
diminuendo, provided a gliding sense o f release. T h e rising scale
1 1 .1 __ 1:*..

z~ ~
 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
T h e sustained note w ith w h ich the cello enters in the slow
m ovem ent o f the Boccherin i B?m ajor C o ncert w as played w ith
a curve o f intensity w hich reached its peak at the bar line, after
which it began to attenuate.
Ex. 35
Adagio.
D o not fo rg e t, Casals w o u ld say, that in piano there is a
range o f expression and sonority. E ve n i f y o u p la y piano in
general - g iv e colour in that p ian o.
U n d er certain circumstances, Casals pointed out, one note w ill
contain a dual impulse o f relaxation and subsequent ren ew al o f
tensin, as in the opening m ovem ent o f M ozarts Sym phony
N o . 39.
Ex. 36
Allegro
L 1 1 I I I
The At first follow s its natural tendency tow ards expiration;
then, functioning as a suspensin, it bridges o ver to the m elodic
figure in the next bar.
B iS I
F1 N D 1N G T H E D ES1G N 29
A g ain , a dual impulse comes about w hen the note o f resolution
fo llo w in g an appoggiatura (w hich has an inherent diminuendo)
is succeeded b y a higher note to w hich it must establish a m elodic
connection:
Ex. 37 Bach". Viola da Gamba Sonata No. 2 , 3 r<I mvt.
Ex. 38 Schumann: Cello Concert, ist mvt.
W e n ow com e to the question o f reiteration. Repetition in
music be it o f a single note or o f a phrase is similar to repeti
tion o f w ords or phrases in speech. It is a natural feature o f ex-
pressive com m unication that w e v a ry the emphasis w hen w e say
the same thing m ore than once. R eiterating I lo ve yo u in a
monotone w ill not get y o u very far. W h en , in the last act o f K in g
Lear, the despairing m onarch addresses the lifeless b o d y o f
C ordelia:
Thoult come no more,
Never, never, never, never, never!
the first thing an actor w ill iristinctively realize is that he must
vary the forc o f intensity from one w o rd to the next. H e w ill
achieve repetition w ith out duplication. It is a general rule that
repeated notes or a repeated design must not be equal, Casals
w o u ld rem ind his students. Som ething has to be done. O th er-
wise yo u have m onotony and nothing is m ore m onotonous
than m o n o to n y!
 30 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N F 1N D 1N G T H E D ES1G N 31

W h en considering repetitions o f single notes, w e must first
determine w hether they are m o vin g tow ards a point o f rhythm ic
strength or receding from it. F o r exam ple, in the final m ove-
ment o f B a ch s T h ird G am ba Sonata, the groups o f reiterated
quavers have the character o f upbeats; Casals asked that they
com e each time in an impassioned crescendo: In those short notes
w e must g iv e som ething!
W h en rehearsing the w ood w in d in the second m ovem ent o f
M ozart s Sym phony N o . 39, Casals took care that each successive
quaver should con vey a sense o f dynam ic grow th, w h ile rem am -
ing w ith in a tonal fram ew ork that w o u ld preserve the m ood o
tranquillity.
Ex. 411

Ex. 39a
Allegro

at B a r 95:
In the above exam ple it w ill be noted that the first bassoon com -
Ex. 39b mences on the second quaver o f the bar, each o f the three quavers
has an. upbeat impulse. T h e clarinets and second bassoon, h o w -
ever, begin on the first quaver o f the bar. T h is note, being the
dow nbeat, subsides in diminuendo, bringing econom y to the
crescendo that follow s. }
T h e principie o f ebb and flo w is again evident in Casals inter-
pretation o f the Andante from M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40; he
C onversely, the triplet quavers in the Siegfried Id y ll fall aw a y,
as it w ere, from the first beat o f the bar. (The m ovem ent tow ards brought to the reiterated quavers a livin g , contoured m ovem ent.1
repose contines through the m inim .) Ex. 42
Ex. 40

r '- i '

i:.--;
1 See Chapter III for a discussion of repeated notes with special reference to
'i:
articulation.

I"
 FIN D IN G THE DESIGN 33
32 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N

N o less does the law o f d iversity apply to the repetition o f

Ex. 4 5
phrases.
I f y o u say the same thing in the same w a y , it has no v a lu ,
Casals insisted when teaching the first m ovem ent o f B rah m s E
m inor Sonata. T h e second time w e must g ive m ore in tensity.

Ex. 43
In the second subject o f the opening m ovem ent o f
Allegro non troppo M endelssohns Italian Sym phony, the initial tw o -b ar phrase is
ffe - repeated (in slightly m odified form) at a lo w er pitch, after which
it begins to rise sequentially. I f w e have the same sonority up and
f (appassionato) dow n it is not natural, not norm al, Casals commented. Let us
give the natural variety. H o w lo vely, h o w simple! 1
S im ilarly, in the second m ovem ent o f the D vo r k C o ncert
Casals w o u ld tell his students, A s this phrase comes three times, Ex. 46
try to have every time a little som ething else! Allegro vivace

T h e reiterated passage in the first m ovem ent o f the H ayd n D

In the tenth bar, the clarinets arrive at their m eridian; the first
m ajor C oncert w as varied in the m ost delightful w a y . Casals
violins respond w ith a sustained high B . For Casals this note w as
played the initial phrase in forte, w ith rhythm ic v ig o u r and rustic
a culm ination o f expression: Like a star!
accents (the lo w er notes being perform ed as quavers). T h e
repetition carne in m ezzo piano, cantabile (the lo w e r notes 1 Casals cautioned against exaggeraon; an echo effect is generally to be avoided
om itted): because that would be out o f proportion. W hat we do must always be in good taste.
 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
F 1 N D 1N G T H E D E S IG N 35
tch mm f M ,rep ti0" 0 f ^ pl, e * ds
avoiding, in this w a y , the reiteration o f a similar-sounding accent
bringing fa pIM of clm " ^ r ^ rm t0 4 ' ' ,0d^
and clarifyin g the directional structure o f the phrase. Later in the
m ovem ent, w here stanzas are built up through sequential
Ex. 4 7 Beetboven: Symphony No. 2, 2nd mvt.
repetition, each phrase retained, in miniature, its ebb and flo w ;
L a ra h e tt0 vhh assa) yet each increased in intensity, contributing to the cum ulative
gro w th o f the w hole.

Ex. 419b

Ex. 48 Beethoven: Symphony No. S, 4th mvt.

A lle g ro vivace
Vln.1

jo (m f - = / = = = = = ----- )
( mX>=^~
"economy"
Textbooks define a sequence as repetitions o f a m elodic seg-
ment (w ith or w ithout its harm ony) at other levels, higher or
e r n/ lo w er. B u t they seldom mention that each segment, w hether
cresa.
m ovin g w ithin a given k ey or engaged in m odulation, expresses
charape i t T e o C V ^ S P' something different from its predecessor. W hile these repetitions
Jong m e io S s ^ T v / Wy buM mion over a m ay lo o k alike to the eye, the subtle and changing relationships
1'}: theme , i PT j l j tL T 0mme f P W In the o f tones and semitones w ithin the structure o f a scale produce
ne van ed the (expressive) accentuation as follow s: continuous variations to the discerning ear. Casals, not insensitive
Ex. 49a to this faCt, brought to each sequence delicate modifications o f
Andante co]our and intensity.
(>)__ (V)
(W' ^ 2 V o
O)) T h e 9/8 theme from the first m ovem ent o f the E lga r C ello
]T j /
f f r r r vr
C oncert begins at a point near its m elodic crest, and then un-
folds in a gradually descending sequence. Casals com m unicated
im m ediately the them es heartrending quality; he brought to the
t.e. v e ry first note an eloquent, poignant vibraney and drew atten-
(-=) tioh to the highest note b y means o f a b a rely perceptible
rubato. This m elo d y, he w ould say, must descend like a le a f
 37
F IN D 1 N G T H E D E S IG N
C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

w h ich falls from a tree in the autumn n ever a direct descent,

but a series o f gently cascading movem ents
Ex. jo

,, rViaracteristic of Casals to bring a melody to hfe

L r S n T v i n g v id u a ! contour <>

segments of which is compnsed. R,...rW e n t Fourth

A g ain constructed o f sequential elements, the m ain subject
o f the first m ovem ent o f Schum ann s Fou rth Sym ph o n y ex- sanunvaryiug
A *^ 'yjiner5;T
dynam.c lcvel. desp. e th= V
presses its despair turbulently, fiercely. T h e com poser has left
on ly tw o dynam ic m arkings: a forte in the first bar and a fo r- X U . uiodf of a d.tceudiug rhird.
tissimo in the eleventh bar. In g ivin g inflection to the m elodic
rise and fall, Casals in no w a y reduced the effectiveness o f the Ex. 52
forte. O n the con trary, the relentless bu ildin g up o f tensin in
phrase after phrase had an overw h elm in g em otional impact.
Ex. j i
Lebhaft

A llegro ma non troppo

Vln.1 r- > r
(>1,
 F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 39
38 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
1 the d o sin g theme, w here the m o tif first h erid in m inor c o m o
Casals described the T rio from B eeth oven s E igh th Sym ph o n y in in m ejor, Casis commented, 'Y o n h eve to m ete .
as a w on derful b arcarolle! Conducting in one flo w in g beat per
divisin; it says another thing. 1
bar, sw aying slo w ly from side to side, be indicated to the horns a
gentle break betw een the first and the second bars. Ex. 56
Ex. J4 i r

Tempo di Menuetto
*
espress
(= dolce
W h en Casals rehearsed the opening theme o f M o z arts
Svm ph on y N o . 40, he first drew attention to the character o the
W h en Casals conducted this w o rk w ith the V ien n a P h il- prim e m o tif - the appoggiatura w h ich contams a natural
harm onic in 19 27, the first horn player, un w illin g to accept any
interpretation w h ich broke w ith tradition, w alked out during the ; the reiterations o f this
dim inuendo :
rehearsal. A lth ou gh the gentlem an in question reappeared fo r the
- *>(=->
! concert and perform ed the passage in the m anner requested, the m o tif w ere to com e w ith increased dynam ic strength. Each fo u r-
incident typ ified fo r Casals the routine w hich can p lay havoc bar phrase described an are, the second (a tone lo w er m pitch)
! even w ith the best orchestra in the w o rld .
reaching a slightly lesser point o f intensity.
In the impassioned second subject o f the opening m o v e-
m ent o f Brah m s E m inor C e llo Sonata, Casals asked that the
third and fourth bars not be conceived as a single phrase unit. Ex. 57a
T h ere w as to be a slight separtion , the fourth bar com ing w ith Motto allegro , - - ' '

j feverishly renew ed intensity. Vln.1 (fk '" v VyV , ' f-

Ex. 55
Allegro non troppo

. He also stressed the importance of taking a breath befte the D in the fifth
bar of the first subject (see Ex 26).

W s
 40 CASALS AN D THE ART OF I NTERPRETATI ON FI NDI NG THE DESIGN 41

T h e ensuing phrases developed w ith reinforced urgen cy,

culm inating in the high C o f the w o o d w in d , a note usually
understated n perform ance but to w hich Casals granted its full
expressive valu.

Ex. 57b

N o less m em orable w as Casals perform ance o f the first

rchestral statement from Beethoven s Fourth P ian o C oncert.

Ex. 59

Conductors usually im pose an uninterrupted legato upon the

allegro subject from M o zarts Sym ph o n y N o . 39, in quest o f
ideal beauty. Casals, too, conceived this theme lyrica lly, but
within the lyrical line he ga ve expression to the natural tendency
o f even the smalest phrase segment. Thus the m o tif o f a rising
third (in Bars 1 and 2) w as played w ith graceful dance-like
quality, subsiding in dim inuendo; Bars 3 and 4 w ere bound
together in unbroken song. P erform ed in this w a y , the theme This passage carne as a reverential response to the opening piano
ii expressed its innate w arm th and animatin. A Sleeping B eau ty solo (m o vin gly played b y R u d o lf Serk in ). T h e first note dim in-
i;
had been aw akened. ished to pianissimo: T h e diminuendo brings w arm th, Casals
said; the repeated quavers conveyed the most discreet forw ard
Ex. j 8
mpetus. Bars 3 and 4 w ere shaped individually, each arising like
A llegro a sigh, each fallin g a w a y . T h e sforzando in B a r 5 caught us
unawares - a spontaneous expression o f deep feeling; the
descending line o ver B ars 5 and 6 sang unhurriedly as it
yielded in intensity. T h e final tw o bars rose and fell m a gentle
:''

curve, the quaver A b ein g touched upon tenderly. Each com -

ponent o f the theme had been granted its o w n expressive life, the
arrestingly individual contours com ing together to form a w hole

o f great beauty.

i-'
 43
F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N
42 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

Let us n o w take note o f som e instances w here Casals w as

Ex- 6 3 B eethoven: Symphony No. 8, ist mvt.
careful not to seprate musical elements w h ich belong together. Continuity - despite the rest!
Casals explained that w here an appoggiatura is built into the
A lleg ro vivace e con bro rita rd . a tempo
m elodic line, the note o f resolution must m aintain its natural con-
nection to the appoggiatura even i f not jo in e d to it in a legato
V,nr1nf ~ >.vo h'z "T .4 - . 1 ef . 1

Ii
n
slur. T h e relatedness o f the tw o notes is m ost often overlooked m
w hen the appoggiatura takes the form o f a suspensin and the
note o f resolution leads on to a n ew phrase segment. I f the sus
pensin falls o f f in too drastic a dim inuendo the sense o f continuity Ex. 64 Schumann: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.
m ay easily be broken. In E xs. 6 0 - 6 6 Casals asked that enough
tone be sustained on the suspensin to ensure the un ity o f the
phrase; the change o f b o w w as to be negotiated w ith out an
inadvertent accent.

Ex. 60 Bach: Brandenburg Concert N o. 6, 2nd mvt.

Adagio ma non tanto Ex. 65 Dvorak: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.
A , V(a. 2 <&r
A llegro r^" 1
------- j--
(v*V . ---------
& b
( m jp -= - .ji , , f l l ' 1 [~T-p-|-F

Ex. 61 Bach: Orchestral Suite No. 2 , Sarabande PP

(Tnp)
Ex. <56 Mozart: Symphony N o. 40, 2nd mvt.
A s often played:

Andante ,-----------------1 r " "t r

Ex. 62 Beethoven: Eroica Symphony, ist mvt.

Allegro con bro 1------------------* ----------- ,
 44
N D T H E A R T -^r UN T E R P R E T A T IO N
F1NDING THE DESIGN 45
lT ** perhaps it w ill be m ore beautiful. H e n o w requested that these
be drawn togetfe o an ,h" which should quavers be played in dim inuendo: th ey w ere to conclude the
possible. ^ CC on m ! ne solution is previous phrase. T h e new phrase was to begin w ith the high A in
the subsequent bar:
M e ^ d A s X 's l w s ^ 'h' ^ rf
externa] featr, J S S J s' y; f fT 1* 8* desi8*e <he Ex. 67b
spirit which b convey rhe
Casals words: 'With Lovc!1 ^ S*>Im summanze* m *

Ex. 67a

C0/3 moto moderoto

T h e tw o versions w ere equally valid, one as lo v e ly as the other.

In literature, too, such choices are sometimes possible. T a k e the
speech o f H am let, beginning W hat a piece o f w o rk is m an,
w hich scholars credit to Shakespeare in either o f the fo llo w in g
constructions:

. . . H ow infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and

admirable! In action how like an ngel! In apprehension how like a
god!

. . . how infinite in faculties, in form and moving, how express and

admirable in action, how like an ngel in apprehension, how like a
god.

Finding the design was not relegated exclu sively to the shaping

x r d>y, ZJ y J
crescendo; , * *7
{"> W
'K * .bei* o f principal themes; it embraced every aspect o f a com position.
Tu tti passages often treated as no m ore than stuctural fillin g
in w ere, for Casals, living structure. In the first m ovem ent o f
1In an interview, Casals recallpd 4..,, .u ..
M ozarts S ym p h o n y N o . 40, the reiterated scales o f quavers took
his childhood. he muslc o f Mendelssohn was the first love o f on shape and direction, com ing each tim e w ith an increase in
son ority :
 46 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
Ex. 68
A t the clim ax o f the developm ent from the first m ovem ent o f
M ozarts Sym ph ony N o . 39, the arpeggios, played in crescendo,
became urgently dram atic, leaping up like flam es!
It is not enough ju st to p la y fortissim o, Casals called out w hen
rehearsing the fo llo w in g passage from B eeth o ven s E ighth
S ym p h o ny. T h e strings w ere to accent the upper note o f each
successive group, the w oo d w in d and brass to m ake a crescendo:
F IN D IN G T H E D ES1G N 47
G ive life to the sustained n ote! T h e music surged forw ard w ith
irresistible pow er.
Ex. 70
A llegro vivace e con bro
A n y student beginning to perform a series o f rapid notes in a
regim ented, mechanical manner - no matter w ith w hat brilliance
- w o u ld find him self cut short w ith the cry, N o passage
w o rk ! Casals w o u ld then play the same notes w hich had just
sounded so arid and methodical, revealing their expressive form .
W e must alw ays g ive the design, he w o u ld say, as when
teaching B eeth oven s A m ajor Sonata:
48 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
F IN D IN G T H E D E S IG N 49
Ex. 71
H o w often w o u ld he exclaim : Its not a passage - it s a
Fnate:
wonderful melodyV

Ex. 74 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in C Major, Finale

Allegro vvace

O bserve in E x . 72 the clarifications o f phrasing, the variations o f

texture. M y notation cannot capture the charm o f the subtle
rubato.

Ex. 72 Haydn: Cello Concert in D tnajor, ist mvt.

A b o ve all, Casals hated that which w as sterile, coid and life-
Allegro moderoto less. A correct perform ance held no interest fo r him i f it failed
"cantando" to com m unicate the essential glo ry o f m usic, its ability, through
(-
the beauty o f its contours, the depth and range o f its expression,
to m ove us to the heart. W h en confronted w ith a student u n w ill-
ing to m ake an interpretative commitment, Casals w o u ld say: It
is even better to do something in bad taste than to be m ono-
tonous.

(cresc.)
"leggiero' T w o months before his death, Casals, then in his ninety-
seventh year, conducted a youth orchestra in Israel. I am a very ,
very , v e ry od m usician, he told the yo u n g instrumentalists. Iam
the oldest musician to d ay. H e proceeded to rehearse M o zarts
Sym phony N o . 33 w ith ageless vitality, com m unicating the
irrepressible elemental forc o f his ecstatic lo ve for music. Con
amore con amore, he urged, going o ver a particular phrase a
dozen times; otherw ise it means nothing its against the
m usic! R epetition in music means m ore piano or m ore forte
like w hen y o u are speaking in music it s the same give ex
pression, and then more expression! T h e highest note must be
heard like singing m ezzo forte at least. It is not m arked in the
score; that doesnt matter. T h ere are one thousand things that are
not m ark ed ! he thundered. D o n t give notes g ive the meaning
o f the notes!

C H A P T E R III
D IC TIO N FOR INSTRUM ENTALISTS
Diminuendo is the life of music.
A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!
he quotation is famous enough, but how should one deliver
T the line most effectively?
O n e need not be in the predicam ent o f R ich ard III to realize
that w h at matters most is not h o w lo u d ly nine sim ple w ords can
be shouted, but the sharpness o f im pact o f the m ore important
w ord s as they fall upon the ear. L e t m e rstate this self-evident
principie, m aking use o f m arkings o f m usical expression. Let s
suppose the w ord s to be spoken at a sustained level o f volum e:
A HORSE A HORSE MY KINGDOM FOR A HORSE
se m p re f f --------------------- :___________________________ _
O r, b y contrast, w ith an articulation corresponding to the natural
inflections o f speech:
A H orse! a H orse! m y K in gd om fo r a H orse!
I f the reader experim ents b y saying the line aloud, he m ay wish
to v a ry the degree o f stress placed upon each sforzando, perhaps
b y granting special im portance to k in gd o m or b y emphasizing
50
D I C T I O N FOR I N S T R U M E N T A L I S T S 51
the equestrian invocations. W hichever w a y he chooses, he w ill
instinctively render each sforzando intelligible b y a subsequent
decrease in volum e or, in terms o f music, a dim inuendo.
Casals often commented on the relationship between music and
the spoken w ord. A n accented note, he said, w ill stand out and
keep its valu, not so much because o f its special intensity but
principally because o f the shade which succeeds it. These remarks
find a parallel in a law o f nature: let us shout v e ry loud and
observe the endless dim inuendo w hich follow s. T h e perform ance
o f music cannot exelude this most natural reality. B y w a y o f il-
lustration he w o u ld cali out H e y ! and go on to explain that
w hen w e m ake this efort in givin g an accent, our lungs are
emptied quickly. W e g ive all and a diminuendo comes. This is
exactly the same w ith the notes.
L ig h tn in g ! Casals exclaim ed, describing the entrance o f the
cello in the Saint-Sans A minor C oncert. H e pointed out that
after the initial attack the intensity o f the first note should be
diminished. I f you continu the forte yo u dont hear the accent.
A strong accent must have a diminuendo: then it is m ore p ow er-
ful and more natural. H e demonstrated as follow s:
Ex. 75
This diminuendo has significnce not only for the first note but
for the second note as w ell, in that it permits the D to be better
heard. Thus, w here clear articulation is required, the dimin
uendo fulfils a dual function: it gives definition to the note on
w hich it occurs and enables us to bring the fo llo w in g note into
relief.
 52 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A T IO N D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S 53
Let us n o w ap p ly our R ichard III elocution test to the delin- Ex. 76c
eation o f phrasing in the developm ent section from the first
m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s E ighth Sym pho ny. T h e fo llo w in g
passage is m arked f f w ith an s f at the begin nin g o f the second
phrase. First w e shall sustain the tone throughout:

Ex. 76a
A lle g ro v iv a c e e con b ro
Vlc.&
Bass
i
i

i
s e m p re ]ff_ S f _________

A n d n ow , in keeping w ith Casals interpretation, w e w ill begin

fortissimo, a llo w the first phrase to end in a dim inuendo, then
attack the fo llo w in g sforzando w ith renew ed en ergy:

Ex. 76b

E x . 76b reveis a notable gain in clarity. Casals w o u ld explain: A

dim inuendo gives interest to w hat follow s; an accent has m ore
M an y perform ers today feel that to g ive w a y in the manner
im portance b y contrast. T h e inflection on one note gives valu to
Casals suggested w ill have a weakening effect, and that (par-
the n ext.
ticularly in Beethoven) a continuously sustained f f w ill give a
T h e relevance o f this principie is further exem plified on the
bettr impression o f strength. In fact, although the diminuendi
subsequent page o f the score w here this phrase comes in fo r con
indicated suggest a decrease in volunte there w as no decrease in in -
trapuntal treatm ent. Casals obtained from the orchestra a
tensity, the music has n ever been set forth w ith m ore rugged
breathtaking incisiveness o f accentuation and transparency o f
texture. It is evident that R ich ard s him self again . grandeur.
T h e fo llo w in g passages, in forte and piano respectively, cali for
distinct enunciation. A diminuendo on the first note enhances the
vitality o f both the first and second notes:
 54 C ASALS A N D THE A RT OF IN T E R PR ET A T IO N D IC T IO N FOR IN ST R U M E N T A L IST S 55

Ex. 77 Haydn: Symphony No. p>, ist mvt. Ex. 80

Allegro
A lle g ro m oderato
W.W.& o (A) . 1^ - > >i
>> (wA ) >
>

EK -i 4 T' _1
-Wp * v M ! = ] fp fz ja sp icca to ' ' " - i fz fz
ff( J ( = )
For Casals, the valu inherent in what he referred to as the law
Ex. 78 Mozart: Symphony No. 3 3 , ist mvt. o f the dim inuendo w as essential to the com m unication o f music
-r as it is to speech. Nevertheless, he found that m any musicians
seriously underestimate its importance. W e tend to be inhibited
by the printed score w ith its scarcity o f expressive m arkings; the
beauty o f our tone production m ay lead us to forget that uni-
form ity breeds m onotony. W e too often confuse sustained p ow er
with expressive elucidation. Furthermore, when w e think w e are
playing w ith sufficient dynam ic contrast, w e m ay, in fact, not be
doing so, as w e soon discover when w e hear recordings o f our
performance. A n invaluable lesson o f C asals teaching w as to
In the principal theme o f the Finale o f the D v o r k C e llo alert the ear and the b o w arm to the fact that clear articulation in
C oncert, a natural dim inuendo imbues each crotchet w ith music demands a far greater range o f dynam ic inflection than w e
decisiveness and penetrating p o w er. norm ally realize. Casals w ou ld remind his students: In playing a
passage in forte w ith natural accents, y o u arrive to piano so
Ex. 79
that this forte has variety. This is a simple rule but it is not
generally k'now n. B earin g this in mind, w e can better under-
stand that certain dim inuendi which m ight seem exaggerated to
the instrumentalist m ay not necessarily sound exaggerated to the
listener.1
Casals had an uncanny ability to listen to the actual sound he
was producing. Intention to be clear w as not enough. Absolute
clarity o f articulation was a canon o f his artistry. H e often gave
credit to an essential factor in achieving this goal: D im inuendo
is the life o f m usic.

W hen p layin g the fo llo w in g passage from the opening m o ve-
ment o f this w o rk , Casals rendered the accentuation o f the E (first
note in B a r 3) m ore effective b y means o f a decrescendo o ver the
preceding semiquavers. In this w a y w e have m ore colour con-
trast.
1 In Science and Music Sir James Jeans describes experiments which reveal that
generally speaking . . . our ears are insensitive to anything less than a 25 per cent
difference of energy. The pianist who is executing a rapid passage may allow him-
self a 25 per cent variation in the strengths of difererit notes, without our ears detecting
any falling off from regularity. The organ-voicer may leave a row o f pipes difering by
as much as 25 per cent in strength, and even a trained ear will pass them as perfectly
umform.
 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A T IO N
D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R M E N T A L IS T S 57

Let us n ow turn to further tasks perform ed by the dm inuendo in diminuendi. Each successive note began w ith increased strength,
the service o f musical diction, most significantly in the elucida- the last sem iquaver carryin g the crescendo over to the bar line.
tion o f repeated notes and ornam ents.1
W h en a note is repeated, Casals counselled, it is im portant Ex. 83 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in A major, 3rd mvt.
that the beginning o f the second note should be clearly heard. A
natural dim inuendo at the end o f the first note gives valu to the
second note. Th us, in the fo lio w in g exam ples, the decrescendo
allow s the second note to be enunciated distinctly w ith out
recourse to exaggerated accentuation; clarification is achieved
w h ile retaining grace. In certain cases, particularly when a dotted rhythm w as
present, Casals w o u ld brin g to repeated notes a release and
Ex. 81. Haydn: Cello Concert in D major, ist mvt. renew al o f intensity, the second note com ing as an upbeat to the

Allegro moderato music that fo llo w ed :

Ex. 84 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in A major, 3rd mvt.

X > (= ~ J E
(graziaso)

Ex. 82. Dvok: Cello Concert, Finale

Moderato
Ex. 85 Beethoven: Symphony No. 4, 4th mvt.

Ex. 86 Dvok: Cello Concert, ist mvt.

In E x . 83 w e see h o w Casals applied this principie even w h en a
series o f repeated notes is form ed into a crescendo. H e ensured
note-to-note clarity by g iv in g the semiquavers individual

1Thesc problems are particularly acute for the string and wind player, less so for the
pianista The pianist s difficulties increase when he wishes to have his percussion instru-
mcnt imtate the legato which his string- and wind-playing colleagues can produce
with ease.

E B S
 5 CAS AL S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A TI O N D I CT I ON FOR I NS TRUMENTALIS TS 59

A similar approach w as brought to bear on the repeated notes W h ere the little notes are included w ith in the same legato slur
w hich occur in the sorrow -laden theme w hich opens Schum anns (i.e. w ithout a change o f bo w ), as in E x . 89:
Fourth Sym phony; each successive phrase begins on the same Ex. 89 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in C major, ist mvt.
note w ith w hich the previous phrase has ended.

considerable demands are made upon the flexibility and respon-

Conducting in expressive quaver beats w hich d rew from the
orchestra the most beautiful legato playin g, C asals gesture
changed rad ically at the instant o f the juncture betw een phrases.
In a sdden, tiny m ovem ent his hands lurched fo rw ard . W ith o ut
break in continuity, the n ew phrase w as born o f a throbbing im -
i! pulse, betraying the agitation w hich underlies the w h o le passage.
Ju st before the prem ire o f The R in g , R ichard W agn er issued
a last request in a handw ritten note to the singers:
!Clarityl
The big notes come o f themselves; it is
the little notes that require attention . . .
siveness o f the b o w arm. W ith the dim inuendo comes a slow ing
o f b o w speed and release o f pressure; the subsequent accentuation
I on the first o f the little notes requires a quickening o f b o w speed
t and re-exertion o f pressure. Casals emphasized that this process
| should be carried out without stopping the bow at the end o f the
l dim inuendo. In this w a y the continuity o f line remains un-
\ broken; the articulation has a natural resilience, never sounding
f; ungainly or crude.
1 W hile the precise degree o f accentuation w ill v a ry according
I to the context in w hich it appears, the principie o f achieving
clarity b y means o f the diminuendo retains its validity, w hether
I in a passage o f exquisite lyricism :
j. Ex. 90 Schubert: Symphony No. 4, 2nd nrvt.
I

A prim e function o f the dim inuendo is indeed to brin g the

attention o f the ear to the little notes. W hen one or m ore short
notes fo llo w a longer note, ah intervening dim inuendo provides
the bridge to clarificadon, as in the fo llo w in g passage from the 1
Finale o f the Schumann C e llo C oncert: f
Ex. 91 Mendelssohn: 'Italian' Symphony, znd mvt.
Ex. 88
S ehr le b h a ft

I
t
;j
M
! J$
 D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S
60 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
It w as tare fo r a student to clear the hurdle o f the second subject
T h e result obtained in music is akin to the effect produced b y o f the opening m ovem ent o f Brahm s E m m or Sonata w ithou
chiaroscuro in painting. B y delicate juxtaposition o f light and being stopped (if not also for a host o f other reasons) because he
shade the artist m ay create the impression o f perspective on can- had failed to pronounce the first note o f the turn w ith sufficient
vas; the figures w ill seem to be m odelled in a third dimensin. B y
m oulding his intensities b y means o f dynam ic contrast the in - v ita lity .
strumentalist w ill bring points o f emphasis into the foreground, Ex. 93
g ivin g a sense o f depth nd re lie f to the musical line,
W h ere the short notes are not preceded by a lon g note there
being little or no possibility o f m aking a dim inuendo in prepara-
tion for the accen t the difficulty in achieving go o d articulation
is increased. A t such times Casals, w hether in a cello lesson or
/
A n d it seemed as i f the M arlboro Festival O rchestra - the most
orchestral rehearsal, w as relentless and unrem itting in his quest alert and vigo rou s o f ensembles - w o u ld never get beyond the
for e v e ry note to be heard distinctly. O m am ents can be problem - opening bar w hen rehearsing the third m ovem ent o
atical in this respect. R em em b er, he w ou ld say, that the first M endelssohns Italian Sym phony, so msistent w as Casals tha
note o f an ornam ent must receive an accent; otherw ise it is lo st! the ornam ent be rendered w ith m xim um clan ty. B e daring
In the second m ovem ent o f the Boccherini C ello Sonata in A w ith yo u r b o w s ! the eighty-six-year-old m an challenged his
m ajor, the ornaments w ere to be m ore accented than the real
youn ger colleagues.
notes .
Ex. 94
Ex. 92a C o n m oto m o d era to

A lle g r o

-___ ____________________ __s__j

: c
* ) i * / * ------------j -------------------{m ------ M > ! - 4 J--------------------------------
1 , y . . . ....
B u t w e should not leave our discussion o f the dim inuendo as an
agent o f clarification w ithout m entioning some o f its other roles
Ex. 92b
in this respect; fo r instance, its usefulness m lightenm g the texture
'( > >
( t > .
o f lon g notes in an accompaniment figure:

1 -*--^41- | ... .. r ... Ex. 95 Beethoven: 'A rch du ke T rio , Op. 97. 3rd
A ndante cantabile m a pero con moto
m v t-

Ex. 92c
62 C A SA LS A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N D IC T IO N FOR IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S 63

Ex. 96 Mendelssohn: Italian Symphony, 3rd mvt. Ex. 98 Wagner: Siegfried IdylT

R u h ig b e w e g t
V!n, 1 & Ct.
a., ''V
V 'tsT
fw ----- -------------------------------------
Jt I ' TI U /* r l tu* 1p&0^.
I I I l'_l 1 , 1 ___ h -x h
s IT________ J . _________!_!__________
LL _
ef ( = ==)

Lower Strs.
& Bsn. * ^ T p
.1 ii f- a p

/ L 1 1 _ 1 zd

or, as already touched upon in Chapter II, its function in brin g-

ing econom y to a crescendo:

its Service in articulating syncopations: Casals reminisced: I have heard so m any violinists and cellists -
and they are wonderful. A n d afterwards yo u say, H o w curious;
he plays so w ell, but, I d on t kn ow . . . I feel m onotony, lack o f
variety; he doesnt colour enough . In his teaching Casals w ou ld
Ex. 97 Mozart: Symphony No. 38 , ist mvt.
frequently exclaim : L o o k at the colour o this note: let us give
A lle g r o
the natural accent! or, W ithout a dim inuendo it s fat; it has no
interest. Its a w onderful thing every note must have life ! E ven
w hen legato is the predominant interpretative element, Casals
w ould often say: T h e little notes must speak'; they w ere to be
given clear enunciation w ithin the lyrical line, as in the opening
theme o f Brahm s E m inor Sonata (see E x . 26).
For Casals, the accentation o f an ornament held a
significance even beyon d.the im perative act o f clarification. H e
 D 1 C T I O N F OR 1 N S T R U M E N T A L 1 S T S 65
64 CAS ALS A N D T H E ART OF 1 N T E R P R E T A T I O N
In the Larghetto from Beeth oven s Second Sym phony he
asked a student to im agine the fo llo w in g phrase w it h o u t the grace
directed the violins not to become so soft on the B # as to exelude
note w h ich the com poser has placed before the E in the final bar:
the possibility for yet further diminuendo on the C #.
Ex. 100 Dvorak: Cello Concert, ist mvt.
A lle g r o ( p o c o r i t .) Ex. 101

A - "ii n 1 - f1 _ r - 1----- . ----

---------- 0
1----------c - . k Larqhetto
Vln.1
f anm ato

H e then played the phrase expansively, ardently bringing it

to its point o f expressive culm ination w i t h the addition o f the
W h ile Casals considered it natural that a descending line
grace note. Y o u see h o w beautiful it is! T h e ornam ent is the e x -
should be characterized b y a decrescendo, he none the less asked
a l t a t i o n o f t h e n o t e \ Th is is w h y it must have an accent. D o n t be
the violins to keep tone when playing the fo llo w in g scale passage
afraid to p lay it fra n k ly !
from Schubert s Fifth Sym phony, thus ensuring that the notes
w hich enter into the lo w tessitura w ere not lost to the ear.
H aving observed the manner in w hich Casals brought clarity
to individual notes, let us turn to another problem in musical dic-
tion, that o f b ringing clarity to the concluding notes o f a phrase Ex. 102
which ends in a dim inuendo. H ere the requirem ent is not to
differentiate one note from another b y means o f a rapid
dim inuendo, but, rather, to ensure the continuity o f the m elodic
line b y not becom ing too soft too soon. E v e ry note must be
clear! w as an irrevocable command. E ve n the softest note o f a
phrase w as to retain vitality.
I W h en , in M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40, Casals asked that ex
pressive emphasis be placed upon the first note o f the m otif:

A piano fo llo w in g im m ediately on the heels o f a forte w ill

, he w ent on to point out that the
often sound too soft because o f the sudden contrast in dynamics.
In such cases Casals took special care to m ake the necessary com -
pensation b y increasing the dynam ic level o f the piano. In E xs. 103
second note (the quaver D ), although softer than the first,
and 104 the violins w ere asked to transate their f p accordingly,
must also be heardk T h e phrase w as rehearsed until just the
sustaining tone at first and o n ly gradually decreasing in intensity:
right dynam ic relationship was attained.
 66 C ASALS A N D THE A RT OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
D IC T IO N F O R IN S T R U M E N T A L IS T S 67
Ex. 103 Beethoven: Symphony N o. 4, 2nd mvt.
Casals often drew attention to the relativity o f the term
piano . W hen a student w o u ld begin the Schumann Concert or
the Brahm s E m inor Sonata too softly, Casals w ou ld say, Piano,
yes but don t be timid. W e must k n o w that it is the beginning
o f a m e lo d y !
T h is brings us to a question o f musical interpretation to w hich
Casals accorded the greatest significance; nam ely, the enunciation
o f the first note.
Ex. 10 4 Mendelssohn: Italian Symphony, is tm v t.
W h en w e study the illuminated manuscripts o f the M iddle
A lle g ro vivace A ges, w e are constantly amazed at the artistic beauty o f the first
letter o f each paragraph. T h e great m ajority o f these texts are o f
a religious nature; on each page is inscribed a sacred revelation.
T h e elaboration o f the initial was understood to be the visible
manifestation o f the divine impulse. For this reason illuminators
w ere engaged to embellish these letters in red, gold, o r sometimes
blue.
In the first m ovem ent o f Schuberts U n fm ished Sym phony
For Casals, the first note was the portal through w hich the
the violas, although m arked p , w ere to enter after the f f tutti in
divine impulse entered our earthly domain. His means o f im -
m f. In the theme w h ich follo w s, Casals asked the violins to
transfer the dim inuendo to the subsequent bar; the m elody w as to parting this im m ediate sense o f presence w ere subtle and
be granted its fiill expansin. T h e crotchet D w as still to be heard v a ria b le.1 Fortunately, m any v iv id reminders o f this
even though it com es in dim inuendo . characteristic aspect o f Casals artistry are preserved on recor-
dmgs. W e find such an exam ple in his suprem ely beautiful and
Ex. 10 5 simple statement o f the theme o f the Andante from Schuberts
Bb m ajor T rio (in the recording w ith T h ib au d and C ortot). W hen
A llegro m odralo listening to the v e ry first sound emanating from Casals cello, w e
k n o w w hat it is w hen matter is born o f spirit.
Ex. 106

j,,T ; ,T
Andante un poco mosso
,r-r-ij <)

.P P
( p cantabite)2

1 See Chapter V.
2 Note on the recording the artistry with which Casals varies the inflections within
this theme, obviating any sense of identical accentuation.
68 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

In all C asals teaching or playin g, no first initial o f a musical

paragraph rem ained untouched by the illum inators art. T h e first
note is not g a y en ou gh ! he w o u ld often cali out at the beginning
o f a B a ch dance m ovem ent in m ajor key. O r, W e mus feel in CHAPTERIV

the first note the tragic character o f the p iece! when com m enc-
ing the Prelude to the C m inor Suite. W h en rehearsing a P E R C E IV IN G TIME R E L A T IO N S H IP S
pianissimo passage from the opening m ovem ent o f the Italian
Sym p h ony: E ve n here the first note has to be heard - sing at Fantasy as m uch as you like but w ith order!
once! A transitional string figu re, w hich usually receives no
special attention, glistened as i f lim ned in gold.
From tim e to time on some o f C asals late recordings w e hear a HE orchestra w as poised to begin rehearsing the slow m ove
groan o f em otion breaking forth from him just before he begins
to p lay a phrase. This is the audible, hum an expression o f the
T ment o f Beeth oven s Fourth Sym phony when Casals turned
to the second violins w h o were about to play the figure:
spirit w h ich m oves him, w hich precedes the music and from
w hich em erges the musical com m unication. T h e m oral fo r string Ex. 107a
players is not that they should m oan audibly at least not before Adagio
they are eigh ty - but that it is the w ill o f the gods that they Vln. 2
should n ever touch b o w to string w ith indifference.

u
and said, T h e art o f interpretation is not to p lay w hat is written.
In these w ords Casals w as stating a fundamental tenet o f his
music-m aking.
Since earliest times, song and dance have arisen freely and. spon-
taneously, con veyin g messages o f the human spirit w hich cannot
otherwise be expressed. W hen, over the course o f history, it was
deemed useful to find w ays o f notating m elody and rhythm , such
m arkings w ere never meant to be representative o f music itselfin
all its natural life, v igo u r and subtlety. Indeed, there is an od
adage, not w ithout truth: W hen music is w ritten dow n, it dies.
T h e printed score is like a landscape painted on a cardboard
facjade; houses, trees and hills stand stiffly side b y side. These
lifeless im ages are no more than symbols o f a deeper artistic
reality; they invite the interpreter to discover the w o rld o f
experience o f which they are the mere semblance. W hen the

69
 70 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
re-creative spirit o f the perform er leads us through one o f the
painted doors, w e suddenly firid ourselves entering a three-
dimensional realm . T h e forms take on depth. W e perceive the
m ovem ent o f light and shadow. T h e air m ay be fresh w ith spring
moisture or still, as in the last days o f autumn. H ere, beyond the
fagade, the houses caress the hillside like certain Andalusian v il-
lages w hich flo w so naturally into the eontour o f ther surround-
ings as to resemble the shapes o f streams. In these villages the
dw ellings are related to one another b y cohesive design born o f
instinctive feeling.
T h e w ritten note, Casals has said, *is like a strait jacket,
whereas m usic, like life itself, is constant m ovem ent, continuous
spontaneity, free from any restriction . . . T h ere are so m any ex-
cellent instrumentalists w ho are com pletely obsessed b y the
printed note, w hereas it has a v e ry lim ited p o w e r to express w hat
the music actually m eans.
Casals States here no m ore than w h at m any other musicians
have observed in the past. Frangois C oup erin noted, in 17 1 7 , W e
w rite otherw ise than w e perform ; Liszt com m ented, N otation,
in spite o f painstaking conscientiousness, can n ever fu lly suf-
fice . . . certain features among them the most im portant ones -
cannot be put dow n in w ritin g .
T h e vitality o f a musical perform ance is dependent upon the
spontaneous feeling for rhythm com m unicated b y the inter-
preter. Y e t rhythm is not only difficult to fix in notation; it even
resists satisfactory definition. W h at is rhythm ? asked V aughan
W illiam s; and he proceeded to quote L o rd H aldan es epigram : I
cannot define an elephant, but I recognize one w hen I see it. In
the same w a y , V .W . continued, w ithout being able to explain
it, those w h o are naturally musical can appreciate rhythm , or the
want o f it, in a piece o f m usic.
B u t let us return to the A d agio from B eeth o ven s Fourth Sym -
phony. Casals sang the rhythm ic figu re to be played b y the
second violins, instinctively m ovin g each dem isem iquaver slightly
closer to the subsequent sem iquaver; th e'rests being, in con-
P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 71
sequence, im perceptibly elongated. T h ere was to be no question
o f exaggeration ; no m ore than a minute alteration was called
for. Y e t, w hen the passage was played in this w a y , the
relationship o f short note to long note became subtly m ore
buoyant and alive. It should be emphasized that these rhythm ic
fluctuations took place w ithin the fram ew ork o f the main beat;
the basic pulse rem ained constant. In between the regularly
occurring quaver beats, the w aves o f m ovem ent w ere allo w ed to
fo llo w their inherent pattem o f ebb and flo w .1
Ex. 107b
A dagio
T h rougho ut history, musicians have observed that dotted
rhythms, in particular, are poorly served b y notation. Leopold
M ozart tells us o f certain passages w here the dot is to be held
rather longer . . . i f the perform ance is not to sound too sleepy .
A n d, tw o centuries later, B ru n o W alter comments, T h e measur-
ability o f musical rhythm , and therefore the accurateness o f its
notation, is o n ly approxim ate . . . . D ivergen ce from arithmetical
exactness occurs m ainly in the case o f the short notes in dotted
rhythms, w hich an interpreter o f live ly rhythm ic sense feels a
little shorter, and therefore places a little later than prescribed by
notation.
In passages such as the follo w in g, the natural rhythm that
Casals requested had a radically energizing effect in contrast to
the w ritten note-values w h ich he sometimes described as no
rhythm at all :
1 The arrows which I have placed above the musical examples are meant to suggest
the extern and directional tendency o f these subde currents of movement.
 P E R C E IV IN G TIM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 73
72 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

Ex. 108 Beethoven: Piano Concert Vo. 4 , 2n d mvt. densed into a m ore rapid unit o f time, m ore as:

A n d a n te con m oto
A# Strs' P than [as notated]:
ir B-zS---k----=----- *
-7- ? J n -Jfr 1 4 T-"4
f se m p re s t a c c . '* f T h e precise extent to w hich the short notes are compressed w ill
vary w ith the spirit o f a w o rk .1 T ig h tly knit semiquavers give a
dash o f gypsy flavour to the first o f Schum anns F n f Stcke im
F=-|- 1 n r
V olkston , O p. 102:
Ex. ni

Ex. 109 Brahms: Cello Sonata n F major, ist mvt.

A lle g r o v iv a c e

and enliven M ephistos gait in C o u p erin s A ir de D iab le :

Ex.112

Ex. 110 Dvok: Cello Concert, 2n d mvt.

A subtler application o f the principie w ill im part just the needed

rhythm ic vitality to the Scherzo from Beeth oven s A rch du ke
T rio , O p. 97:

Ex. 113
A lle g r o
T h e pattern J~,) J or is another figu re w hich, Casals
believed, often needs to be freed from bondage to the printed
page. The tw o shorter notes, he observed, usually belong
together in a slightly quicker groupin g than the score indicates.
Beethoven s pupil C zern y tells us that the com poser played this 1 In Exs. 1 1 1 1 1 4 the very small amount of time gained by quickening the semi
quavers (or quavers as the case may be) is compensated for by a minute break between
rhythm ic pattern, w here it occurs in the Finale o f his First Piano
the note groupings, as indicated by the Symbol (/).
C oncert, in such a manner that the tw o semiquavers w ere con-
74 C A SA E S A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 75

and affirm the out-of-doors exuberance at the beginning o f the

Finale o f the E lg a r C ello C oncert:
Ex. 114
Allegro ma non troppo

f f risoluto etc.
M ozart s dem isem iquavers in the Andante from his Sym ph o n y
N o . 40: W here a group o f short notes is preceded b y a lon g dotted
Ex. 115 note, the principies o f clear articulation and enlivened rhythm
A n c la n te both com e into play. Casals w ould ask that the dotted note have
a dim inuendo and be prolonged; the short notes w ere to be
a . h p ,m delicately accented and a little quickened in time. In this w a y the
principal theme from the slow movem ent o f M ozarts G m ajor
Flute C oncert assumed its inherent grace:
are that shade m ore exquisite w hen played just a little faster than
w ritten (the sem iquaver rests being, therefore, a fraction lon ger Ex. 117
than notated).
T h e T rio from the third m ovem ent o f M endelssohns Italian
Sym phony contains the tw o rhythm ic patterns w hich w e have
been considering. Casals asked that each o f these be played in a
natural w a y , the barely perceptible transformation o f tim e-
values creating w hat he called a rhythm that satisfies .
Ex. 116 w hile B a ch s lament A ch , nun ist mein Jess hin (A h, n o w is m y
Con moto moderato Jess gone) from the St. M atthew Passion pierced to the very
heart:

Ex. 118

R .,O b .& Vln.1

( espr.) -----y fsimilrl

(m f (= * - *) dim in. _____ _ _ - - - ----------------

78 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 79

he conceived the fou r notes as belonging together. T h e rhythm ic the inital crotchet stood alone, as i f posing a question. The
change could hardly be measured b y a m etronom e, yet w hat an quavers w ere gathered into one upbeat group, alighting at the
enormous sense o f presence it instilled in the p layin g! first delicate point o f accentuation on the downbeat o f the
O ne is rem inded o f A rtu r Schnabel w h o, characteristically, succeeding bar, w h ich served as a springboard for the syn-
grouped the chords at the beginning o f B eeth o ven s eopation .1
H am m erklavier Sonata in such a w a y that th opening bars W h en conducting the second m ovem ent o f M ozarts
burst forth tum ultuously. Sym phony N o . 39, Casals elicited in the dramatic F minor
Ex. 124 passage a perform ance o f fierce intensity, heightened by his in-
> ------------- _> sistence that each phrase be played concisely: as one idea
ra p id ly !

In the first m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s D M ajo r C e llo Sonata,

Casals brought to the figure:
Th is w as not a perform ance designed to enshrine the im age o f
Ex. 125
M ozart as the com poser o f perpetual serenity.
Allegro con bro
(O

i I f rhythm tends to elude precise definition, tempo rubato is a

veritable fugitive.
an intense concentration o f energy; the semiquavers w ere draw n Casals considered rubato to be an inherent factor in music o f all
tightly together, becom ing a m o tif in themselves. A n instants periods. His practice in this respect w as at variance w ith the at-
break, before the high note, allo w ed the b o w to be lifted in order
to g ive a forceful attack to the sforzando. This phrase sprang at 1 The presto theme firom the first movement o f Haydns *Clock Symphony has
one like a tiger. In the subject o f the Finale o f the same w o rk : similar attributes:
Ex. 126 Presto
Allegro fugato

Igor Stravnsky advises the interpreter here to build a measure-and-a-note u p b eat. . .

avoiding not only a strong but also a weak downbeat on the first measure, and saving
sempre piano the thesis for the second full measure.
76 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
In the hushed, sorrow fu l atmosphere o f the second m ovem ent
o f B eeth oven s C e llo Sonata in D m ajor:
Ex. 119
Adagio con m olto sentimento d 'a ffe tto
the intuitive placem ent o f the dem isem iquavers a fraction late
gives just the righ t feeling o f expressive tensin. Those things
cannot be printed, Casals w ou ld say, but the m eaning is this;
this has character.
Casals did not alw ays quicken the short notes w hen playin g
dotted rhythm s. H e w ou ld point out that every rhythm ic pattern
has to be considered in reference to its specific setting. In another
passage from the slow m ovem ent o f B eeth o ven s D m ajor
Sonata, he said: In this case w e must g ive the real valu o f the
notes. H ere it is a song; every note sings.
Ex. 120
JO espressiv o
In E x . 12 1 Casals considered that ev e ry note has m lodic signific-
ance; he w o u ld linger expressively upon the first dem isem iquaver.
Ex. 121 B eethoven: Cello Sonata in A major, 3 rd m vt.
R E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H 1 P S 77
Casals often drew attention to extended series o f notes w hich
belong together in a single w ave o f m ovement. Certain musical
phrascs possess an lan w hich can only be released through an act
o f rhythm ic concisin. For Casals, the first m ovem ent o f
B eeth oven s E ighth Sym phony was an expression o f D ionysian
jo y . H e took this m ovem ent at a rollicking pace, conceiving the
pulsation basically in one beat per bar rather than in the traditional
three.1 R igh t at the outset he insisted upon internal cohesin for
each o f the tw o rhythm ic groupings w hich subsequently appear
throughout the m ovem ent:
Ex. 122a
A llegro vivace e con bro
o
and Ex. 12 2b
r
H e persistently rehearsed the rising scale (E x. 122b) until the
quavers conveyed rio semblance o f seprate notes .2 T h e result
was a perform ance o f stunning exhilaration, as i f a broom had
swept aw ay the cobw ebs o f tired tradition, revealing the passage
in the freshness o f its first creation. Sim ilarly, in the reoccurring
figure:
1Observe the composers exceptional tempo marking: Allegro vivace e con bro.
- In saying this, Casals was referring to perception of rhythm, not articularon. The
individual quavers were short and clearly articulated; they were to be felt as one un-
nterrupted rhythmic unit.
8o
CAS AL S A N D T H E ART OF I N T E R P R E T A T .I O N
titude prevalent during the frst part o f this century, exem plified
b y G r o v e s Dictionary w h ich , untl its third edition, published
w hen Casals was fifty, advised that rbato is allo w able in the
Works o f all the m odern rom antic masters, from W eb er d o w n -
w ards . . . In the case o f the older masters, it is entirely and un-
conditionally inadm issible. 1 M u sico logy eventually caught up
w ith Casals. T h e present edition o f G rove's D ictionary describes
rubato as the free element in tim e w ithout restricting its use to
any histrica] period.
C asals feeling for t e m p o ru b a to w as determined, not b y pre-
supposed rules and regulations about musical epochs, but b y the
specific character o f the individual w o rk . For instance, w hile he
generally taught that the poetic fan tasy-w orld o f Schum ann seeks
expression b y means o f an eloquent rubato, he none the less asked
his students to p lay E xs. 128 and 129 w ithout altering the rhyth-
m ic vales; these pieces w ere to be set forth in all sim plicity.
Ex. 128 Schumann: F n f Stcke im Volkston, No. 2
Langsam
(V)
jp
Ex. 129 Schumann: F n f Stcke im Volkston, No. 3
N ic h t schnelt
v)
i* !# m f t p.
I*L .X
f>
~X>)
1 Groves notwithstanding, Couperin spoke o f the spirit, the soul that must be
added to the mere quantity and time-value of the beats; C. P. E. Bach instructed that
certain purposeful violations o f the beat are often exceptionally beautiful.'
P E R C E IV 1 N G TIM E R E L A T IO N S H 1 P S 81
Casals likened the slow movem ent o f B eeth oven s C ello Sonata
m D m ajor to a funeral m arch . T h e fo llo w in g passage w as to
m ove in absolutely regular time.
Ex. 13
A d a g io co n m otto s e n tim e n to d 'a f f e t t o
In contrast, he played the Boccherim Bb m ajor C oncert w ith
considerable freedom . T h is music is exem plary o f the purest
rococo . , . m ore rococo than M ozart - or even H ayd n . S h o w -
ing h o w one m ay linger for a moment on the upper notes o f a
phrase, he w o u ld exclaim : I f w e sing w e do that. Let us do it
w ith the instrument also. It is such a guide such a w onderful
guide - the v o ic e !
Ex. [31
A llegro m oderato
---- >
T h e ago gic accents (i.e. prolongations o f length not necessarily
supported b y dynam ic stress) noted in E x . 1 3 1 do not arrest the
overall sense o f m ovem ent; they evoke a com pensatory motion
AV)
w hich restores the rhythm ic balance o f the phrase. A s Casals has
f-m ' said, T im e lost on expressive accents being placed on the first
note o f a gro up, or on the highest note, is to be regained b y the
<.fp) intervening notes. 1
1 Tos expressed this principie in his classic treatise, Observations on the Florid
Soiii; . . Useful for all Performers, Instrumental as well as Vocal (trans. by Galliard, 1743)-
The stealing o f Time . . . is an honorable Theft in one that sings better than others,
provided he maltes a Restitution with Ingenuity.
 iS S s

82 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 83

C asals rubato w as founded on an extraordin arily subtle give

brm ging diversity to a m elody built in sequential phrases:
and take o f tim e-values; it defies adequate description and m y ef-
forts in this regard must be vie w e d as no m ore than ap p ro xi- . Ex. 135 Schumann: 'Adagio and Allegro, Op. 70
mations. I am in the position o f a m edieval theologian seeking to
specify the w eigh t o f an ngel. H o w righ t w as L eo po ld M ozart
w hen he w rote: W h at this stolen tim e is can m ore easily be
show n than described.
L et us g iv e consideration to the role o f ago gic accents in
various m usical contexts. W ith the subtle elongation o f but one
or tw o notes w ith in a bar Casals cou ld w o rk w onders, g iv in g ex -
revealing the ly ric soul concealed w ithin a m elody consisting o f
pressive breadth to the beginning o f a piece:
note-values o f similar printed length:
Ex. 132 Bach: Solo Cello Suite N o. 2, Prelude
Ex. 136 Brahms: Cello Sonata in F major, 3rd mvt.

Allegro passionato
------------- > > -------------->

lending the crest o f a phrase a soaring grace: -------- 9 J d ->

Ex. 133 Haydn: Cello Concert in D major, ist mvt.

enhancing the singing quality o f a short note w h ich has been
Allegro moderato
d w arfed b y a preceding lon g note:

Ex. 137 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in F major, ist mvt.

X>
Allegro --------->

differentiating notes o f special m elodic or harmonio significance:

Ex. 134 Schumann: Cello Concedo, ist mvt.

In E x . 13 7 the ago gic accent serves several additional purposes. It
Nicht zu schnell designates the im portance o f the second minim beat w ithin the
(-> -----------> (-) bar, expresses the appoggiatura ( B b A ) , avoids m onotony in
the quavers, and confers roundness upon the desceriding scale.
In the above exam ples the reciprocity o f tim e-values is com -
pleted w ithin the span o f each bar. W e must also speak o f
(& X > )
tempo rubato extending o ver an entire phrase o f the m anner in
84 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A TI O N
w h ich Casals delineated the dual character o f the fo llo w in g
passage from the Finale o f B eeth o ven s C m ajor Sonata:
E x. 138
A lle g ro vivace
the triplet quavers stealing time as they cast up a rain b o w bridge;
the sem iquavers then entering full o f high spirits, as though in
p layfu l surprise. O r o f the H om eric grandeur w ith w h ich he
played the cello entrance in B eeth o ven s D m ajor Sonata:
Ex. 139
In the opening arp eggio w e heard no ordin ary quavers, but the
steps o f H ctor m ounting to the parapet; the ensuing m elo d y w as
no m ere three bars, but a visin o f an heroic landscape, com -
pressed w ith in tim e; the sonority w as open and noble, the quaver
G b eing proclaim ed spaciously - fran k ly .
Casals rarely explain ed rubato; he w o u ld custom arily p lay or
sing the phrase in question. T h us it w as o f considerable interest to
hear him offer specific ad vice on the subject w hen , in the Finale
o f Schum ann s Fourth Sym p h o n y, he directed the w o o d w in d to
PERCEIV ING TIME RELATIO NSHIPS 85
anticpate the first o f their triplet quavers b y entering a hairs
breadth earlier than marked in the score.
Ex. 140
anticipate
X> s fp
rritftL/irl sfjo
This gave room for the ascending scale to be declaimed freely,
w ithout disturbing the fundamental tem po .1
For Casals, any definition o f tempo rubato had to inelude
awareness o f proportion. H e follow ed in the tradition o f such
masters as M ozart and C hopin, both o f w hom are kn ow n to have
allow ed the m elodic line freedom o f expression w hile respecting
the underlying rhythm ic continuity.2
Those w h o have been privileged to see M argot Fonteyn dance
w ill have witnessed such rubato in visual form . A t the apogee o f
lyric intensity she w o u ld seem, during an infinitesimal moment,
suspended in space, before flo w in g again into the rhythm ic unity
o f the w hole. In the same w a y Casals w o u ld lift a phrase to a m o
ment o f timeless beauty, w hile continuing to make us aw are o f
the rhythm ic vales o f the entire movement.
D o y o u see those trees? Liszt once asked a pupil. T h e w ind
toys w ith their leaves, it develops life am ong them; the trees re-
main the same; that is C h o p in s rubato. It was Casals rubato as
w ell.
Finding that youn g musicians, in general, either lack courage
to play freely, or else tend to transform liberty into licence,
Casals offered his students a golden rule o f interpretation: Fan-
tasy as much as yo u like but w ith o rd e r! T y p ica lly , he w ould
1 See also Beethovens Pastoral Symphony, Chapter VII, p. 186.
2 C. P. E. Bach, too, understood such matters: W hen the execution is such that one
hand seems to play against the bar and the other strictly with it, it may be said that the
perormer is doing everything that can be required of him.
 s

86 CAS ALS A N D T H E ART OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N ; P E R C E IV IN G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S

! 87
malee a com parison w ith life. W e talk o f dem ocracy and
freedom but w ith order. Y o u cannot just do anything you = # * = = f
w ish; music is the same. ' u p . |.J-__
L ^ ^ L jL J
. . . I* dim. XXP
Th is rule applied to every departure from rhythm ic regularity. dim.
For instance, w hen executing ritardandi, the perform er must take
care t avoid w eakening the architectural spans w ith w hich the ? Casals cautioned against allow ing the tem po to becom e too slow
rhythm ic structure o f a w o rk is built. T h e transitional bars from too soon; the ritardando w as to proceed in a v e ry regular w a y
the first m ovem ent o f the D v o k C e llo C oncert usually suffer j w ith order and b a la n c e . . . . O therw ise w e are lost and the
in just this w a y . > public also !
In music o f an im provisatory nature fantasies, recitatives,
Ex. 141
cadenzas and the like the very diversity o f musical ideas obliges
A lle g ro the perform er to establish convincing proportions. A lth ou gh it
O b
V t c .s o lo is a cadenza, Casals w o u ld say, one must feel a certain lo gic . . .

J3
f ' -
sa T H ^ not a disordered fantasy.
=tmLa - The principie o f fantasy with order also expressed itself in terms
o f rhythm ic stress. In the first bars o f the Saint-Saens C ello
C oncert in A m inor, Casals extended th slur across the bar line
the better to express the natural urge o f the phrase. A s, further-
m ore, the decisive stresses within th m elody fall upon syn-
copations, Casals pointed out that the listener requires a rem inder
o f the metric pulsation. H e therefore gave clear enunciation to
the C w hich begins the second bar: Ju st a littl accent in the
m iddle so as to have equilibrium in the w h ole thin g.
T h e w h ole passage is too long i f w e m ake a ritardando, Casals
counselled, a dim inuendo is enough, a statement often heard Ex. 143
from Casals in v ary in g musical contexts.
Allegro non troppo
In those passages in the second m ovem ent o f the same w o rk <
w here the com poser has indicated a ritardando, as in the fo llo w -
ing exam ple:

Ex. 142

Sim ilarly, in the fo llo w in g passage from the first m ovem ent
o f the D vo r k C e llo C oncert he advised placing an accent on
every h a lf bar. Y o u must not lose the rhythm ; yo u must k n o w
w here you are:
88 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N 89
PERCEIVING TIME RELATIO NSHIPS

Ex. 144
experience concurrently the valid ity o f the parts and o f the
w hole. T h e musician must ascertain the most com prehensive van -
tage point w hich allow s the simultaneous perception o f the valu
inherent in each dimensin. This vantage point is his choice o f
tempo.

C asals tempi often carne as revelations to the present

In E x . 145 he called for a robust accentuation on the first note o f
generation. This resulted not on ly from his perform ing a given
each bar in order to preserve the sense o f 3/4 tim e and, in so
w o rk faster o r slow er than w e are accustomed to hearin g it, but
doing, bring v arie ty to the repetition o f rhythm ic vales.
from the life-energy w hich each tempo conveyed, rooted as it
w as in Casals w a y o f understanding the unit o f pulse w hich best
Ex. 145 Beethoven: Symphony N o. 8, ist mvt.
expresses the m usics content. T h e music o f Brahm s provides a
Allegro vivace e con bro notable case in point. Brahm s tempi are v e ry often m isunder-
stood, Casals explained. T ak in g as an exam ple the Finale o f the
Am r ii | -j | 1*
1 i i , D o u b le C oncert:
rrn P Y zi K H DI* P H w r a

Ld T Ex. 146
Vivace non troppo
-3 7 .3L 3- 3 - - 3 .--3 -
4 ' - * -at -r ( -3 l ___ f- m mT ^
< <>) 1 i r
....... r~ L >
D
Casals described the interpretative challenge o f rhythm ic
organization in all o f its diverse aspects as the sense o f measuring he pointed out. that Brahm s him self conceived this w o rk not in
tim e in space . B y this he meant the ability o f the perform er to pulsations o f crotchets but o f quavers, w ith a consequent
apprehend the relatedness betw een the small units o f time, such as m oderating effect upon the actual speed. For us, ordinarily, it
w e have been discussing, and the larger time spans the group- w ou ld be andante; fo r Brahm s it is Vivace non troppo. W h y ?
ings o f phrases and m ajor structural features o f w h ich a w o rk is Because he counts the eighths. This is very necessary to k n o w ;
composed. T h e perform er must possess an o verall visin com this is w h y Brahm s is v e ry often nearly alw ays played too
parable to that o f the m edieval builders o f Chartres Cathedral fast.
w h o invested ev e ry panel o f stained glass w ith individual W h en a student began the Scherzo from Brahm s F m ajor
character, w h ile not forgetting that a w h o le w in d o w tells a Sonata at a precipitous pace, Casals demonstrated h o w the
parable, that all the Windows are related architecturally and vitality o f rhythm is actually enhanced when the quaver is felt as
spiritually to one another and, indeed, to the sculpture on the the underlying unit f pulse. This is w hat counts: every note
exterior. T h e great composers, like these craftsmen, w ished us to every eigh th !
90 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
P E R C E IV IN G TIM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 91

Ex. 147
Y o u k n o w h o w I dislike quarrelling about tem po, w rote
Allegro passionato Schumann, and h o w for me the inner measure o f the m ovem ent

m (2 1)_________

^iM i W# ^J^j
P cresc.
T h e ear, n o w alerted to the m otion o f individual quavers,
has the impression o f quickness o f m ovem ent, despite the
decrease in velocity. T h is has a different character; this is the
Brahm s tem po . T h ere w as n o w no need to p lay the expressive
m elody o f the m iddle section m ore slo w ly ; it fo llo w ed
naturally, in the same tem po .
Ex. 148
do/ce espress.
is the sol distinguishing factor. Thus the faster adagio o f a coid
perform er alw ays sounds lazier than the slowest adagio o f a
w arm -blooded interpreter.
W h en teaching the last movem ent f the Schumann C ello
C o n cert (see E x . 88), Casals insisted upon a tem po (in this case
m arked in crotchets) w hich permits a fusin o f energy and
expressive nuance: Tem po la B ra h m s!
T h e music o f M ozart has all too frequently been sacrificed at
the altar o f w hat Casals termed systematic speed . Casals choice
o f tempi fo r the Sym phony N o . 29 provided an unforgettable
m usic lesson. H e took the first m ovem ent in accordance w ith the
com posers A lle gro m oderato indication, his relaxed alia breve
beat allo w in g ampie time fo r thp singing line to be set forth in all
its w arm th and grace.

T h e 6/8 V iv a ce from Brah m s St. A n to n i V ariations: Ex. 150

Ex. 149

is taken b y most present-day conductors at an extrem ely rapid

pace. Brahm s, as w ell as Schum ann, thought o f these time signa-
tures as m eaning quite different things, Casals explained. W e
must play in six-eight, not tw o -fo u r. In other w ords, w e should
feel the w eigh t o f the quavers w hich com e betw een the dotted
crotchet beats.1

1 Whcn Casals conducted this work in London in 1927, his tempo for this variation
engendered critical controversy, A. H. Fox Strangways, musi critic of The Ohserver
and founder o f Music and Letters, had the last word. Having known Brahms, he attested
to the validity o f Casals tempo.
A v ita lly energized upbeat signalled the Finale and established
at once the sturdy character o f the 6/8 pulsation, rem inding us
that vig o u r is not synonym ous w ith celerity:
92 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N P E R C E I V I N G TIME R E L A T IO N S H I P S 93

Ex. 151 Expressive o f an entirely different m ood, the slow m ovem ent
Allegro con spirto o f the H affn er Sym pho ny flo w ed in a gracious andante con moto,
w hile the second m ovem ent o f H ayd n s Surprise Sym phony

i w as conceived in crotchet beats.

V 0 - M -

W hen ever Casals perform ed the music o f H aydn, one felt the
f existence o f a special kinship between interpreter and composer.
A s C haucer declares: Both w ere o f simple background; each had learned to express the
Ther nis no werkman, whatsoevere he be, fullness o f his nature; neither had lost contact w ith the elemental
That may bothe werke wel and hastily. vitality o f the earth. O n e remembers Casals rehearsing such a
O ne often hears the first m ovem ent o f M ozart s L in z dance as the M inuet from H aydn s Sym phony N o . 95:
Sym phony (A llegro spiritoso, C ) taken alia breve. Casals con- Ex. 153
ducted it in four, g iv in g time for the first theme to be phrased Menuetto
w ith incom parable loveliness (see E x . 2 3 ) .1 H o w e v er, w hen he
took the last m ovem ent o f M ozarts P ragu e Sym pho ny in tw o
beats per bar rather than the custom ary one beat, I found his
choice o f tem po to be unduly slow . Casals explained that he felt
that the triplet figu re (E x. 152) possesses a singing quality w hich
preeludes a faster tem po.

A s he sat in his chair, his b o d y w ould begin to sw ay from side to

side, the alternating m ovem ent o f his feet as they carne dow n
on the first beat o f every bar communicating a prim al rhythm ic
impulse, invincible and irresistible.
H e played the Finale o f H aydn s D m ajor C e llo Concert w ith
A m o n g the most stirring memories o f Casals as conductor rustic lilt: not h eavy g a y ! Th e tempo w as not to be hurried:
w ere his readings o f M ozarts slow movements. N o music is Six-eigh t not tw o -fo u r!
m ore expressive o f fathomless sorrow than the C minor
Ex. 154
movem ents o f the Piano Concertos in E[>, K . 2 7 1 and K . 482,
and o f the Sinfonia Concertante for V io lin and V io la. Casals
brought to these w orks the full depth o f his hum anity. Immersed
in th :ir m ood o f aching m elancholy, he let them sing w ithout
h u rry , sustained b y the surety o f his insight into the shaping o f
phrasi :s.
1 Sp1 itoso is t o s a y th a t o n e h a s t o p l a y w it h u n d e r s t a n d in g a n d s p i r i t . . . th e m e a n
b e t w e e . -. q u ic k a n d s l o w . L eo po ld M o zart.
94 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
P E R C E 1 V I N G TI ME R E L A T I O N S H I P S 95

o r w as the robust, earthy side o f M ozart to be neglected; it

resounded in Casals perform ances o f the M inuets from the
Sym phonies N os. 39 and 40, both o f w hich (m arked A llegretto)
w ere taken, essentially, at one beat per bar. T h e form er w as re-
splendent w ith jo y ; H a p p y ! Casals shouted. T h e latter w as in-
tensely dramatic, w ith slashing accents upon the syncopations.
Ex. 155
The M inuet from the H affn er Sym phony w as also played in a
spirited one , the opening four bars brought together in a
vivacious sw eep .1
Ex. 156
Menuetto . --------------------------------------- >
found lamentation; there was no haste in the m otion o f quaver
beats. So masterful w as Casals sense o fth e structure o fth e w hole,
so absorbing was his spiritual concentration, that the phrases
unfolded in time units o f enormous spaciousness, like the verses o f
a choral ode by Sophocles.
For Casals, the musical pulse was the organic heartbeat o f a
com position. H e w as able to intgrate a m anifold w ealth o f
nuance into the fram ew ork o f the main tempo. W h en he m odi-
fied the fundamental speed, it w as because o f the intrinsic de-
mand o f the m usic.1 Such a case is found in the Finale o f
Beeth oven s A m ajor C ello Sonata w here Casals felt it necessary
to g ive the second subject enough extra time so that it should not
be robbed o f tenderness. Each phrase played b y the cello, he ex-
plained, must say I lo ve y o u . T h e piano, responding w ith in-
creased m otion, made bridges betw een these phrases. W ith the
sem iquaver figure the m ain tempo w as fully re-established.
E x. 157

Vlns. 0 X X
Allegro vivace
----- ~ ~ 4 I doco irteno mossol
6
nl~ -1----- m~
k - J ( "?
_.L.^
9

A lthough Casals often expressed his concern o ver the m odern

tendency to p lay too fast , his perform ance o f these minuets in-
dicates that he did not hesitate to take com paratively fast tempi
when they w ere appropriate to the musical con text.2 F o r ex-
ample, he conceived the opening m ovem ent o f B a ch s Second
Brandenburg Concert as a ju b ilan t celebration; this w o rk , he
felt, w as meant to sound fast and he conducted it accordingly. B y
w a y o f contrast, his perform ance o f the Andante from B a c h s
Second Gam ba Sonata (see E xs. 49a & b) had the quality o f a p ro -

1 In a letter addressed to his sister, Mozart expressed surprise at the slow tempo in
which minuets were performed in Italy.
2 Reference has already been made to his spirited rendering o f the first movement of
Beethovens Eighth Symphony. 1 Wagner (0 Conducting) malees a disrinction between those allegros which should
proceed in strict tempo and those innately subject to tempo modification.
 96 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
The poetic content o f the first movem ent o f B eeth o ven s
Fourth Sym phony was allow ed to express itself in terms o f slight
tempo luctuations. Casals delicately restrained the tempo in the
transition to the second subject so as to arrive at a charm ing poco
meno mosso w ithout loss o f continuity.
Ex. 158
A lleg ro vivace
- <->
B sn.
In the midst o f the developm ent he again relaxed the pace. Each
chord entered like a sigh, the semiquavers trailing o f f un-
hurriedly.
Ex. 159
T h e passage took on a m ood o f sustained expectancy, as i f an
ocean-going schooner w ere m om entarily becalmed. T h e
vivacious tempo primo w as gradually restored during the transition
to the recapitulation.
Certain compositions are, o f inner necessity, subject to tempo
rubato not only w ithin the phrase, but over extended sections
w here the pulse-beat must yield w ith subtle flexib ility to the
97
P E R C E I V 1 N G TIME R E L A T I O N S H I P S
need o f the phrases to m ove freely. Such elasticity o f tempo is
called for in the first movem ent o f the Schumann C ello Concert
and W a g n e rs Siegfried Idyll, to give but tw o exam ples.1 In
C asals performances these m odifications o f tem po w ere never
arbitrary, never disturbing to the unity o f the w hole. T h ey w ere
carried out w ith consmate skill, ever in keeping w ith Bruno
W alters m axim : apparent continuity o f tem po. Casals w ou ld
sometimes comment: There is an art to not playin g in tempo
an art w hich one has to learn, w hich one has to f e e l.
T h is art reached its summit in Casals perform ance o f the T rio
from the second m ovem ent o f Brahm s E m inor Sonata".
Ex. 160
Allegretto quasi Menuetto
A n y semblance o f strict metronomic regularity w as set aside, the
rhythm ic vales responding instinctively to the expressive urge
o f the m elody. T h e notes were free o f constraint, yet inextric-
ably related to one another by that sense o f proportion w hich
w as a secret o f C asals artistry.
' In Brs 7590 of the Wagner work Casals told the orchestra: 'I change constantly
the tempo follow me; follow me! In the same passage Toscanini had said, Look me
- watch stick - tempo always change.
 P E R C E IV 1 N G T IM E R E L A T IO N S H IP S 99
9g C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N

Ex. 161
W hen teaching a large-scale w o rk w here num erous changes
o f tem po are required, Casals frequently rem inded his
students that they must take into account the relationship
between one tem po and the next. E specially problem atical in this
regard is the D vo r k C ello C oncert. In the first m ovem ent
Casals cautioned against taking the second subject too slo w ly (see
E x . 2 18 ). It should be on ly a little broader than the m ain tempo.
Sim larly, there is a tendency to transform the sustained A b m inor
passage into a lento (see E x . 86). O n such occasions Casals w ou ld H ere, m any conductors fe e uncomfortable w ith the extent o f
rem ark: T h ere is nothing w orse than h avin g to w ait fo r th e e n d ! silence w hich comprises nearly an entire bar in adagio; they tend
Th roughout the second m ovem ent, a clear crotchet pulse was to h u rry it along. Casals made no apology for the length o f this
to be discernible. (D vork was careful to add to his A d agio : ma rest; he observed the full time indicated, letting the w o rld stop to
non troppo.) Reference has already been made to the need to
w ait fo r the next crashing fortissimo.
maintain continuity in the transitional passages w h ich occur There w ere quiet passages in Beethovens cello sonatas during
w ithin this m ovem ent. w hich the rests seemed absorbed w ith sustained tensin, as in the
T h e G m ajor episode in the Finale (see E x . 82) w as not to be A d agio from the Fifth Sonata, w here the quaver rests led w ith
sentimentalized; Casals asked that the Modrate m arking shuld halting steps from an already dark D m inor into the impenetrable
be observed: It is a pastorale - elassie and lo v e ly . O n ly in
gloo m o f Cflf m inor.
the coda was the rhythm ic m otion set free From an y suggestion o f
pulse beat. T h e ly ic statements o f the cello w ere allo w ed to p ro- Ex. 162
ceed in an im provisatory manner, the orchestra regaining tempo
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
w hile the cello sustained its long notes. Thus w as the solo cello
allow ed to express in all liberty the spiritual apotheosis o f the
concert.

Casals w ou ld not wish us to forget that the silencs are also

m usic . H e advised the interpreter not to seek to m inim ize the
efect o f a rest; on the contrary, he should grant it its full due. I f
the line o f feeling remains unbroken the silences w ill take on ex-
pressive intensity. Th is he called the art o f the rest . In Casals
hands such moments w ere spell-binding, a m em orable instance
In the concluding bars o f the opening A d agio from his
occurring at the end o f the introduction to the first m ovem ent o f
Sym phony N o . 39, M ozart introduces a mysterious passage built
B eeth oven s Fourth Sym phony:
 100 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
from notes o f lon g duration, in w hich time gldes so slo w ly as
barely to m ove at all. Casals did not quicken the pulse beat here
as m any conductors do. Each note, sustained to the full, trans-
ported us over a bridge o f infinite poignancy, pointing the w a y
from darkness to light. T h e rests w ere expressions o f eternal
longing; they traversed the space separating earthly sorrow from
heavenly consolation.
Ex. 163
Vln.1 A d a 3 i
I am rem inded o f the haunting mom ent during the first act o f
C h ek h o vs p la y T h e Seagull w hen an unexpected quiet setdes
over the stage. A ll is perfectly still until someone sighs, The
ngel o f silence has flo w n over u s. Casals w as righ t to insist that
w e accord the art o f the rest a m eaningful place in our con-
sideration o f tim e relationships.
In the preceding chapters w e have observed Casals w a y o f
granting to every note its inevitable role in a cogent design; his
insistence that each o f these designs be articulated in such a w a y
as to im print itse lf upon the ear unm istakably; his m anner o f re-
conciling the free and strict aspects o f rhythm through fantasy
w ith order . It is n o w tim e to lo o k in greater depth at the
problem s o f string p layin g, givin g our consideracin to the means
: am ong them intonation, tone colour, vibrato b y w hich the
string instrumentalist can further com m unicate the life o f music
in its endless beauty and diversity .
CHAPTER V
INSIG H TS FOR STRING PLAYERS
Intonation is a question of conscience.
TEPPING into the M em ling museum in Bruges w as not like
:v S entering any other museum. I had spent the m orning stroll-
ing along the rain-w ashed streets o f that ancient and beautiful
city, immersed in the spirit o f a past age, lost to the distractions
and pressures o f the twentieth century. Thus it seemed a most
natural thing to w alk into the tw elfth-century H ospital o f St.
Jo h n and find there, in the chapter-house, the M em lings, so
righ tfully belonging. N o sooner had I begun to study these ex-
quisite w orks o f art, w rou ght w ith such infinite care, than the
custodian asked i f I wished to bo rrow a m agnifying glass. W h at a
splendid idea! U n d er the glass, a new w o rld met the eye, a w o rld
in w hich every segment o f canvas revealed unim agined
refinement, in w hich human hand and paintbrush had achieved a
delicacy o f nuance at w hich one could on ly m arvel. I set aside the
glass and each painting now seen as a w hole - seemed richer
than before, pervaded w ith internal life hitherto unsuspected.
I am rem inded o f Bruges and its M em lings w hen I recall
Casals teaching. L ik e that thoughtful custodian in St. Jo h n s
H ospital, he w o u ld offer a m agnifying glass to his stu d en t-a lens
w hich enlarged not space but time the better to exam ine a frag-
ment o f a B ach suite: a single bar, or h a lf a m ovem ent, played
in slo w m otion so as to place under cise scrutiny the phrase
structure, the w h y and w herefore o f every dynam ic inflection,
i
the precise extent o f articulation easily overlooked in a m ore rapid
tempo. Students are often urged to practise slo w ly , m ainly to
101
 102 C A S A L S A N D THE A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
analyse technical difficulties. Casals purpose was infinitely
broader; by bringing an aspect o f a com position into larger v iew ,
not on ly did he ensure m xim um awareness o f every nter-
pretative requirem ent but he uncovered the deep roots o f expres
i n ^rom w hich all music is form ulated. T o hear him thus play
the opening statement from Schum anns C ello C oncert,
elucidating in an adagio tempo the m eaningful connection o f
each note to the other, the heartrending quality o f every appog-
giatura and syncopation, was unforgettable. W h en reintegrated
into the original tem po, these nuances, n o w proportionately
faster, retained the precise character w hich the slow -m otion
process had enabled us to perceive. O u r experience in music was
enhanced b y a further dimensin o f depth and o f clarity.
W h en w e exam ine different aspects o f C asals approach to
string playing, it should be borne in m ind that w e are cn-
sidering fragments w hich reveal their full m eaning o n ly w hen
restored to the w hole.
Intonation, Casals told a student, is a question o f conscience.
Y o u hear w hen a note is false the same w a y yo u feel w hen yo u
do something w ron g in life. W e must not continu to do the
w ro n g thing. His assertion that each note is like a link in a chain
im portant in itself and also as a connection between w hat has
been and w hat w ill b e , applied as equally to intonation as to
other aspects o f interpretation. T h e notes o f a com posifion d o not
exist m isolation; the m ovem ent o f harm onic progressions,
m elodic contours and expressive colorations provides each in
terval w ith a specific sense o f belonging and/or direction. C n se-
q u en tly, Casals stressed that the equal-tem pered scale w ith its
fixed and equidistant semitones as found on the piano is a
com prom ise w ith w hich string players need n o t c o m p ly .1 P la y
in g in tune is threfore not a m atter o f adherence to intervals
These remarles are also applicable to wind players and, not least, to singers.
1NSIGHTS FOR STRING PLAYERS 10 3
based upon a pre-ordained mathematical form ula; it is a dynam ic
process, expressing the organic relationship betw een notes in a
musical context, w h ich Casals termed expressive intonation .
T h e final judgem en t lies in the ever-sensitive ear o f the
musician.
Because it is a natural and instinctive response to music, ex
pressive intonation is to some extent practised spontaneously b y
m any musicians. H o w e ver, few apply it w ith the comprehensive
awareness that characterized Casals approach. N e w students
com ing to Casals most o f them advanced, some already
professional - w o u ld often have cotnfortable illusions shattered
w hen their habitual intonation w as challenged b y his un-
com prom ising ear. It was rare enough w hen Casals, beaming-
w ith delight, could announce, Y o u p lay in tun e! For this reason
a m ore detailed explanation should prove useful.
T h e principal challenge confronting the string player whose
sensibilities have been dulled b y the mechanical pitch produced
by the piano is to establish the proper placem ent o f semitones.
H ere w e must distinguish between diatonic and chrom atic semi
tones, the form er being invariably characterized b y a sense o f
connectedness w h ich Casals likened to gravitational attraction . 1
Casals considered the tonic, subdominant and dominant o f a
given tonality (the first, fourth and fifth degrees o f a scale) to be
points o f repose to w hich the other notes are draw n. Thus, the
principie o f gravitational attraction is at w o rk w ithin each o f the
tw o tetrachords o f w hich a scale is composed. T h e diatonic semi-
tone w ithin each tetrachord has a natural tendeney to be drawn
upw ards: the third degree towards the fourth and, most par-
ticularly, the seventh degree the leading note towards the oc
tave. T h e pitch o f the leading note needs to be raised high
enough for us to feel the inevitability o f its resolution to the
tonic.
1 I define these semitones as follows: when two notes forming a semitone are written
on different degrees of the staff (i.e. C # D) th interval is diatonic. W hen they are
written on the same staff degree (i.e. D b Dfcj) the interval is chromatic.
 104 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN T E R PR E T A R O N IN SIGH TS FOR STRIN G PLAYERS 10 5

I f the semitones are placed higher, the intermedate tones are (iii) again on a stringed instrument, matching exactly the in-
affected, they must adjust accordingly. Consequently the second tonation o f the piano.
and sixth degrees are inclined slightly upwards. In the D m ajor
A t this point it w ill be apparent that versin (iii) is out o f tune
scale, for exam ple, the E and F # a re d raw n towards the G , the B
like a telescope not quite in focus; the E b has lost its expressive
and C # tow ards the D . attraction tow ards the D and has becom e detached and im per
sonal.
Ex. 164
L e t us consider another passage, the second subject o f the
TETRACHORO I TETRACHORDII Finale o f B eeth oven s T h ird C ello Sonata:
1 ~ ' / ------------ ---------- --------- \
Ex. 166 Allegro vlvace

In m inor scales the attractions are som ew hat altered, y e t alw ays
in accordance w ith the same principie o f relating a note t its
neighbours.
In perform ance these gravitational attractions are anything
but academ ic; they are a vital aspect o f musical comm unication.
T ake, for mstance, the opening m elody o f M ozarts Sym phonv
N o . 40. 1*
Ex. 165
dolce
H ere w e are in E m ajor. The D # , as leading note, is draw n
m agnetically upw ards tow ards the tonic E and must therefore be
played slightly higher in pitch than the D # o f the piano.
I f w e com pare the Eb in the M ozart sym phony w ith the D #
in the Beethoven sonata, w e discover that these tw o notes are
surprisingly different. Casals pointed out that under such con-
ditions there m ay be as great a distance between E b and D $ as
there is w ithin a semitone such s D t) E b .
T h e phrase w hich opens M ozarts String Q uartet in E b , K .
428, possesses five semitones: four diatonic and one chrom atic.

E x . 167

Allegro ma non troppo

The first note (Eb), being the sixth degree o f the G m inor scale, y -,b ' i 7* = ~ T : = j - 1 1----------- 1 i
J 3 ? ! 1. 1--------------- L L ' / - )
has an innate tendency, in descent, to lean tow ards the D . T o
p lay this p ro p erly in tune the string p layer should - by design or
intuition - slightly lo w e r the pitch o f the Eb , bringing it closer W h ile the notes w ithin each diatonic semitone are closely related
to the D . Th is can readily be tested b y playin g E x . 16 5:
to one another, the Bb Bfc;, com prising a chromatic semitone, are
(i) on a stringed instrument w ith the E b slightly lo w ered , as not d raw n together. T h e Bb, as fifth degree o f the E b m ajor
described above; tonality, is in a fixed position; the fo llo w in g B fcj is inclined aw ay
(ii) on the piano; from the B b tow ards the C .

emmmwm

lo C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
Sim ilarly, in the opening theme o f Schum anns A d a g io and
A lle g ro O p. 70:
Ex. 168
Langsam, mit innigem Ausdruck
the closer affinity exists not betw een the notes o f the chrom atic
semitone E b E tj, bu t betw een the second and fourth notes
w hich com prise the diatonic semitone E tj F. (T h e intervening
G is an appoggiatura w h ich does not alter the fundam ental
attraction that draw s the Etj tow ards the F.)
These fe w exam ples, culled from endless possibilities, indcate
the basis for the principie w hich Casals w as to reitrate time and
again: In general w e are obliged to have the tendency to keep
the half-tones cise togeth er.
O ccasional com prom ises w ill be inevitable o w in g to the e x -
igencies o f chordal fingering or in places w here an open string
has to function as the leading note. In the latter case, w hen
possible, Casals stopped the string w ith the first finger, thereby
im proving both intonation and tone q u a lity :1
Ex. 169 Schumann: Cello Concert, ist mvt.
Nicht zu schnell
T h e precise intonation o f semitones w ill also be affected b y the
speed at w hich they are perform ed. Casals advised, In a
relatively fast m ovem ent [i.e. w hen the specific semitone rela-
See also Ex. 147.
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 107
tionships m ove q uickly] w e have to exaggerate still m ore the
closeness o f the half-tones. H e demonstrated b y playin g the
fo llo w in g passage:
Ex. 170
(i) allegro, in which case the Bb and G # are both drawn
towards the A to the extent that the intervals approximate
an eighth o f a tone.
(ii) andante, requiring that the intervals - w hile narrow er
than those o f the equal-tempered scale - should be a little
less narrow than w ould be the case in the allegro.
W h en demonstrating a properly measured semitone, Casals
w o u ld sometimes exclaim , Isnt it beautiful! A n d indeed it was.
T h e placem ent o f intervals in m eaningful relativity provides a
fundamental sense o f w ell-being. T h e notes fall into place w ith
inevitability, thus gaining in vitalty. Intellectual awareness, in-
tuitve perception and critical listening all play a role in the
determ ination o f the precise degree to w hich the instrumentalist
adjusts his pitch.
O n e does not have to look to B e rg or B art k to find challenges
to p layin g in tune. A lthough B ach s Sarabande from the C minor
Suite (see E x . 17 1) is a w o rk for solo cello w ithout accom pani-
ment, each note must be felt in accordance w ith the ever-present,
im plied harmonio background. It falls all the m ore to the cellist s
responsibility to suggest these implications b y means o f intona
tion w ithout supporting harm ony. N o placement o f pitch can
be isolated from its brethren; no interval can be considered apart
from its gravitational tendency. T h us m ajor and augmented
intervals w ill o f necessity be widened, m inor and diminished
intervals narrow ed. Certain semitone relationships are intimated
even i f not im m ediately resolved. For exam ple, the A b s (sixth
10 8 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
degree o f the tonality) in Bars 13 find their resolution in the G s
w hich conclude the third bar. T h e Bfc) (leading note) in B a r 2
looks tow ards the C in the fourth b a r.1 Th e depth o f expression
con veyed b y this sorrow fiil piece in C m inor is intrinsically related
to the tensin felt w ith in the intervals. Expressive intonation,
when observed continuously throughout a com position, becomes
a forem ost factor in the com m unication o f em otional content.
Ex. 171
Sarabande
W h en teaching this piece in slow m otion Casals com -
mented, T o p lay in tune is lon g, lon g w o rk . Y o u must never
cease to observe, to edcate and be severe w ith yo u rself.
Casals considered it essential that expressive intonation be
taught to string players from the beginning o f their studies. H e
took endless trouble in retraining the aural sense and habitual
finger placements o f students w h o , since childhod, had unques-
tion ingly applied piano intonation to their stringed instruments.
T h e effects o f any neglect o f this kind at the beginning o f
stu d ies. . . can affect a player through the w h o le o f his career,
h o w ever gifted he m ay b e . I once m et the livin g p ro o f o f this
statement in a cellist w h o was attending Casals B erk eley classes -
a perform er not w ithout talent but w h o had early on been
brainwashed by equal temperament. H earing Casals fo r the first
time, she exclaim ed, It is soooooo beautiful but w h y does he
p lay out o f tune?
1 See also the relationship: E|> in Bars 67; there are severa] such instances of
delayed resolution in the second part o f the movement.
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 10 9
Casals pointed out that w hen the cello is tuned in perfect fifths,
the low er strings tend to sound too lo w in comparison w ith the
upper strings. H e advised tuning the C and G strings a bare frac-
tion sharp, thus slightly narrow ing the fifth between the G and D
strings, achieving thereby an equilibrium betw een the extreme
registers o f the instrument. This tuning also has the benefit o f
d raw in g the lo w er notes o f the cello into line w ith the equivalent
notes on the piano w hich m ay otherwise, o w in g to equal-
tempered tuning, be too sharp in comparison. H e recomm ended
that violinists fo llo w the same procedure, i.e. tuning the tw o
lo w er strings - G and D - im perceptibly higher.
Casals was o f the opinin that, w hen a stringed and keyboard
instrument p lay together, the discrepancy betw een expressive
and equal-tem pered intonation is easily tolerable. E xcept in
unisn passages, he believed it unnecessary and devitalizing for
the string player to adjust to equal-tempered pitch.
T h e degree o f b o w pressure and the volum e at w hich one plays
are relevant to intonation. W here intensive b o w pressure is in-
dicated, the string w ill tend to sharpen and a necessary compensa-
tion must be made b y the left hand.
Casals w o u ld tune his cello in mezzo forte so as to hear the
natural sonority o f the strings. B u t this w as off-stage. O nce on-
stage he w ou ld, i f necessary, brush the strings ligh tly w ith his
fingers. T u n in g w ith the b o w disturbs the audience. T h ey have
nothing to do w ith the instrument.
In previous chapters consideration has been given to the w ealth
o f nuance w hich Casals believed to be inherent in all music. His
b o w com m unicated these inflections w ith the soaring p o w er o f
song and the. articulateness o f speech. H e brought to the art o f
cello playing a hitherto unim agined range o f tone coloration.
H e w as, said K reisler, the monarch o f the b o w .
T o give variety w ith the b o w ! Casals w o u ld exclaim , - that
is the natural thing. H e referred to the once-prevalent fashion o f
consistently using the full length o f the b o w as being against the
requirements o f the language o f music and contrary to the
lio CAS ALS A N D T H E ART OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N I N S I G H T S F O R S TR I NG PLAYERS III

E x. 173
econom y o f. energy w hich a performance demands . M ore
bluntly he said: It is a stupid idea. o r does music divide itself Prelude
system atically am ong a fe w basic categories o f b o w stroke:
spiccato, dtach, m artel, etc. The divisions are as subtle as
they are m anifold and can intermingle w ithin a single phrase. In m .
cresc.)
recording some instances o f Casals approach to b o w in g, I shall
not be p rovid in g a com prehensive list. M y few exam ples should
A fter his b o w had fallen in a gigantic stroke upon the octave C s,
be considered as illustrations o f the cardinal principie: the b o w
setting them in vibration w ith thunderous forc, he looked up in-
must alw ays be responsive to the diversity o f expression
nocently and asked, P ourquoi pas?
demanded b y the music.
H e did not hesitate to ask orchestral players to utilize the
In keeping w ith the special importance Casals accorded to the
same b o w in g technique. In the first m ovem ent o f Schuberts
articulation o f the first note, he frequently utilized a technique
U nfinished Sym pho ny the lyrical closing theme is abruptly cut
w hich you n g string players are often dutifully w arned against:
short b y a sudden fortissimo which wrenches us back to the dark-
the dropping o f the b o w upon the string. W hen announcing the
ness o f B m in o r.1
opening theme o f the D v o k Concert:
Ex. 174
Ex. 172

Allegro

f rsoluto

Casals wished to register here an unexpected shock and

his b o w w ou ld h over for a moment high in the air like an eagle
w atching its p rey before slashing upon the string w ith stun-
ning im pact. T h e arm m ovem ent, executed in one m otioii,
began w ith a vertical descent, suddenly cu rvin g to the side at the
mom ent o f contact so that the string avoided hitting against the
fingerboard and could vbrate freely. T h e sound thus produced
w as explosive w ithout being harsh. So precisely did he ju d g e the
natural w eigh t o f the falling b o w that he obtained, as he oc-
casionally put it, the greatest possible effect fo r the least possible
exertion .
Casals show ed a student h o w to express the dram atic opening
o f B a ch s Fifth C e llo Suite:
demanded from his excellent string section a ferociously hard
staccato attack at the heel, beginning from o ff the string. The
orchestra could not at once produce the effect to his satisfaction.
X, O d age notwithstanding, the titanic life-force w ithin him w ou ld
brook no com prom ise. E ve n after persistent and vehem ent
repetitin he still com plained, It doesnt sound. I hear w w w ah
w hen I should hear B B B a h V The orchestra finally took the risk;
the note resounded w ith the tautness o f a snapping w hip.
1 Whenever I attmpted to sing o f Iove, it turned to pain. And again, whn I tried
to sing of pain, it turned to love. Thus were love and pain divided in me. from
a dream recorded by the composer, 3 July 1822.
112 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
In the Finale o f B eeth oven s E ighth Sym phony he exhorted his
cello and bass players to produce, at each o f their unexpected
forte entrances, tw o savage b o w strokes (ruthlessly in tem po).
K -
>w.:y
The principie o f dropping the b o w retained its valid ity even
w hn the application required less forc. It does not sound like a o:-:;
beginning, he told the cello section w hen com m encing B a c h s
Second O rchestral Suite. D rop the b o w ; it gives a m ore natural ,- n v
accent. W e must pose the first note.
O w in g to the nature o f their instruments, string players, unlike
their w in d - and keyboard-playin g colleagues, are capable o f in- ::
itiating a note w ith h ard ly any sonority at all. Casals believed
that this possibility tends to be over-used to the neglect o f the ex-
pressive im pulse inherent in a first note. H e felt that there are
m any occasions w hen the beginning o f a soft and lyrical m elody
requires the articulation o f a consonant rather than the p lian cy o f
a vo w e. A t such times he w ould com m ence from o ff the string,
in a precisely poised m iniature o f the forte stroke, executed w ith
so deft a skill that the listener was aw are, not o f an accent, but o f
a sonority initiated w ith instant vitality. (T he left-hand technique
also played a role here as shall be discussed later in this chapter.)
H e particularly disliked the slight, unconsciously produced
crescendo w h ich some string players habitually bring to the first
1 N S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S H3
note o f a lyric phrase. H it the note on the head, not on the
stom ach, he w o u ld say w hen teachng the opening o f B a ch s
Second Gam ba Sonata or o f H aydn s D m ajor C oncert, and he
w o u ld tap on his o w n bald head b y w a y o f illustration.
O f course, the texture o f each beginning, o f each accent,
w ou ld v a ry in accordance w ith the musical context. Both as
cellist and conductor, Casals drew forth the most eloquent sfor-
zando (as in E x . 176 w here he interpreted the f p as an expressive
accent), in this case there being an increase in pressure just after
the com m encem ent o f the b o w stroke. W h en Casals rehearsed
such a sforzando, a moan w ould emanate from his inner being,
his baton pushing w eigh tily into the air as i f countering a mass o f
resistance w hich on ly the forc o f feeling could overem e.
Ex. 176 Mozart: Symphony No. 29, 2ndmvt.
'V,
'V In Schum ann, he w ould say, the accent is alw ays o f expression.
E v e ry note is so m uch from the heart.
Ex. 177 Schumann: Symphony No. 4, 4th mvt.
Lebhaft
i V ln .l^ i p. ^ ^ ---------- _> ^
f jp -= = -r / (= ) / (= -)
<mf f =->
W h en discussing the use o f the b o w , Casals w o u ld sometimes
com m ent, T h e composers think o f their music and very often
they don t think o f the requirements o f the instrument. H e
1 14 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N IN SIG HTS FOR S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 115

pointed out that in order truly to serve a com posers musical do the second note w ith another b o w (i.e. rather than observing
intention w e are sometimes obliged to make b o w changes the printed slur).
w ithin the w ritten slurs and w e mustnt be too preoccupied about
this. T h e changes must, o f course, be intelligent and in good Ex. 179 Boccherini: Cello Concert in B b major, ist mvt.
taste. W h ere you h ave a lon g note or a crescendo, i f yo u dont
have enough b o w , change it! Y o u must not be the slave o f the
b o w !
In the second m ovem ent o f Brahm s F m ajor Sonata, fo r ex-
am ple, he advised his students not to hesitate to take a n ew bo w
during the course .o f the minim. I f it remains too tim id, all the
e a . aou jl# a iu m .
effect o f that w on derful long note is lo st!
Allegro non troppo ^
Ex. 178
Adagio affetuoso
r f !r~'r J ifTf r f if~f
( = ) cresc._____ I d _ 1 ____ f

B o w changes w ith in long notes w ere to be as inaudible as poss-
ible. A slight lessening o f b o w pressure at the m om ent o f change
helps to avo id an accent; m oreover, the change is less apparent i f
it occurs not on a m ain beat, but on a syncopation.
It is often the case, particularly in the B ach suites, that a change
o f b o w m ay be needed in the midst o f a passage w here no break
in phrasing is desired. Such a b o w change is least noticeable,
Casals explained, i f it is made on a note foreign to the harm ony
[i.e. a passing note] - not a note pertaining to the chord..
Casals described a characteristic w a y in w hich he w o u ld use
the b o w for the purpose o f enhancing articulation: W h en there
are tw o notes in the form o f an appoggiatura, don t be afraid to
This doesnt mean that the slur isnt correct. Perhaps it is more
correct than w hat I d o . B u t he w ent on to explain that in chang-
in g the b o w , the note o f resolution gains a certain subtle vitality
in articulation. Instead o f letting the note die,-it has something.
Casals w arned against a mechancal rendering o f quickly
repeated notes, pointing out that each pattern has its distinctive
character. W h en conducting Schuberts U nfinished Sym phony,
he asked the violins to avoid a routine rule-of-thum b spiccato
and to play their semiquavers near to the point o f the b o w , w ith
singing quality.
Ex. 181
Allegro moderato
Vln.I
ftl (- - 11 (simile) '
BP
T h e violas w ere to begin M ozarts Sym phony N o . 40 w ith ex-
pressive strokes in the middle o f the b o w :
li C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N 1NSIGHTS FOR ST RI N G P L A Y E R S 117

Ex. 182
Molto allegro In the fo llo w in g examples, where w e again find the intervals
o f a vigorous theme marked by a double stroke o f the b o w , he
pointed out that the m elodic line is m ore clearly delineated i f the
string player allow s the second (upbow ) strokes to be lighter
than the dow n bow s. H ere it is not necessary to g ive equal im -
A t the conclusin o f M ozarts Sym ph o n y N o . 39 he regarded the portance to the notes w hich come in b etw een .
violin line:
Ex. 183a Ex. 185 Bach: Brandenburg Concert No. 5, ist mvt.
Allegro
AllegroJ

as an expressive m elody:
Ex. 183b Ex. 186 Schumann: Fantasiestiicke, Op. 73< 3rd mvt.

to w hich the trem olo in semiquavers has been added as a means

o f enhancing the lyricism . T h e trem olo is an exaltation o f the
note! he w o u ld exclaim w hen rehearsing this passage, or one o f
Ex. 187 Schumann: Symphony No. 4 , 3rd mvt.
similar soaring aspect:

Ex. 184 Beethoven: 'Eroica'Sym phony, istmvt. Lebhaft

Beeth oven m olto espressivo enthusiastic sing w ith yo u r

b o w s !
* <>
Allegro con bro /
W e have seen in Chapter III how Casals used the diminuendo
as a means o f bringing articulation into relief. For Casals, the
law o f the dim inuendo w as a fundamental aesthetic principie o f
string playing. H e considered the fading a w a y o f sound to be an
integral part o f a note s sonority: W h en yo u do a diminuendo,
especially on a lon g note, the diminuendo must go to the infinite ;
118 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G PLAYF.R S 119

otherw ise the note is not com pleted. (W hen, at the end o f the Ex. 190
dim inuendo the b o w is raised from the string, the sound does not Allegro (giocoso) (piu espr.)
stop abruptly; the resonance contines, extending further towards (- T
the infinite.) de
Innumerable examples could be cited w here Casals applied this (m p ) ( = ) ("
principie. D on t leave the sustained note h a lf finished, he said
when teaching the Finale o f Beeth oven s C m ajor Sonata. Let us In the introduction to Beethovens Fourth Sym phony each
hear the natural dim inuendo. quaver (in both strings and w ood w in d ), w hen played w ith a
Ex. 188 decrescendo, seemed almost to breathe.
Ex. 191

A nd in the Finale o f Beethovens Fourth Piano C oncert, the

dim inuendi relieved the crotchets o f stiffness, givin g them a
natural buoyancy.
Ex. 192
A dim inuendo to the infinite was to com e three times at the
conclusin o f the slow m ovem ent o f B eeth oven s D m ajor
Sonata:

In forte as w ell, a diminuendo, w h erever it occurred, brought

com pletion to the sonority.
Ex. 193 Bach: Violn Concert in A minor, ist m vt.
CAllegroJ

and on each minim in the theme from the Finale o f the

B occherini Bb m ajor C oncert:
120 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
Ex. 194 Mozart: Symphony No. 40, ist mvt.
Molto allegro
p V in s. _____________
f giL '
T h ere w as hardly a rehearsal w hen Casals w o u ld not draw
attention to a note w hich stands alone or at the end o f a phrase,
and enhance its livin g quality b y means o f a dim inuendo. In so
doing, he seemed to relate music in a natural w a y to the silence
w hich surrounds it.
T h e tone colorations w hich Casals elicited w ith his b o w carne
from an uncanny intuitive perception o f the particular quality o f
sonority appropriate to every shading o f atmosphere in a com -
position. It w as largely b y means o f m asterly interplay am ong the
three b o w in g factors w hich influence the production o f tone -
the speed at w hich the b o w is draw n, the degree o f pressure ex-
erted upon the string, the position o f the b o w betw een bridge
and fingerboard that Casals was able to capture the distinctive
essence o f each mood.
H e began the Schum ann C oncert (see E x . 33) w ith a sen-
sitive, open sonority, characterized b y lon g, rapidly flo w in g
bow s and an avoidance o f excessive pressure. B y w a y o f contrast,
w hen announcing the theme o f the second m ovem ent o f the
D v o k C oncert (see E x . 14 ), he d rew his b o w m ore slo w ly,
closer to the bridge, producing a denser and m ore concentrted
tone.
In orchestral music w here finest transparency o f sOund is called
for, as in E xs. 195 and 196:
Ex. 195 Beethoven: Symphony N o. 2, 2nd mvt.
Larghetto
Vln.1 r across bar Unes to avoid accents, detaching certain quick notes in lyric passages to
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 121
Ex. 196 Schubert: Symphony N o. 4, 2nd mvt.
Andante
Vln.1
>
Casals w o u ld counsel a string section w hich was, b y any normal
standard, already producing a beautiful tone: U se m ore b o w and
take carc not to press n the string. T h e sonority w o u ld enter
into a n ew realm o f loveliness, touched b y an ethereal tran-
quility.
C asals b o w w as alw ays the servant o f the music, never its
master. B e honest, he w ou ld say. D o not put m ore into the
music than the music itself contains. W h en a talented youn g
cellist, p layin g the Locatelli D m ajor Sonata in a class, indulged
in a dazzling display o f upbo w staccato strokes:
Ex. 197a
A lle g ro ______
X>
Casals suggested a b o w in g w hich did not produce a m achine-
like virtuosity, but w hich allow ed the notes to speak w ith all
their grace and charm .1
Ex. 197b
t P grazioso m p)
1While Casals bowing indications could sometimes look complex (e.g. slurring
enhance articulation), their execution, in his hands, sounded natural and simple.
122 C A S A L S A N D TH E A RT OF IN T E R R R E T A T IO N IN SIG H T S FOR S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 12 3

Casals gave cise attention to the manner o f executing chords. N o te, in B a r 2 above, that the middle voiee (E ) is fu lly sustained;
H e avoided the com m only heard divisin o f three or four part it supports the m odulation to the chord o f F. Later in this m ove-
chords into consecutive groupings on tw o strings. W e must hear ment, the middle voiee takes over the m elodic line; consequently,
the bass, he said, as the root o f the harm ony . . .. I f w e p lay the the upper note is released first.
bass and the fifth together, the sonority o f the accom panying Ex. 199
note overshadow s the bass. T h is is a barbarous tradition.
Furtherm ore, as the turn o f the b o w does not allo w the con
tinuacin o f the sonority o f the bass, w e must m ake the bass
sound as much as possible; otherwise it w ill be fo rgo tten . 1 Thus
the bass should be played first, fo llo w ed b y the other notes, the
T h e texture o f each chord w ill be determined b y the character
m iddle vo iee sustained until the upper note has sounded. T ak e,
o f the given piece. Casals taught that the chords in the sarabandes
for instance, the Sarabande from B a c h s T h ird C e llo Suite:
from the B ach suites should be played lo w in g ly and singingly
Ex. 198a w ith a resonance similar to that o f a strummed lute. Y e t they
must never im pede the rhythm ic continuity. (H e admonished a
student w h o took too much time o ver the lo w er notes, N o t so
co m fo rtab ly! ) T h e consecutive d o w n b o w chords in the opening
theme o f the D vo r k Concert were, h o w ever, not to be broken;
they w ere to be incisively accented and rhythm ically vital.
( H ere it is not necessary to draw all the b o w . )
Casals w ou ld not p la y these chords as follow s:
Ex. 198b
T h ere are one hundred things to say about the trill, Casals
A B C observed; I could talk on this subject for one h o u r. From among
_ rt - - /& - ^ the numerous factors w hich affect the perform ance o f a trill, I

but as indicated b e lo w :
P have noted b elo w some musical considerations to w hich Casals
made frequent reference.

Ex. 198c A trill should express the atmosphere o f its musical setting.
In a slo w m ovem ent the trills must not be too rapid.
A B
A s w ith other long notes, a long trill should not remain on
J~1J one dynam ic level. In general w e must m ake a crescendo or a
dim inuendo.
l------ 1 T h e beginning o f a trill w ill usually receive an accent.
1 By this he did not imply (except in rare instances) a percussive attack, but rather, a T h e specific character o f each trill must be ascertained. For
full, singing stroke. exam ple, in the opening m ovement o f the D vo r k Concert,
12 4 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N IN SIGH TS FOR ST RI NG P L A Y ER S 125

Casals advised that the first four trills should be accented f p ; In this case he began on the principal note (D) w hich was
Th en you are heard through the orchestra. T h e subsequent w ell pronounced before the commencement o f the trill,
trills are to be played w ith sustained tone; T h e y are a m elody thereby preserving the interval o f the seventh.
as espressivo as possible. W h en the termination consists o f tw o w ritten notes (a
E x. 200 turned ending), the trill is to be continued throughout the en
A lle g ro tire note.
tp9r bQr * ^ r r r
Ex. 202 Bach: Solo Cello Suite No. 2, Sarabande
TT~ .......M -------------
#
- O ......

fZ P creso, f
(f P fP fp fP ) (m olto espr.)
W h en played at normal pitch, the upper note o f a trill tends
to sound a little fat, since the rapid finger m otion prevents one
W h en the termination consists o f a single note, the trill is to
from exerting adequate pressure on the string. B y w a y o f
be stopped on its last m ain beat at w hich moment an accent is
com pensation, the upper note should be placed a shade sharp, to be given to the principal note. Such a trill must have tw o
increasingly so w hen the trill gains in speed. This holds true for accents: one w hen it begins, the other w hen it leads to the next
w hole-tone and semitone trills, the latter constituting an ex- note. O therw ise it is coid; something is lacking. T h ere is no
ception to the rule that semitones must be played cise rhythm .
together. It is better - much better - i f yo u trill a little too
h igh ; then it w ill sound in tune. Exs. 203a & b Bach: Solo Cello Suite No. 2, Menuet
In reference to the perform ance o f the baroque trill, C asals
As w r itte n : As in te rp re te d :
teaching was as foliow s:
G enerally, the trill should begin on the upper note (on the
beat). Exceptions occur in the fo llo w in g instances:
W h en the note im m ediately preceding the trill is identical
w ith the upper note, in w hich case it is, as a rule, preferable Casals trilled in free rhythms, not in strict mathematical
to avoid the repetition. divisions.
W hen the m elodic line becomes an overrid ing consider- A b o ve all, Casals w o u ld want us to rem em ber that the trill,
ation as, for instance, in the second m ovem ent o f B a c h s like other ornaments, brings exaltation to a note.
Sixth Brandenburg C oncert:
Ex. 201

Adagio ma non tanto Casals w ou ld often m ake use o f glissandi in places w here m any
present-day cellists do not. (He used the term glissattdo to denote
the audible expressive slide sometimes referred to as portamento.)
H a lf a century ago, glissandi m ay have been over-used, tending
towards the mannerism w hich w e n o w associate w ith the caf
126 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN T E R PR E T A T IO N INSIGH TS FOR STRIN G PLAYERS 127

violinist. In our objective ag e , h o w ever, w e have com e full Insisting upon the preservation o f good taste, Casals rarely per-
circle, reverting to the drier outlook o f a yet earlier era the late mitted consecutive glissandi; he cautioned against m aking tw o in
nineteenth century w hen such excess w as o f the devil. Casals, opposite directions w ithin a space o f thre notes.
o f course, never hesitated to fo llo w his intuition in such matters. O ne o f the ch ie f merits o f a glissando is its ability to lend ex-
D o n t be afraid o f the glissando, he w o u ld say. W here a pressive variety to the repetition o f a phrase.
glissando is natural w e must do it. W h at is natural is alw ays Ex. 206 H aydn: Cello Concert in D major, ist m vt.
g o o d . 1
Alteara moderato
O ne must listen to Casals recordings to realize h o w exquisite
the glissando can be as an article o f refinement. Infinitely variable f t i r r - i 'T j .
in tim ing, speed, distance, direction, intensity, coloration in
Casals hands it could reflect any one o f a thousand nuances o f
mood. Despite the passage o f time, Casals glissandi retain artistic Ex. 207 Brahms: Cello Sonata in E minor, ist m vt.
validity, p roviding inspiration fo r future generations o f string Allegro non troppo
players. <1 <-'< r )L> -
2.
A t the conclusin o f the third m ovem ent o f B a c h s First B
Gam ba Sonata, Casals considered the glissando to be the in p do/ce
dispensable bridge leading from the lon g sustained note to the
impassioned outcry w ith w h ich the m ovem ent terminates. T h e placement and direction o f a glissando m ay be varied w hen a
phrase is repeated.1
Ex. 204
4) Ex. 208 D vorak: Cello Concedo, ist m vt.
Andante
Allegro
^ 0 ?' i (3
UPP
IT~ n r . =
creso, poco a poco /
I*
Tff M- ) 4 *
(V ___

H e urged his students not to hesitate to m ake a glissando in the

11
(poco) (piu)
opening cello statement from B eeth o ven s D m ajor Sonata. T h e
glissando is natural from the lo w note to the high. Its so tender, V e ry occasionally, too, he w ou ld allo w a glissando in
so beautful so hu m an ! orchestral music, as in the first m ovem ent o f M ozarts Sym phony
Ex. 205 N o . 40:
Ex. 209

1In his revisin o f cello fingering he had obviated as far as possible the need to make
glissandi for purely technical reasons. 1 See also Exs. 50, 5 and 162.
12 8 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N
I f w e sing it w e shall do a glissando! he w o u ld often exclaim .
A n d indeed his usage in this respect paralleled the art o f such
great singers as Elisabeth Schumann and Lotte Lehm ann. N o w -
adays certain singers prefer to abstain from this means o f ex-
pression. I must leave it to the reader to consider w hether this is a
gain or a loss for art.
W hen the percussion o f the finger puts the string
vibration, the sound comes easily; i f the string is not put in vib ra-
tion it is m uch m ore dificult to have a clean sound. T h is concept
was one o f C asals m ajor contributions to the art o f cello playin g.
H e encouraged the practice o f scales or other passages w ith out the
use o f the b o w ; the notes w ere to be distinctly enunciated b y
means o f the left hand alone, so as to strengthen the articulative
p o w er o f the fingers. W h en playin g ascending passages, he held
the fm gers o f his left hand high, y e t reposed, in a naturally
rounded position. Th en, backed b y the w eigh t o f the arm , they
w ere th row n dow n w ith lan, striking against the string per-
cussively, im m ediately after w hich and this is an im portant
point the pressure w as released, the fingers once again becom -
ing supple. T h e finger action w as akin to that o f a fallin g m allet,
but a m allet w ith a rubber head, ensuring its resilience upon im -
pact. W h en playing descending passages, each finger w ould
leave the string w ith a slight sidew ard m ovem ent resulting in
a quasi-pizzicato, thus givin g the next note a clear
beginning.
It w as a distinguishing feature o f C asals art that he used the
percussion o f the fingers as a constant principie. In a slo w m ove
ment such as that o f the Boccherin i B b m ajor C o ncert (see E x .
35) w here m any players tend to touch lazily upon the string,
Casals fingers imparted vitality to every note.
N o t least did the left hand jo in in enhancing the resonance o f a
first note. O ften, at the beginning o f a phrase, C asals finger
w ou ld strike vibrantly upon the string simultaneously w ith the
b o w stroke. O n other occasions, his finger being positioned on
1NSIGHTS FOR STRING PLAYERS 129
the string in advance, at the instant o f b o w contact he w ou ld
reinforce the resonance b y plucking the string w ith a free finger
o f the left hand.1 T h e vitalizing effect o f left-hand pizzicato is o f
particular benefit to open strings; it compensates for the lack o f
finger percussion, as in the Prelude to B a ch s T h ird C ello
Suite:
in Ex. 210
These com bined finger/bow actions require skilful coordina-
tion, but in this Casals w as not lacking.
C o n trary to the traditional idea that the fingers o f the left hand
should, as much as possible, be kept dow n upon the string to
ec'onomize m ovem ent, Casals found that the forc thus required
to maintain the unused fingers on the string strains the hand un-
necessarily. H e recomm ended playing the piano on the cello
norm ally releasing one finger when the next was placed dow n,
thereby allo w in g the left hand to remain flexible, each finger
(especially th w eaker third and fourth) functioning at optimum
strength.
T h e difficulty o f p layin g the cello, for those w h o are not con-
versant in it, said B a rb iro lli, is the enormous distances you have
to travel . . . . Casals had a command o f the instrument that has
never been kn ow n before or since . . . w hich almost annihilated
distance. In his fundam ental revisin o f cello fingerin g Casals had
introduced a revolution ary series o f extensions w hich rendered
m any shifts obsolete and, at the same time, opened n ew expressive
1The initial cello entry in the Dvok Concert (see Ex. 172) is a case in point, the
first note (B) being played with the first finger, the left-hand pizzicato with the fourth.
 ' 'J
.
C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E 'T A T IO N
vTN"
130
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 131
VW.v. '
possibilities in fin g erin g .1 These extensions, he observed, Ex. 212a Bach: Solo Cello Suite No. $, Prelude
should be practised in such a w a y that the m xim um result can W 'iV
be attained w ith the least possible contraction o f the m uscles. H e
endeavoured, w h erever possible, to maintain the suppleness o f
the hand. T ake, for instance, the fo llo w in g passage from the
opening m ovem ent o f B a ch s Fourth Suite, w here several exten
sions (x) are required w ithin the space o f a single bar:

Ex. 211
Prelude
1 P ; xx; i * * , , had played. T h e first finger was then lifted into the air, hovering
..... ^
T h e finger (w hether the first or fourth) m aking the extensin
w ou ld not be stretched parallel to the string so as to place strain
on the tendons; rather, it w ou ld be raised upwards, above its nor
mal position on the string, ready to dart upon the intended note
simultaneously w ith the release o f the finger w h ich had played
the previous note. This b rie f exam ple provides an insight into
Casals typical procedure w hich, w hen observed consistently
throughout a m ovem ent such as the above prelude, w as o f in
dispensable valu in producing a vibrant sound, w h ile sparing the
hand sustained tensin and muscular fatigue.
A cco rd in g to the tradition w hich dictates that the fingers
should be kept d ow n on the string, the change o f position re
quired in the fo llo w in g exam ple is to be made b y sliding the first
finger (w hich has rem ained in place on the A | ) up the string to
the D :
1 In the first four positions he would frequently replace the traditional 1, 3,4 finger
ing with 1, 2, 3, thus keeping the hand open and fluent. N ot only are the second and
third fingers stronger, but they lie naturally near to one another when the hand is in
repose.
Casals w a y was to release the first and third fingers after they
above the fourth finger (C ) before darting upon the D . The
change o f position w as executed q uickly and cleanly w ith no
trace o f glissando:
Ex. 212b
raised into the
a ir ready to dart
W h ile Casals stressed the importance o f achieving m xim um
independence o f all the fingers, he w o u ld not hesitate to recom -
mend the use o f the innately stronger fingers w hen they could,
w ith musical validity, replace the w eaker; for instance, he
preferred to begin the Saint-Saens A minor Concert w ith the
second rather than the fourth finger. I suffer w hen I see a fo r-
tissimo w ith a fourth finger* he told a student playing the Finale
o f Brahm s E m inor Sonata. Y o u unnecessarily tire your hand.
W h en yo u can use the strong fingers, dont use the others. Th e
cello is so difficult to p la y , he w ould say, that w e must m ake use
132- C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N
o f every natural facility . . .. W e never gain anything b y tryin g
to do things against nature.
For technical reasons, most string players occasionally adopt
fingerings w hich do not do justice to the musical content, each
such case representing, to some degree, a m om entary loss o f
artistic integrity. Gasals w as uncom prom ising in this respect. He
persistently sought and inevitably found fingerings w h ich fu lly
served the expressive requirements. Convencional finger patterns
w ere discarded i f they did not suit the contour o f the phrase.
W hen w ishing to change to an adjacent position on the same
string, Casals v e ry often made the shift via a semitone, using one
finger for both notes.' These semitone shifts w ere like the rungs
o f a ladder, perm itting him to m ove up and d o w n the string
unobtrusively.
Fingerings had alw ays to be adaptable to the exacting
demands o f expressive intonation. F o r exam ple, in the cellos
upper register, w here finger space is limited, Casals ensured the
intonation o f semitones by shifts o f a single finger. A typical ex
am ple is found in the cello statement o f the theme o f the L argo
from B eeth ovens T rip le C oncert (the brackets denote diatonic
semitones):
Ex. 213
Largo I---- 1 1 1 r -
piis
(1 I ? 2 2 2 w helm ing personality o f its ow n. H e preferred not to succumb to
m the allure o f a too readily enchanting sonority. I recall the plight
w
molto cantabite sfx>
A s his interpretation o f a given w o rk w as alw ays e vo lvin g and
not irrevocably fixed , fingerings, like bow ings, w ere subject to
change, responding to the dictates o f spontaneous inspiration.
Casals alw ays stressed the im portance o f avoiding rigid ity o f
hand or b o w arm. H e gave cise attention to finding every
1 i.e., cleanly articulated movements, not slides.
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 133 -
possible opportunity to relax the hand during the course o f a
perform ance, even fo r the duration o f a semiquaver.
H is playin g seemed so simple. His movements w ere natural
and harmonous. W h en correcting a students distorted bow
grip he com mented: W h at is ugly is bad; w hat is beautiful is
g o o d . E v e ry gesture he made seemed inevitable, no more and no
less than the music demanded. It was absolutely extraordinary to
hear Casals play his cello in his eighties and nineties. H e retained
his control and suppleness to a remarkable degree; his b o w was
d raw n straight as an arrow . H e credited his ease in playin g to a
feeling o f repose emanating from the centre o f his body w hich
brought the m ovem ent o f the extremities into natural in-
tegration. Th is im age was very much his ow n and highly in-
tuitive; it derived from no preconceived thery. A ll the same, it
is o f interest to note that w hat others m ay seek through the prac-
tice o f certain exercises in Y o g a , Casals experienced instinctively.
T h e B ergo n zi-G o friller cello w hich Casals played upon w as an
eighteenth-century instrument o f fine quality; to such an extern
does one associate it w ith the distinctive sonority o f Casals that it
is difficult to accord it a purely objective evaluation. It is know n,
how ever, that Casals resisted the temptation to obtain various
m arvellous instruments w hich w ere available to him. H e ex-
plained that he did not wish to play on a cello possessing an over-
o f a violinist friend o f mine w ho ow n ed a beautiful A m ati; on
being offered a costly Stradivarius, he almost suffered a nervous
breakdow n because he could not raise the m oney and thought his
career was ruined. For Casals, the limitations o f his instrument
w ere, in fact, an artistic necessity: I w ant to have to fight fo r m y
expression.
Casals abjured the tendency found so frequently today among
string players to produce at all costs a beautiful tone in which
134 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N
each note, regardless o f its place w ithin a com position, must, b y
dint o f reassuring vibrato, be certain o f its ability to w in friends
and influence people.' So often vibrato w ill be taught as a skill in
itself w ith attention given to its technical basis rather than to its
interpretative relevance. A n aesthetic principie is thus acquired
w ithout its being related to the aesthetic material w hich is not
tone as an abstract phenomenon, but tone as it mirrors the
dynam ic process o f change in a w o rk o f art. V ib rato in itself
cannot be expressive, Casals has said, because that depends on
h o w it is applied. The vibrato is a means o f expressing sensitivity,
but it is not a p ro o f o f it.
T h e m anner in w hich Casals translated this axiom into artistic
expression w as unique. Casals conception o f sonority reflected
the inner attributes o f the man him self - his harm onious feeling
for nature, his deep sense o f repose. H e trusted w here others are
reticent to trust. W h en you hear all the time a beautiful vibrato
w ell, you ve had enough! A big vib rato in an energetic forte
w onderful! . . . but the sound w ithout vibrato is very beautiful
also, particularly in piano and pianissim o. B e care fu l, he told a
student w h o had perform ed the opening bars o f B a c h s First
Gam ba Sonata, you p lay so w ell, but yo u r vibrato is too fast.
Th is is a pastorale, a simple, lo v e ly thing. Y o u r vibrato doesnt
go w ith that. For certain passages he w o u ld counsel: In
pianissimo vibrato is too sweet; it is not good taste. 2
H e asked his students to remem ber, w hen p layin g sonatas, that
the piano is an instrument w ithout vibrato. In passages w here the
string player has an accom panying voice, he must be sparing in
his use o f vibrato.
W h en a passage, though yet in piano, required lyric inten-
sification, Casals left hand in intmate response to the spacious
Once, in Los Angeles, I heard a performance of Bachs B minor Mass in which an
eminent virtuoso condescended to play the solo violin part. Early in the Laudamus Te
he miscounted, yet he carried on, apparently oblivious to the resultant cacophony. In
the morning s press the catastrophic error passed unnoticed, but the soloist was
heralded for his legendary beauty of tone.
2The natural expiration o f a phrase often require.s a decrease in vibrato so as
not to sustain an artificial level o f tensin.
INSIGHTS FOR STRING PLAYERS 135
but tranquil draw in g o f the b o w w ou ld initiate a quiet motion,
relaxed and supple, the m ovem ent o f the finger being so narrow
o f breadth that the listener could not perceive any varance from
the centre o f pitch. A s i f prote.cted b y an inner w isdom w hich
cautioned have the courage to say just enough but not too
m uch , his vibrato lent warm th and vibrancy to the tone w hile
yet allo w in g it to retain its serenity.1
Casals discretion in the application o f vibrato w as anything
but anti-expressive. It derived from an openness o f heart to the
quality o f innocence, allo w in g him to begin the fo llo w in g pieces
sim ply:
Ex. 214 Beethoven: Cello Sonata in C major, ist m vt.
Andante
dolce cantabile
Ex. 215 Brahms: Cello Sonata in F major, Finale
Innocently, like a childrens song.
Allegro molto
It was conditioned b y a sense o f musical line w hich forbade the
flattering o f a single npte out o f context. It served to expand the
1 A word should be added on the width of the vibrato. Casals advised cellists that the
motion o f the finger should be subtly directed towards the sharp side o f pitch. He con-
sidered a vibrato which oscillates between the sharp and fat sides o f pitch to be too
wide and therefore disagreeable to the ear. It should be noted that Casals intensified his
vibrato primarily by contracting its width, secondarily by increasing its speed. Register
plays a role as well, the width o f the vibrato being greater in the lower register than in
the upper.

CHAPTER V I
C ASALS A N D B A C H
Bach is forever and nobody, nobody w ill reach the greatness and the
profoundness and the diversity o f Bach.
h er e are tw o w ays o f disliking art, w rote O scar W ilde.
T O ne is to dislike it. T h e other, to like it ration ally. It is
doubtful w hether masterpieces produced b y any other great artist
have been liked rationally to such an extent as the music o f Bach.
M an y years ago, w hen I w as attending the Ju illiard School
o f M usic, a lecturer a w ell-kn o w n A m erican com poser in-
form ed his students that the music o f B ach is not beautiful; its in-
terest resides exclu sively in its structural co m p lexity. W h ile few
o f us w ou ld share so extrem e a v ie w , it is not uncom m on for
musicians to stand aw a y from the music o f Bach, shy o f too cise
a personal participation. W ith Beethoven or Brahm s one can let
oneself g o , but B ach is accorded such profound respect that our
feelings tend to be left b y the w ayside. T h e result is an em o-
tional paralysis w hich denies to B a ch s art a sense o f vital re-
creation at the moment o f interpretation. W e w o u ld never
dream o f treating Beethoven in such a manner or Shakes
peare. Im agine a perform ance o f the E ro ica divested o f impas-
sioned involvem ent, or o f H am let in w hich the actors confined
their expression to w hat they considered the stylistic decorum
appropriate to the Danish court! W hen w e are pleased enough to
perform Bach w ith an ob je ctivity o f mind rem oved from heart,
let us not believe that w e are carryin g out the intention o f the
C antor o f St. Thom as a man w h o could w rite Jesu , J o y o f
M a n s D esirin g and yet, w hen enraged, did not hesitate to draw
his sw ord in the Street.
138
CASALS AND BACH 139
O ne thing is certain: this Bach tradition , w hich looms over
our heads like an ominous cloud, never derived from B ach or
from those w h o k n ew him. Indeed, just after B a ch s death his
music fell into virtual eclipse. T h e em ergence o f the hom o-
phonic style o f com position had coincided w ith the closing
years o f the masters life. It was the n ew artistic ideal that music
must henceforth throw o f f the shackles o f contrapuntal restraint;
even B a ch s sons carne to regard their fathers art as something to
be relegated to the otm oded past. N o t on ly did B ach s manner
o f interpreting his o w n w orks fade from m em ory but no more
than a handful o f his scores were available in print. A lthough a
small number o f musicians among them, the amazed M ozart
perceived the genius o f these compositions, B a ch s music w as, for
the most part, ignored or forgotten. It w as left to the enthusiastic
young Mendelssohn to lead the Bach revival b y directing, in
1829, the first perform ance o f the St. M atthew Passion since the
com posers death. Y e t it was not until the latter part o f the nine-
teenth century that the volumes o f the B ach Gesellschaft edition
began to m ake their appearance, eliciting from Brahm s the asser-
tion that the tw o most significant events o f his lifetim e w ere the
founding o f the Germ n Em pire and the publication o f B a ch s
com plete w orks.
Perform ances became m ore frequent; yet they w ere encum-
bered b y fundamental misapprehensions. A t a time w hen the
w orld o f music was passionately divided betw een pro- and anti-
W agnerians, comprehension o f B ach s art was distorted, as
A lbert Schw eitzer tells us, by the n arrow definition o f the
classical that w as put forw ard in opposition to the W agnerian
style . . . T h e conservative party maintained that true classical
music should concern itself only w ith perfect form and the ex
pression o f indefinite feeling, and prove its true greatness hy
avoiding drastic tne-painting and far-reaching poetic preten-
sions . . . This thoughtless and polem ical attitude w as account-
able for people not tryin g to find the real Bach, and this just at
the time w hen his w orks were at last made accessible to the
w o rld .
 I3<5 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N
dimensin o f expression, leaving greater room for the develop-
ment o f intensity and diversity o f tone colour.
Casals once asked a gifted student to practise a slow m ovem ent
o f B ach for a w eek w ithout the use o f vibrato in order to
appreciate the range o f tonal beauty and refinem ent o f nuance
w hich can be attained b y means o f the b o w alone. T h e student
soon realized to w hat extent he had neglected the expressive
capacity o f the b o w . W h en he resumed the vibrato, his left hand,
freed from the larg e ly automatic response it had hitherto know n,
assumed its rightful role, that o f w o rk in g together w ith the b o w
in Creative partnership.
C asals recording o f the A d agio from B eeth oven s last cello
sonata provides an exam ple o f the w a y in w hich this Creative
partnership is related to the evolution o f m eaning w ith in a w o rk .
This m ovem ent begins in D m inor; the com posers m arking is
m ezza voce. Reference has already been made to C asals visin o f
this piece: a m arch . . . a funeral m arch . H is sonority spare in
vibrato - takes on the intimate quality o f a hum an voice
chastened b y sorrow , w hich speaks in solitude o f a g rie f veiled
from the eyes o f the w orld.
Ex. 216
Adagio con molto sentimento d'affetto
A t B a r 25, the tonality passes into m ajor; Beethoven indicates
dolce.
Ex. 217
II
IN S IG H T S F O R S T R IN G P L A Y E R S 137
Casals responds w ith a delicate increase in the intensity o f
vibrato; the b o w is n o w drawn m ore rapidly (closer to the
fingerboard) and floats w ith the gentlest o f pressure. T h e trans-
form ation is subtle but crucial. T h e tone o f his cello, singing to
us yet m ore softly, is n o w imbued w ith consoling tenderness.
C asals vibrato w as alw ays receptive but never supera
ordinate to the form ulating activity o f the b o w . It could invest
a forte w ith ardent passion while not im pinging upon the free,
soaring p o w er o f the tone.
In keeping w ith his conception o f pellucid sonority Casals did
not shy aw a y from open strings w hich he sometimes made use
o f even in expressive melodies.
Ex. 218 D vo k : Cello Concert, ist m vt.
Allegro
(v n>
dolce e molto sostenuto
(mjy>
H e asked his cello students not to use the m ore opaque D string
for those passages, especially in forte, w hich w ou ld benefit from
the candid quality o f the A string.
Th ose w ho heard Casals play w ill forever be haunted b y the
quintessential purity o f his tone. T h ere w as a ring, like that o f
some exquisite bell, w hich emanated from the centre o f every
note he played. His immaculate intonation, inspired b o w arm,
vitality o f finger and taste in vibrato w ere contributing elements.
Y e t his tone was m ore than the sum o f these parts. In its
frankness and clarity it seemed the v e ry m aterial embodiment o f
the openness o f the m ans spirit, the testament o f his faith in his
com m union w ith music. A ll beauty was concentrated at the es-
sence, requiring no extraneous effort tow ards loveliness. It
revealed that stage o f achievement w hich A lfred Einstein has
referred to as the second sim plicity . . . a fullness in b re v ity , the
attainment o f the great masters.
14 0 , C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
C oupled w ith this misplaced theory o f aesthetics w as a one-
dimensional v ie w o f the religious aspect o f B a ch s art. The
spiritual element in his music w as seized upon on ly to be
relegated to a sanctified dom ain w here it w as held fast b y the
chains o f overzealous piety. For Bach, h o w ever, spirit is not con-
fined to the reverential solem nity o f Sunday m editation; it is an
original experience, fresh and immediate, w hich springs to life in
music, seeking therein the expression o f a hundred different
m oods, delighting in a w ealth o f im agery. It can be a spontaneous,
a most effervescent thing, like the opening o f a cham pagne
bottle. It seemed on ly prudent to protect ones preconceptions
from such disturbing nd challenging elements b y forcin g the
cork back into the bottle or, indeed, b y leaving the bottle un-
opened on the shelf. W hen, rarely enough, the cantatas w ere per-
form ed, the v iv acity o f their musical language w as hairdly recog-
nizable, a static, all-purpose spirituality having been super-
imposed upon the livin g manifestation o f the com posers faith.
W ritin g in 1890, G eorge Bernard Sh aw recalled a perform
ance o f the B m inor Mass w hich the B ach C h o ir had given in
honour o f the com posers bicentenary. T h e w o rk , s far as it
carne to light at all, loom ed dim ly and hu gely through a gloom y,
comfortless atmosphere o f stolid aw kw ardness and anxiety. T h e
effect the slow m ovem ents w o u ld make i f executed w ith delicacy
o f touch and depth o f expression, and o f the quick ones i f taken in
the true B ach m ajor m ood, energetic, spontaneous, vivid ,
jubilant, was left to the im agination o f the audience; and I fear
that for the most part they rather declined to take it on trust. A ll
this can be rem edied b y the B ach choristers i f they stick at it, and
are led w ith sufficient faith and courage. T h ere is m ore reason
than ever for persevering w ith their task at present; fo r Bach
belongs, not to the past, but to the future - perhaps the near
future.
In the year in w hich Sh aw w rote this article, P ablo Casals,
then a boy o f thirteen, discovered in a second-hand m usic shop in
Barcelona the S ix Suites for V iolon cello Solo b y Jo han n Sebas-
CASALS A N D B A C H 14 1
tian Bach. It was the decisive artistic encounter o f his life. N o n e
o f his teachers had ever mentioned the existence o f these w orks,
but the you n g cellist intuitively sensed their greatness. H e began
to p lay these suites w ith indescribable excitem ent, studying
them fo r tw elve years before daring to perform one in public.
T h e compositions for solo cello, as for solo violin, had shared in
the general neglect o f B a ch s music; it w as a rarity w hen a single
m ovem ent from one o f these w orks w as included in a concert.
W h en , at the turn o f the century, Casals presented to the public a
suite in its entirety w ith all repeats, not on ly the fact o f his per
form ance but the manner o f his interpretation w as considered
revolutionary.
Casals recounted: W h en I played the Suites fo r C ello A lon e, for
the first time in G erm any, the purists said that this w as not Bach,
and the others said that it was a real discovery. N o w the B ach at
that time was played like an exercise, w ithout any real musical
m eaning. T h ey w ere afraid to put something in it; they w ere
afraid! A n d even n o w , m any o f the artists o f today are afraid to
p lay B ach because they have accepted the bad theory that the
music o f Bach is ob jective . Bach w as thought o f as a professor
w ho k n ew very w ell his counterpoint and fugue - and nothing
else. Th at n arrow w a y o f explaining B ach v ery sad! Bach the
H err Professor he has every feeling: lo vely, tragic, dramatic,
poetic . . . alw ays soul and heart and expression. H o w he enters
into the most profound o f ourselves! Let us find that B a c h .
T h e first thing w e must understand w hen playin g the cello suites,
Casals w ou ld explain, is that, as w ith the partitas for violin
and fo r keyboard, the prelude gives the character to the w hole
w o rk . Each dance reflects in its ow n w a y the atmosphere o f the
opening m ovem ent. A fundamental m ood o f optim ism prevails
in the First Suite, in the T h ird Suite w ith its heroic prelude, and
in the Sixth Suite w hich begins w ith a hunting scene. A tragic
feelin g is evident throughout the Second Suite: T h at Bach D
I-P CASALS A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N
minor w on derful; h o w expressive it is never one note co id .
T h e beginning o f the Fifth Suite in C m inor is dark, dramatic,
threatening: Tempestuous, that is B ach ; B ach is passionate,
passionate! Casals once told a student that he felt in the C m inor
Sarabande (see E x . 17 1) a depiction o f the W a y o f the Cross.
W hen teching the Prelude to the Fourth Suite, Casals liken edthe
sound o f the quavers to the effect produced b y playin g the pedis
o f a great o rg an .1
Ex. 219
T h e subsequent movements are also conceived on a large scale:
T h e Allem ande is not grazioso it is a big thin g.2
As w ith other composers o f his era, B ach supervised the per
formances o f his o w n music and could assume that his contem -
poraries w o ld understand his intentions. H e therefore left little
in his scores to guide us in the w a y o f interpretation. Casals
w ou ld com m ent, T h ey alw ays say p lay w hat is w ritten but
there is nothing w ritten ! It thus becomes a fundamental challenge
to the interpreter to find the design. Casals w o u ld outline to his
students h o w the dynam ic inflections should fo llo w the rise and
fall o f the m elodic contour.3 For exam ple, in the A llem ande from
the First Suite: H o w it sings its not like an exercise. Its a
m elody. W e must shape the phrases in a natural w a y .
* When Casals played this prelude, he varied the main points of expressive accentu-
ation within each bar in accordance with the changing melodic and harmonio implica-
tions, thereby bringing constant interest to the pattern o f quavers.
2Where Bach has changed the mode from major to minor (or vice versa) within a
given suite, a contrast in mood is indicated. This occurs in the Menuet H from both the
First and Second Suites and in the Bourre II from the Third Suite.
s See Chapter II.
CASALS A N D BAC H 143
Ex. 220
Allemande
f f " 0 f f f~ ?^ ,*
asi
(f
H e gave great importance to the understanding o f the har
monio context o f each note. For instance, in Bars 56 o f the
above exam ple, w here a modulation leads from G m ajor to E
m inor, he drew attention to the A at the beginning o f B a r 5, this
being the first note o f the change o f harm ony; one imagines one
hears the D # already sounding as the bass. H ere, he explained,
as is generally the case w here there is a m odulation, the first note
needs a little elongation: This gives the character o f rubato
w hich is not a rubato which is v e ry agreeable. W e must not
hear one note after another like a m achine. W hen com ing to the
interval o f the diminished seventh: he pointed
to the expressive valu o f the C leading from the D # to the B ;
this w as not to be considered as an inconsequential passing note.
Y o u see w h y it is necessary to m ake a profound study.
Casals frequently d rew attention to an extraordinary feature o f
this music: It is fantastic to think that w ith one note after the
other there can be m elody, the central voices and the bass all
together. A w onderful polyphony and this is an invention o f
144 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
Bach. W e h ave to give the proper expression to each v o ic e .
W h en teaching the Bou rre from the T h ird Suite, Casals w ould
first p lay .the essential m elodic line and then demnstrate h o w the
lo w er notes (indicated b y the brackets b elo w the staff) serve as
com plem ent and bass ; i f they are given an im portance equal to
that o f the upper part, they become a repetition w hich harms the
m elod y . H e further differentiated these textures b y playin g the
lo w er quavers w ith spiccato b o w strokes so as to have variety
colou r .
Ex. 221
S im ilarly, in the Prelude to the Fifth Suite, he w o u ld elucidate
the p olyphonic structure. A ll the entrances o f this subject - in
piano, m ezzo forte or forte - must retain this feelin g (o f linear
p olyphony).
E x. 222
CASALS AND BACH 14 5
W hen perform ing the Courante from the T h ird Suite, Casals
lightened the texture o f the descending arpeggios b y playing
them o f f the string in diminuendo. T h e purists are scandalized
because I do that, he said, adding sardonically: because it seems
it seems that in B a ch s time staccato didnt exist. B u t don t be
afraid.
E x. 223-
T h at s beautiful, isnt it? W ell, i f its beautiful, its good. 1
B ach was the greatest colourist! Casals w ou ld exclaim . H e
loved colour. In the first prelude from the W ell-T em pered
C lavier he begins w ith on ly arpeggios but w hat colour!
Casals had often to remind his students that in each m ovem ent
o f these suites (excepting the preludes) B ach conveys this full
range o f expression through the mdium o f dance. Sturdy,
robust, the natural rhythm ic accents w ell m arked, the dance
character o f these movements is not m erely figurative but literal.
In Casals perform ance, most o f these courantes, menuets,
bourres, gavottes and gigues could w ell have started feet tap-
ping o n any village green.2 W h en teaching the G igue from the
T h ird Suite: Th is must g ive jo y to everyone w h o hears it. N o
form ality. Rustic there is no place for niceness.
1 As was often the case, Casals, by trusting his intuition, carne to conclusions which
were later supported by musicological research. It is now khown that staccato and spic
cato bowings were employed by such eighteenth-century virtuosi as Tartini and
Geminiani. As early as 1687 Jean Rousseau, in his Traite de la Viole, refers to the fre-
quent use of rebounding bow strokes which are called ricochets .
J Casals emphasized that within each suite there should be variety from one dance
tempo to the next.
 14 6 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
Ex. 224
E ven the slowest and most m editative m ovem ent, the sara-
bande, w as not to be entirely divorced from its rhythm ic origin.
A sarabande is not a rom ance or an adagio; it is a Spanish dance
w hich used to be perform ed in the churches and is still danced in
S e v illa . Casals w o u ld indcate the steady, measured gait o f the
three crotchets in a bar, explaining, W e must not be lost be-
tw een one beat and another.
Students often try to fo llo w Casals in his variety o f inlection
w ith out keeping in m ind his insistence upon rhythm ic con-
tinuity. R ubato, yes - but within the bar, w ithout upsetting the
dance character, and even then, a rubato w hich is not a
rubato
T h e B B C once prepared a program m e com paring the record-
ings o f several cellists playin g the Prelude to B a c h s First Suite.
A m o ng these, C asals reading w as unique in its fullness o f expres-
sion, its ability to let the phrases breathe. It w as assumed that
these attributes w ere a consequence o f his having taken much
m ore time than his colleagues. T h e stopwatch revealed other-
w ise; Casals perform ance o f this w o rk pro ved to be nearly the
fastest o f all.
It is no easy task to bring to realization the m anifold expres-
siveness o f this m usic - its m elodic, rhythm ic and p olyphonic
properties, its strength o f m ood. T h e opening eight bars o f the
Courante from the First Suite provide a b rie f insight into the w a y
in w hich Casals gave consideration to these various elements.
CASALS AND BACH 147
Ex. 225
H e began w ith a vigorous upbeat, absolutely in tempo. The
dow nbeat w as then m arked w ith a decisive accent o f the b o w :
B ite the strin g! T h e dance was thus born to rhythm ic life, the
first beat o f each bar receivin g the prim ary accent; the third beat,
a secondary stress. Casals asked that the upbeat be played on the
string w ith sustained tone. This fo r tw o reasons: It is the first
note, w hich means the beginning o f a m elo d y ; and, w hen the
upbeat is played tenuto, the staccato in the subsidiary voice (the
quavers D G ) is heard as a contrast:
zafira
a
1----------------------1
.e. rather than
7T7p
Casals w en t on to point out that, in figu re (b), the third semi-
quaver requires a slight accent because it is the highest note and
because it gives the third beat w hich is so necessary to m ark the
rh yth m . In figure (c) the same four notes, w hen played the
second time, must be a little softer; in this w a y w e avoid m ono-
ton y and g ive valu to the phrase that fo llo w s. T h e upbeat to th
final bar (the leading note F#) w as to be sustained as it leans
tow ards the G at the bar line: W e arrive at the confirm ation o f
the ton ality. H o w beautiful is this m usic, he exclaim ed; how
ga y, h o w n o b le!
 CASALS AND BACH 14 9
14 8 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

T h is is not a gay thing - it is dramatic; w e must feel the tragic

Casals perform ances and teaching o f the cello suites over the
character throughout. H e played in a modrate tempo that
course o f nearly three-quarters o f a century revealed their true
allo w ed one to sense the w eight o f the underlying quaver pulsa-
greatness, gaining for them a permanent place in the repertoire
tion. T h e first tw o notes, he pointed out, are introductory; the
and leading the w a y to a rediscovery o f B ach b y cellists in our
sem iquaver G is the real beginning o f the theme. H e brought to
time.
the m o tif J=3 a resolute strength.

Ex. 226a
It must be borne in m ind that in constructing a m ovem ent Bach
depends not upon the juxtaposition o f sharply contrasting Vi vace
themes, rhythm s and moods that one frequently finds in music o f
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but upon the evolution o f
a fundamental them atic idea stated at the outset. A s Fu rtw an gler
has w ritten: W ith B ach , the entire potential developm ent o f a
w o rk is im plicit in the subject as such. T h e artistic realization o f T h e phrases w hich fo llo w w ere played m ore lyrically; each up-
a com plete m ovem ent is dependent in the highest degree upon beat w as sustained in tone and intense in feeling.
the interpreter s ab ility to reveal the specific character o f that
Ex. 226b
subject.
W e are here witness to a supreme Creative pow er. These m ulti-
tudinous themes o f B ach be they simple or com plex in form ,
vivacious or serene in temperament share a quality w hich w e
find also in Shakespeare: an uncanny sense o f in evitability in the
expression o f som ething essential. (Indeed, Casals often drew an
analogy betw een B ach and Shakespeare.) W h en interpreting In the concluding bars he gave dynam ic inflection to the melodic
these themes, w e cannot seprate their spirit from their form ; w e rise and fall and underlined the agitated dialogue between the D s
must experience them organically. W h en w e re-encounter a and E b s b y means o f a subtle rubato.
w o rk o f B ach , as w hen w e re-read Hamlet or K in g Lear, our per-
ception o f its meanii. r m ay be subject to change; w e m ay render
it differently, but never less m eaningfully. W hen Casals inter-
preted B ach , there w as no doubt about it: a concept w as present.
E v e ry theme w as m arked w ith that distinctive com m itm ent o f
insight and feeling, w hich the ancient Chinese called a
heart-print .
T ake, for instance, the first m ovem ent o f the T h ird Gam ba
Sonata, v e ry often gone over briskly in a nondescript manner.
Casals revealed the enormous p o w er o f expression in this w ork.
15 0 C A S A LS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N CASALS A N D B AC H 151

T h e O vertu re to the Second O rchestral Suite opens w ith an series o f u n varyin gly uniform quavers! W e w ill recall Casals
impassioned statement: h aving said: It is a general rule that repeated notes or a repeated
design must not be equal. W hen interpreting this theme, he gave
Ex. 227 . expressive w eigh t to the first note o f each pair o f quavers, the
second note subsiding as an xpiration.1
(Lentement)
Vln.1 Ex. 229a

m & Fl.

<f>
(V) <6rt= - >>

Y e t the fo llo w in g allegro section is usually played as a cheerful

dance, quite detached from the m ood o f the preceding and P la yed in this w a y , the theme seemed transformed into a succes-
fo llo w in g Lentem ent. Casals considered the fundam ental charac- sion o f sighs. B ach - the coid B a ch - m ore than anyone, Bach
ter o f the allegro subject to be determ ined m ore b y the plaintive,
is hum an.
m elodic feeling inherent in the appoggiatura:
Ex. 229b
r~ ~ I
4L
-o

(reminiscent o f E x . 227) than b y the rhythm ic im plication o f the

syncopation. H e interpreted this as a tender m elody, m odrate in
tem po, singing in texture. T h e second phrase w as played a little
softer than the first. Thus perform ed it was a song o f sorrow ,
befitting its setting.

Ex. 228

T h at these notes held intense emotional significance for the com -

poser is evidenced by the fact that Bach eventually incorporated
this m ovem ent into a cantata (N o . 146), at w h ich time he super-
im posed upon it a chorus set to the text W ir mssen durch viel

1 Many present-day interpretis would think that they were romanticizing Bach s
H o w often have w e heard the ritornello from the slo w m ove- music by perorming it in this manner. In fact, it was customary in the eighteenth cen-
m ent o f the D m inor C lavier (or V iolin ) C oncert rendered as a tury to play such groups of notes with expressive inequality.
 153
152 - C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

Trbsal in das R eich Gottes eingehen (W e must pass through

much tribulation to enter into the K in gdom o f G od).
W hen Casals conducted the St. M atthew Passion, he revealed
h o w the ritornello to each aria conveys more than an indefinite
impression o f idealized em otion; it translates into a unique
musical design the immediate intensity o f feeling found in the
te x t.1 T h e aria B lu te nur, du liebes H erz (O n ly bleed, beloved
heart) provides a characteristic exam ple. B u ilt as it is o f synco-
pations, appoggiature and abrupt leaps, this theme com m uni-
cates the presence o f a g rie f so intense as to be experienced physi-
cally. Casals gave full expression to this daring musical language.
Ex. 230
(M odera to)
n figu re (c) he gave dynam ic contrast to the rise and fall in the
chairi o f syncopations. Figure (d) ended in a diminuendo, bring-
ing into bold relief the urgent forte o f the final phrase (<?), the ex-
pressive culm ination o f the theme. This music gave such a
spontaneous feeling o f sorrow as to seem w oven from tears.
B ach must be free, Casals w ould say. W hen the purists hear me
say you must p lay B ach like you p lay C h opin they are horrified.
Bu t I laugh at them. N o b o d y has arrived to the expression o f
B a c h .
Casals often spoke o f the universality o f B ach s art . H e w ou ld
point out that B ach had not only assimilated the French and
Italian styles. W e find in his music other influences as w ell the
H ebraic:

Ex. 231 Violn and Clavier Sonata No. 3, 3rd m vt.

T h e opening figu re (a) w as played as an im ploring cry, falling Ex. 232 Solo Cello Suite No. 4, Prelude

o f f in dim inuendo. The first appoggiatura w ithin figure ()

began at a high point o f expression, each descending sequence
yield ing in intensity; the phrasing w as alw ays:

1 It was in His eighty-sixth year that he fiililled his life-long wish to direct this
masrerpiece. While preparing the score he wrote to me: The more I work on it, the
greatcr it becomes, and the more problems I find to render an honest and meaningful
performance. I am so much in it that I cannot sleep at night with this wonderful music
going through my head.
 CASALS AND BACH 157
156 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N

h eavy g ra zio so ! T h e concluding phrase, beginning w ith the Th e highest note o f each segment was to com e as an expres-
upbeat, w as to be sung upon expressively. T h e w hole m elody sive clim ax, but w ithout accent; within that note itself there w as
has an expansin o f an octave and four notes, he explained. Y o u to be a dim inuendo, thereby givin g the n ext phrase segment a
softer point o f departure: that is the econom y . Each crescendo
have to do som ething w ith that; otherwise it could be m ono-
tonous. W h en the phrase goes up, go up w ith y o u r sound; then it carne w ith increased intensity, so that all three segments com -
becom es som ething com plete. bined into one m elodic curve.

Ex. 236 Ex. 237b

(Allegro modralo)

Countersubject I was to establish an immediate contrast in tex

ture. These quavers - meno forte - w ere executed w ith short
b o w strokes; each syncopation received a pointed accent
> fo llo w ed b y a rapid diminuendo.

W h ere there is a contrapuntal texture w hich contains both a Ex. 237c

subject o f signal personality and distinctive countersubjects,
Casals w ou ld carefully explain the specific characterization re-
quired for each com ponent part. For exam ple, he described, as
follow s, the four elements w hich com prise the fugal passage from
the T h ird O rchestral Suite. Countersubject II w as again melodic, played on the string , the
T h e Subject w as to be played w ith singing b o w strokes, dynamics fo llo w in g the m elodic contour.
sounding nearly lega to . This theme, Casals pointed out, is
form ed o f three phrase segments, each consisting o f six notes; Ex. 237<i
each o f these segments has an upbeat character. H e sang the essen-
tial m elodic notes in quavers indicating the increase o f ten

=
sin w ith in each ascending interval o f a third. = - )
* ( ---- :
Ex. 237a
Countersubject III w as not to be a monotonous repetition o f
quavers in a single sonority. Each phrase, alw ays beginning w ith
the second quaver, w as to be felt as a series o f upbeats and played
E s s e n t i a l m e lo d y :
w ith expressive portato b o w strokes:
154 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N
the H ungarian:
Ex. 233 Solo Violn Sonata No. 1 , istmvt.
Adagio
Let us not forget that the greatest composers w ere the greatest
thieves. T h e y took from everyone and from every w h ere .
Th e w o rld ly charm o f dance rhythms, so often springing from
foreign soil, is felt time and again in B a c h s music, even w hen, as
is often the case, the dance is not designated b y ame. T h e gigu e-
like allegro theme from the O verture to the Fourth O rchestral
Suite falls into this category. W ith j o y ! Casals exclaim ed w hen
rehearsing this w o rk . H e then proceeded to transate this w o rd
into an irresistible rhythm ic lilt b y means o f relevant fluctu-
ations in dynam ic intensity (a). (A n unusual feature o f this theme
is the displacement o f the principal point o f rhythm ic stress from
the first to the second beat.) T h e repeated D s (figure b) m oved
buoyantly tow ards the second beat in B a r 4 .1
Ex. 234
H ete, as so often, Casals d rew attention to the enunciation o f the
first note. T h e M arlboro Festival O rchestra had begun the theme
w ith enough lan to please any other conductor, but fo r Casals
the upbeat sounded ever so slightly lazy. A lth ou gh in piano, it
Bach uscd this movement as the basis fot the opening chorus o f the Cantata No.
110: Unser Mund sei voll Lachens (May our mouths be full o f laughter).
CASALS A N D B AC H 155
w as to have immediate, springing vitality. The first note is not
happy en ou gh , he remonstrated. A fter pausing m om entarily for
dram atic effect, he continued: A nd also the second note sounds a
little sad.
W h en rehearsing another gigue-like m ovem ent, the Finale o f
the T h ird Brandenburg Concert, Casals asked the instrumen-
talists w h o p la y the accom panying figure to give natural accents
to the m ain beats, w h ile lightening the w eigh t o f the in-
termediate quavers:
A gainst this background, the semiquavers w ere to be played
m elodically, w ith graduations o f dynam ic intensity correspond-
in g to the cu rve o f the phrase; the crescendo was not to be exag-
gerated: W ith o ut forcing natural lo v e ly . T h e result was an
entrancing fusin o f dancing and singing.
Ex. 235
Allegro
Vin.1 & 2
B ach often incorporates these tw o elements in a single theme.
W h en teaching the second movem ent o f the First Gam ba Sonata,
Casals show ed h o w the first tw o phrases dance delicately, jo y -
fu lly . In keeping w ith the vivacious m ood, Casals played the
rhythm ic figure J") J w ith a certain concisin: It must not be
I S8 CASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N CASALS A N D BACH 159
Ex. 237e
A w o rd should be added about che interpretation o f dotted
(~ ~ ~ ~ . T T T T T T ~ ~T)
rhythms in B a ch s music. Casals avoided m aking a blanket
application o f any theoretical form ula. W here the m elodic line
requires breadth and nobility (as in the slow sections o f the o ver-
E v e ry m o tif thus contributed its individual vitality to the w hole. tures to the orchestral suites) he did not alter the printed note-
The result w as a w onderful polyphony, inform ed w ith organic
values; w here the rhythm ic feeling demands a certain vivacity (as
in the Polonaise from the Second Orchestral Suite) he extended
Ex. 23 7f
the length o f the dot in order to vitalize the relationship between
the short and long notes (see Chapter IV ). T h e precise extent to
w hich the dot was elongated was variable, dependent upon his
instinctive response to the phrase in question. For this reason he
did not refer to double-dotting ; a more appropriate term w ould
be over-d o ttin g . 1
W h en perform ing dotted rhythms in a m ovem ent in which
triplets are a prom inent feature, Casals applied the principie o f
over-dotting, preferring it to the m ore custom ary solution o f
compressing J 75 hito the triplet figuration: J 3 )- Thus, in the
last m ovem ent o f the Fifth Brandenburg Concert, Casis
quickened the semiquavers, providing a live ly contrast to the en-
suing triplets.2
Ex. 238
Allegro

A s each musical conception o f Casals w as deeply experienced, he

generally rem ained w ithin its fram ew ork w henever returning to
a given w o rk . Y e t the jo u rn ey o f interpretation, so w ell charted,
traversed a thousand times over, never ceased to yield fresh in-

1 This term is used by Robert Donington in his book The Interpretation ofEarly Music.
2Opinions differed even in the eighteenth century in regard to this matter. C. P. E.
Bach favoured the assimilation of the dotted nte-values into the predominant triplet
rhythm, whereas Quantz expressed the view which Casals was subsequently to adopt:
. . . when one o f the pars has triplets against which the other part opposes dotted
notes, it is necessary to sound the little note which follows the dot, only after the third
note o f the triplet, and not at the same time with it.
l6o C A S A I S A N D THE ART OF I NTE RP RE TA TIO N CAS ALS A N D B AC H l6 l

sights; a detail or a larger aspect w o u ld reveal itself in a n ew
light. F o r this reason he could not be coaxed into editing B a ch s
cello worlcs for publicacin. H e advised his students to consult che
source closest to the original (the co p y made b y Anna M agdalena
Bach) w here, unencum bered b y intervening editorship, the
master s notes perpetually invite interpretative rediscovery. H e
him self resisted, and w ou ld have his pupils resist, the tendency to
be inextricably bound to preconceptions, h o w ever w ell founde'd.
C asals w a y o f vary in g his approach to the last m ovem ent o f
the Fourth Brandenburg C oncert is illustrative o f this fle x i-
bility. T h e principal subject f this m ovem ent is usually played in
a straightforw ard, rather angular manner. Thus it carne as a
revelation to me, w hen Casals conducted this w o rk in Prades (in
1953)5 to hear the violas announce this theme in an unhurried
tempo, w ith tender expression.
A s he slo w ly made his w a y towards the podium , he seemed a
very tired od man. Y e t at the moment when he gave the upbeat
for the first m ovem ent (E x. 240) he was utterly transfigured. It
was Moses smiting the rock. Life, life, life ! he cried, as the
jo yo u s notes sprang forth. A lw ays try to find variety - it is the
secret o f m usic. His exuberance o f temperament had an electri-
fyin g effect upon the musicians.
A ll three notes are different, he explained to the violins w h o
w ere to affirm the jubilation o f their ascending line (x) w ith a
crescendo. W hen p layin g figu re (y ), the ilutes w ere to sustain the
quaver w hich comes at the top o f the phrase (just before the bar
line); the element o f song was not to be excluded from this
predom inantly dance-like passage.
Ex. 240

Ex. 239

Each subseqtient voice entered' w ith singing quality (the overall

sonority gradually increasing in intensity). I f this subject fell
D o not keep the same sonority in forte, he demanded. E ve ry
graciously upon the ear, it was due to m ore than beauty o f tone
part must be interesting. W e must p lay the music w ith character.'
production. T h e first figure (a) w as played w ith sm oothly con-
nected strokes o f the b o w , figu re (b) in a contrasting dance-like Ex. 241
quasi staccato. M oreover, w ithin figu re (a), in keeping w ith the
resolution o f the suspensin, the G - F # carne in a natural dim inu
endo; this left room for an increase in sonority to the A w hich
stands at the high point o f the m elodic curve. S o interpreted, the
theme w as divested o f inelasticty and became eloquently
expressive.
It w as a sultry m orning in Puerto R ico , eight years later, w hen
I next heard Casals conduct the Fourth Brandenburg C oncert.
162 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I NTE - RP R E T A T I O N
A passage w h ich can easily sound stilted was greeted radiantly:
Like a lo v e ly dance w ith fantasy; B ach - charm , ch a rm !
Ex. 2+2
A ll o f these diverse inner phrasings w ere encompassed w ithin the
vivacious but u n varyin g lilt o f the un ifying (one beat per bar)
rhythm ic pulsation.
T h e second m ovem ent ( andante not adagio ) became under
his direction a lament alw ays singing and m oh o espressivo ,
the first o f each group o f tw o slurred quavers slightly emphasized
but w ith out exaggeration. D oloro so , d oloroso, Casals im -
plored. T h ere is no passion in w hat yo u do. G ive m ore and m ore
every tim e. His voice rose in a fierce crescendo: I hate
m onotony; i h a t e i t !
Ex. 243
W hen Casals turned the page o f his score to the last m ove
ment, 1 aw aited the entrance o f the violas, recalling the w on der-
ful w a y in w hich he had interpreted this theme in Prades. B u t
then, to m y surprise, he brought his baton dow n upon the first
note w ith incisive forc. Rather than conceiving a lyrical line, he
* In Ex. 242 we observe another case o f a dual impulse occurring during the course
o f a suspensin (see Ex. 36). Casals asked for this note to begin with a diminuendo;
at the last moment a crescendo was to lead over to the foliowing bar.
CASALS AND BACH 163
demanded vigo u r and strength. Each o f the tw o minims was
rendered forte, the first being given a diminuendo so as to
brin g the articulation into bold relief. (T he subsequent phrasing
rem ained as before.) T h e tempo w as vivacious, the m ood
irresistibly jubilant.
Ex. 2+4
Presto
Via.
A)
(A
---------^
<- - ^ 4 -, i - j yj J
O f these tw o w ays o f interpreting the theme o f the last m ove
m ent it is impossible to assert that on ly one is correct. The essen-
tial point is that in each case the theme possessed character. B u t, o f
the tw o , I must confess m y preference fo r the form er, which
remains in m y mind as one o f the loveliest things I have ever
heard p layed .1
Casals w ou ld be the last to want us to regard his insights into
B ach as being rigid form ulae. T h ey w ere the expression o f his
questing spirit; the revelation o f a vo yag e o f discovery w hich he
began alone at the age o f thirteen; the ecstatic consequence o f his
h aving dared to trust to his feelings.
O nce, when teaching the Bach suites in a master class, Casals
played tw o different movements for his students. T h e first was
the Sarabande from the Fifth Suite in C m inor. Y o u see, he said,
this is such a profound expression o f pain, like the music from
the Passions. H e then played the G igue from the T h ird Suite in
C m ajor. N o th in g is m ore g a y , he exclaim ed, nothing is m ore
healthy, m ore w onderful! In the same w a y that w e give that p ro
found feeling o f pain, let us also give that profound feeling o f
jo y . Y o u mustnt remain in the middle. P lay fran kly! D o n t be
afraid. G ive w ht is due to the music and to B a c h .
1The reader may compare both versions, as recorded by Casals in Prades (1950) and
in Marlboro (1964).

C H APTER V II
A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTORAL
SYM PHONY
M olto espressivo! H o w beautiful it is - the illum ination o f n a tu r e . . .
HIS book has concerned itself w ith the principies o f inter-
T pretation fundamental to C asals m usic-m aking. I should
n o w like to provide a sustained glim pse into the w orkin gs o f
C asals musical m ind as it applied itself to the re-creation o f a
fam iliar masterpiece. For this purpose I in vite the reader to attend
a Casals rehearsal o f B eeth oven s Pastoral Sym phony. M y notes,
taken during several reliearsals at the Casals and M arlboro
Festivals, have been brought together into one continuous com -
m entary.
Casals shared w ith Beethoven a profound lo ve o f nature. O ne
day, w hen I w as speaking w ith Casals on the terrace o f his home
in San Ju an , our conversation w as interrupted b y the raucous
squaw k o f a seagull. H e pointed to the bird enthusiastically and,
after observing it for some moments, com mented, Y o u never
lose tim e w h en contem plating nature. H e w ent on to speak o f
his daily w alks on the beach, o f the dogs w h o befriended him on
these excursions, o f the ever-changing beauty o f ocean and sky.
H e w as at one w ith Beethoven in believin g that nature is the best
school for the heart and, like the com poser, to w hom every tree
seemed to say H o ly ! H o ly !, the manifestations o f nature w ere,
for Casals, reflections o f the divinity.
His perform ance o f the Pastoral S ym p h o n y - infused w ith jo y
and reverence w as one o f the most exquisite treasures he gave
to us. It w as never recorded. A lth ou gh this loss is irreparable, in
noting here Casals interpretative indications, something o f the
A CASALS REH EARSAL: THE P A S TO R A L S Y M P H O N Y 16 5
letter and, perhaps, spiiit o fh is conception m ay be preserved. The
limitations o f this book preelude a com plete description; I have
omitted, for instance, Casals numerous references to orchestral
balance, confining m y commentary to matter o f enduring
valid ity. For the benefit o f those readers w h o do not have access
to a score, I have provided musical quotations to illustrate each
point.
W hether shaping a phrase w ith his b o w or w ith his conduc-
tor s baton, Casals w as alw ays conveying his essential ideas about
music. M aking music is w hat interests m e, he said, and w hat
better instrument is there than an orchestra. . . . It is the supreme
mdium for anyone w h o feels music deeply and wants to trans
ate the form and shape o f his most intimate thoughts. He
brought to a Beethoven sym phony the same degree o f care and
devotion w hich he accorded to a solo cello suite b y Bach,
rehearsing in minute detail until every note w as im bued w ith in
ternal life and had taken its place in the overall design. W e fm d
in Casals perform ance o f the Pastoral Sym pho ny a summary o f
his principies o f interpretation.
F ir s t M ovem ent
A w aken in g o f C heerful Feelings upon A rriv a l in the C o un try
Allegro ma non troppo
Casals tempo: J = c. 10811 2
Bars
14 W e must p lay the beginning sim ply, Casals ex-
plained; it is only. an indication o f w hat is to com e.
T im e and again he went over these opening bars,
pruning aw a y excess redundant vibrato, undue b o w
pressure, exaggeration o f accent.
1 T h e cheerful m ood was to be established w ith the very
first note: It must not sound sad ! H e cautioned the
166 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N
violns to avoid an inadvertent crescendo from the A to
the B b , i.e. 1 ; D o not forc the tone.
The second note, he pointed out, is not short; it has
no dot o ver it (a fact to be kept in m ind throughout
the m ovem ent). The bass was to diminish right a w a y :
2 Casals explained that dots, in B eeth oven s time, did not
necessarily im p ly staccato; those under the G and C
signify only a separation . These
e=>
quavers are innately poco dim inuendo .
3 B a r 3 w as played w ithout crescendo, the semiquavers
com ing w ith out heaviness in a natural rhythm , a bit
late and quickened.
4 T h e ferm ata [pause] took on its inherent grace through
a dim inuendo at once, going to the infinite. Casals
conceived the opening four bars as divided naturally
into tw o segments o f tw o bars each, a1 nuance m ore to
be felt than emphasized. Patiently and surely, he
w orked until the m elodic contour revealed itse lf
pristine and radiant in all sim plicity.
5 T h e new phrase w as invested w ith im m ediate singing
quality, each note w ell articulated b y the fingers.
6 Th roughout the m ovem ent the figu re o f tw o semi
quavers w as to retain its live ly rhythm ic character.
CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RA L SYM P H O N Y 16 7
Beethoven has w ritten forte in B a r n and, again, in
n , 13
B a r 13 . In order to avoid repetition o f the same
sonority and to enhance the sense o f expansiveness,
Casals differentiated these dynamics as follow s:
9 -i 1
T h e crescendo attained to poco forte.
12 This bar, yet light in texture, w as set apart as a seprate
segment.
T h e reoccurrence o f the forte w as n ow stronger and
13
tw o pi espressivo .
2 8 -3 0 T h e oboist, as solo player, can lend further expressive-
ness to the theme; Casals asked that the second quaver
in B a r 29 be clearly enunciated to render the beginning
o f the m elody distinct; the notes at the top o f the
phrase w ere to be delicately elongated.
37-53 H ere, as so often, Casals freed the m elodic design from
the tyrann y o f the bar line. In those cases w here the
natural stress should fall upon the second crotchet beat,
16 8 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 16 9

he cautioned, A v o id accenting the first note o f the 6466 T h e repeated figure in the violins w as not to remain on
b ar. T h e accents which he requested w ithin the b o w - one dynatnic level, but to be played w ith less and less
______ (> _>> son ority . Th e violins then made the slightest break
before B ar 67, as i f to catch their breath in happy an-
ing slurs, e.g.
, are ticipation o f the phrase to come.
6774 T h e principal theme, Casals indicated, is that w hich
o f a com pensatory nature; they serve to clarify the first ' begins in the bass; it rises and falls in w aves, seeking
note o f the sem iquaver figures w hich, otherw ise, are com pletion in its higher notes. The quaver figure
all but lost to the ear o f the listener. In this case Casals (violins), although also expressive, is b y comparison
counselled, Forc the b o w ! (i.e. exaggerate the accent ornam ental . Lighter in w eight, it falls in a
to ensure intelligibility). V ariety in fo rte, he dim inuendo from its highest note.
demanded. N o t just one fo rte !
Vlns.& W.W.
37 o

( cresc.)
53 57 In contrast to the preceding tutti, the texture was n o w
et S^' m ore fluid and relaxed: the w o o d w in d , non staccato,
carne like lo v e ly m urm urings w ith a dim inuendo
extending not only up to but through the seventh
quaver; the violins simple, natural, unforced .
W.W.

7582 T h e parts are n ow reversed, each w ave retaining its

et seq. characteristic ebb and flo w as indicated above. The
dim inuendo within each phrase imposes a natural
gradation upon the grow th o f dynam ic intensity. In
17 0 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RA L S YM P H O N Y 17 1

this w a y the phrasing brings econom y to the crescen-
9 7 -10 0 T h e m elody here is usually perform ed in one line.
Casals, how ever, felt it in three w aves. H e gave ex-
pressive emphasis to the first note o f each bar, letting
the other notes subside in diminuendo. W h en w e
brale the phrase in this w a y , w e must do it tenderly,
tenderly

W .W .

1071 1 5 T h e w o o d w in d and strings, in turn, gave contour to

the variations o f the above theme.

107 W.W.

T h e violins w ere asked to p lay on the string , in the

upper centre o f the b o w , b ig but not ja g g e d , the
the decrescendo on the dotted crotchet, the better to
m elodic notes brought into relief.
clarify the notes w hich fo llo w . T h e violins and violas
w ere urged to p lay the semiquavers in cisively 'w ith
strong, clear fingers . Vln.1
11 I I I-------- 1
f tii
t y
** f u ,

1 1 5 1 1 9 E v e ry part had independent life.

et seq.
 A CASALS REH EA R SA L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 173
17 2 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N

115

155162 Sustained notes, taken in turn b y the first and second

et seq. violins, n o w add their voices to this w oodland
counterpoint. W h en there is a lon g note, it must be
heard from the beginning. E ach was to commence
diminuendo. w ith a q u ick, vibrant accent (follo w ed b y a rapid
Vlns. dim inuendo) and then gradally increase in intensity.

155

14715 0 T h e reappearance o f a theme is not to be treated as a

mere repetition o f w hat has been heard before. Casals
addressed the clarinettist: T h ere is m ore beauty to be
found here. T h e F is m ore im portant; this brings the
natural loveliness. B u t p lay w ith out forcing at all
dolce, dolce

1 5 115 2 N o passage is m ore susceptible to routine perform ance

et Sc- than these long stanzas w oven from strands o f m otivic
repetition. Casals brought to bear his insight into the
character o f each figure; the m usic suddenly becam e
startlingly fresh and alive. T h e n ew versin o f the
m o tif taken from B a r 2 w as given natural shape b y
means o f a tiny pointed accent and dim inuendo. T h e
violas and cellos w ere not to be neglected: E ve n here,
there is room for ups and d o w n s.
174 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS R EH EA R S A L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 175

*75_ I78 G iv e form to the tu tt Casals demanded. H e pointed should p lay giocoso in the tw o previous bars, w ith a
out to the w o o d w in d that i f the quaver at the end o f diminuendo at the end o f B a r 242, then suddenly with
each bar is played in dim inuendo, the succeeding w arm th o f tone in B ar 243. T h e dolce catches us b y sur-
dotted crotchet comes as a n o velty . T h e violins w ere prise - a typical Casals characteristic.
to sing their semiquavers like a sustained note, avoid-
ing stringent forc . N o w , in fortissim o, every note in
the bass must be m arked . There w as to be an overall
crescendo. M notony is no m u sic!
175

2 5 5-25 8 T h e m ood o f a passage determines the expressive

et seq. character o f a sforzando. H ere the sfp's throb quickly,
w ith sensitivity.

255 Vln.1
(V)

193196 Th is figure, taken in turn b y the second violins and
" sfx>
cellos, w as espressivo, attention being given to the first
o f the little notes (F#) that is should not be sw a llo w e d .
263-266
T h e reiterated quavers w ere played w ith rhythm ic lilt.
----- "
Sfp (:
Casals indicated the points o f tensin and relaxation
w hich g ive this theme its inner structure. N o te the
crescendo w ithin the quaver E (last note, B ar 264) as it
leans into the sforzando, and the subsequent de
crescendo to the first quaver o f B a r 266, at w hich point
Casals insisted: N o accent here; it is u g ly !

I----------------------------------------------- ----------------------- 11
263 26 26J . __ ^ 266 ^

241246 Casals heightened the effect o f the dolce (m arked by ) S f < = - t = >
(n o a c c e n t)
Beethoven in B a r 243) b y indicating that the ilutes
176 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N A CASALS R E H E A R S A L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 17 7

267275 Each successive sforzando carne w ith increased inten-
sity, the Iast (B ar 275) being the strongest o f all:
A rriveV Casals called out.
275278 T h e first note o f each triplet w as to be clearly arti-
culated, the decrescendo carefully gradated.
267
279 -28 2 W e h ave n o w com e to the recapitulation. U p o n
return, the first subject is richer in associations; it
evokes a deeper response w ithin us than it did upon
first encounter. Thus Casals urged the second violns
and violas to p lay w ith m ore expression and allow ed
the adorning high C o f the first violins a poco crescen
do.
282288 T h e beginning o f the trill w as to receive an accent: It
gives character to the lon g n ote. T h e little notes

t---- f Ir (1 rf fc it l f t
conclude the trill and should not be separ-
-) sf (=

ated from it. (The separation comes after the first

quaver in B a r 285.) The violins w ere to p lay w ith the
sound o f a ilute - not hard - pianissimo, dolce.

293300 In the first four bars Casals asked the w ood w in d to sing
out n obly. In the variation o f the phrase (Bars
297300) the strings w ere to respond w ith a heartfelt
echo .
178 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RAL SYM PH O NY 17 9

4 28 -4 32 O w in g to its lon g slurs and symmetrical rhythm , this

et seq. passage (a variant o f Bars 1 1 5 - 1 1 9 ) can easily sound
monotonous. B y givin g subtle dynam ic emphasis to
certain notes (marked by brackets) Casals brought
contoar to the lyrical line.

4484 51 D o n t p lay notes play a m elo d y, Casals beseeched.

O n the string cantando, cantando!

A s the rem ainder o f the recapitularon concerns itself

w ith m aterial already commented upon, I shall n ow
pass to the coda. 456-467 N o w , at the clim ax o f the m ovem ent, Casals opened
422425 These four bars rustic and strictly in tem po his arms in that w onderful gesture o f his w hich seemed
resounded in a robust forte (Beethoven has not marked to embrace the spirit o f every man and w om an in the
fortissim o). orchestra. M olto espressivo! he exclaim ed. H o w
426-427 Contrast molto piu dolce.' beautiful it is h o w beautiful the illum ination o f
nature . . .
18o C A SA L S A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N A C ASALS REH EA RSA L: THE PASTO RA L SYM PH O N Y 181

476-486 T h e clarinet g a ily and lo v in g ly shaped the design: ing stream, sw aying gently as i f he w ere rocking a
e seq. eradle w ith all the tendemess and serenity o f a m other s
lo ve; such w as the repose he evoked, so tranquilly did
the b o w strokes flo w together. U se much b o w , he
counselled, but very little pressure. W e must avoid
accents. W h en changing the b o w , eliminate the stop
and the crescendo.

V ln.2, V ia ,
Vlc A b a s s a

T h e opening crotchet (played b y the first violins) w as

492-498 T h e violin figu re (and that o f the ilute in the subse-
quent bars) w as to be v e ry delicately phrased in the
fo llo w in g pattern:
The two final chords, coming in diminuendo, com-
municated a deep composure.
not to be taken for granted. Casals sang it roundly and
n obly. It announces Beethoven . A s Casals uttered
the com posers ame, it com m unicated a tangible
quality o f feeling, an entity in itself, needing no further
elaboration, recalling to mind Schum anns comment:
beethoven w hat a w o rd - the deep sound o f the
m ere syllables has the ring o f eternity.
Against the unchanging background o f quavers, the
m elody w as given time to express its full lyricism . T h e
first note o f the second bar w as played not as
w ritten but more spaciously than notation can in
dcate. The turn, in B ar 3, w as not hurried.

S econd M ovement
/ Vln. 1
Scene at the B ro o k

Andante molto moto

C asals tem po: J - c . 44 (m i -)

Bars
1 et seq. It w o u ld be hard to forget that od man, indicating to
his string players the unceasing m ovem ent o f the flo w -
182 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: T H E P A S TO R A L S Y M P H O N Y 18 3

5 -6 Th e frst note o f the om am ent in B a r 5 w as articulated
w ith greatest care. Beethoven has indicated crescendi in
both Bars 5 and 6. In B a r 5 the crescendo extends to
forte. In order to g iv e variety and to render the end o f
the phrase more exquisite, Casals requested only poco
crescendo in B ar 6.
1314 The first B b is the beginning o f a m elody. The violins
were to commence w ith w arm tone, malee a dim inuen
do, then a crescendo on the second note. T h e reiter-
ation o f the Bbls gained in m eaning through the release
and renew al o f intensity.
13 Vtn.1

I ' r c M
k

do Ice
Wn l / ' o ' '
cresc.
( t o jo =

17 -18 Repetitions in the same sonority w ere anathema to

7 et seq. Each accompaniment figure w as instilled w ith a life
Casals. Each accent had to com e w ith less tone, the
o f its ow n . Casals asked the first violins to articlate
final crotchets w ith individual diminuendi.
clearly the beginning o f every trill. T h e other string
players w ere to give expressive emphasis to the notes
!7 Lower
o f m elodic significance w ithin the sem iquaver cf r<
figuration.

(>)

19 This passage was rehearsed at least a dozen times. T h e

violins w ere to linger ever so slightly upon their initial
quaver. T h e first note o f the turn was to be w ell
pronounced, the subsequent quaver F again espressivo.
It is c o id ! Casals entreated. D o n t be afraid to take
time. It must sing so ten derly! T h e semiquavers - not
too short w ere gently pulsating, the crotchets alw ays
tapering o f f in diminuendo.

11 E ven in the general crescendo, each trill w as charac-

terized b y a diminuendo.
184 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C ASALS REH EA RSA L: THE P A STO RA L SYM PH O N Y 185

2328 T h e first violins w ere phrased as follow s, w ith consum -

mate grace:

x> dolce ( : mX ~ )
T h e groups o f quavers fo llo w ed one another like rap -
turous sighs: Each time as though a n ew breath is
taken! B u t dont forget that the second note [i.e. the
second quaver w ithin each slur] must also be heard and
must not be short. D im inuendo poco a poco.

Casals im parted to the orchestra the spontaneity o f

29 Casals alw ays stressed that, w ithin the are o f an overall feeling characteristic o f his o w n cello playin g; each
crescendo or diminuendo, the inner phrasings mus re- successive upbeat was instantly vibrant and singing.
tain their shape. H ere he emphasized the high note o f W.W.
each group o f descending semiquavers, g iv in g im por-
tance to the underlying 6/4 pulsation. T h e intermediate
notes, com ing in dim inuendo, w ere not to be lost to
the ear.

Vln.1

30, 33 T h e solo ute and bassoon, respectively, w ere to give

expressive inflection to the m elodic rise and fall.

H.
186 CASALS A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REH EARSAL: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 187

58-60 T h e principal theme, taken here b y the oboe sub- T o hear this m elody, liberated from constraint, soar-
sequently b y the clarinet (B ar 69) and ilute (B ar 9 1) ing freely over the regular m ovem ent o f semiquavers,
is norm ally perform ed in strict time. For Casals there w as indescribably m oving.
w as m ore to be expressed . H e urged these solo w o o d - 6263 Casals pointed out that the dotted crotchets in the first
w ind to p lay fre e ly . W e w ill keep time; yo u do as violins, although an accompaniment, should none the
you w ish . H e counselled these players to anticpate less be played w ith m elodic insinuation.
their entrances, com ing in a little sooner than w ritten so
that the semiquavers w ou ld h ave m ore time in w hich
to sing. T h e appoggiatura at the bar line w as to be
delicately lingered upon. Such rubato eludes precise
notation. It could be approxim ately expressed as
follow s:

6 5-6 6 T h e ute and oboe w ere to trace the melodic curve

w ith dynam ic inflection.

79-80 T h e violins w ere asked to begin in m ezzo forte so as to

g ive increased dimensin to the subsequent decrescen
do.

79 vi a 1

8 1- 8 2 H ere the orchestra attained the most intmate pianis-

simo. T h e notes seemed divested o f material w eigh t;
they w ere transparent, floating.
188 CASALS A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS RE H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 189

SI and clarinet w ere urged to p lay slightly quicker than

w ritten: L ik e b ird calis.

Ob. __ j*
Quait |1

12512 7 In order to enhance the soaring quality o f their lon g
e seq. B t>, the violins w ere requested to p lay on the E string
(the sonority being brighter than on the A string) w ith
a great increase o f vibrato. T h e turn w as given tim e to
sing. T h e concluding semiquavers, although in
dim inuendo, w ere not to be too soft too soon.
13 2 -13 3
Cuckoo
In contrast to some great G erm n conductors render-
ing o f this bird dialogue, in Casals perform ance one
had the impression o f a cuckoo saying cuckoo not
o f Goethe saying cuckoo .
In givin g the birds back their voices, hum an feeling
responds all the m ore deeply. Casals spoke in a hushed
vo ice: Extase . . . extase . . . h o w w on derful is the
nature . . . T h e orchestra played w ith reverence.

132 Strs-

12 9 1 3 1 T h e rarest o f qualities is the ability to be simple. Iub jijrFTl M q

Flautists, like string players, tend to protect their right
to use vibrato. H o w enchanting it was, therefore, to
hear the solo ilute, in response to Casals request, begin
f
r
w ith out vibrato, sim ply, like a b ird .

129 Fl- Nighfingale 13 6 139 B eeth oven has now m arked a pp w hich Casals
observed w ith care. B e g in n in g w ith the utmost in-
(=) (= tim acy, the phrase was passed from instrument to in-
.+(cresc.) strument in one unbroken line o f expression, each
upbeat w arm er than the last, the clarinet being allow ed
13 1 Casals considered the printed notes here to be no m ore a crescendo a h a lf bar p rior to the place indicated in the
et seq. than approxim ations o f natural rhythms. T h e solo oboe score, the better to bind together the w hole.
 C A S A L S A N D T H E A RT OF I N T E R P RETA TIO N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTORAL SYM PH O N Y 191

Fl. Vlns.8.
\lla.8bassa 1
0 : 1-+ 1-
. . '
JQSP
i A_________________ AO

---- y?
---- 1 & 7 4 4 4 ....
Bsn.
9 -16 Casals drew attention to the lyric contrast provided by
the answ ering theme; Beethoven has indicated dolce
and it should sound dolce . T h e quavers w ere to be
played a little faster than is the custom . T h e phrase
w as to end in dim inuendo; none the less, the con-
cluding quavers (B ar 15) must be heard .

A m ovem ent o f unsurpassed loveliness w as thus

crow ned w ith w hat Shelley has called the halo o f
beauty.

T hird M ovement
H ap py G athering o f the C o u n try Folk
6 3-6 6 A dim inuendo on every dotted minim (w ithout stop-
A llegro
ping the b o w between the strokes) gives m ore
C asals Tem po: J - = c. 88 strength to each sforzando .
Bars
18 Casals con veyed at once his inim itable feeling for the
character o f a dance. H is tem po a modrate allegro g- ,p-..
63 Vln.1

r>

established a balance between the m otion o f w hole-bar

[/(=
)

I

I
beats and the vitality inherent in each individual
crotchet. W h ile unhurried, the dance w as yet light and
8 aY- Tempo giusto but not h e avy . T h e delicately 9 1-9 8 It is a rustic dance; even so, the quavers (Bar 93) w ere
accented grace notes enhanced the vivacious lilt. et seq. to sing m elodically .
192 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A TI O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTORAL SYM P H O N Y 193

91 Ob. ^ 93 2 13 -2 2 1 T h e quavers w ere to be drawn into r e l i e f - articulated

bo ldly w ithin the legato b o w strokes. In B a r 218 the
crotchet C was to be strongly emphasized, asserting, as
it does, the dom inant o f F m ajor.

165168 Casals m arked the accents o f the 2/4 dance w ith that
et seq. prim al energy w h ich sprang from the peasant earth.
H e conceived the pulse in w hole-bar units ( J = c. 68).
H is baton slashed uncom prom isingly, violen tly
upon each sforzando. ( D im inuendo each time in the
b ass!)

165 A!le9 ro

Allegro
Casals tem po: J = c . 15 6
Bars
1 T h ere w as no break between movements. T h e rum ble
o f distant thunder carne upon us unexpectedly.

Presto V|C.& Allegro

O n e felt the feet o f the country folk stamping upon the >. Vlns. *. Bass 1 > > II
>
ground. Brueghel the E id er has depicted such a scene
in his W ed d in g D ance in the O pen A ir . I I I V 0
203206 A fter the second fermata [pause] Casals allo w ed a ff attacca
caesura, thereby increasing the sense o f expectancy
Rather than conducting in the alia breve to w hich w e
before the return to T em po I.
have gro w n accustomed, Casals felt the pulse o f this
m ovem ent in crotchet beats. I f he resisted m aking an
effect through sheer speed, he conceded nothing in the
w a y o f vitality. His four beats per bar w ere so strict
and exacting as to transmit an unrelenting impulse to
the m otion o f the storm. The pianissimo was taut and
194 CASALS A N D TH E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A T IO N A CASALS REH EA R SA L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y ig
agitated; the fortissimo, fierce and concise. E v e ry small dicated below ) its contour became apparent, standing
rhythm ic unit became intensely alive. out in all clarity.

36 Casals im m ediately addressed the second violins: P lay

et seq. w ith great excite m e n t. . . as i f the peasants w ere saying
to one another, w e must go hom e something is
go in g to happen .

3 Vln.1

pH H i p ( = >
V ln.2

Jftp

E v e ry quaver conveyed a sense o f presentiment. T h e

m ood o f nervous haste thus generated gave a greater
impression o f hurry than sim ply playin g the notes at a
faster speed.
19 -2 0 T h e lo w er strings and w oo d w in d have on ly tw o bars
in w hich to build up to the sudden outbreak o f the
storm. A s much crescendo as possible! Casals shouted.
4 142 In C asals tem po, the agitated semiquaver figures
et seq. gained in intensity through increase in intelligibihty.

4 V Ic .& B a s s

2 128 T h e storm w as unleashed in full fu ry. It raged in a fo r- 4344 E ven in the impassioned sw eep o f the storm, every
et secl- tissimo that w as massive but not formless. B y means et seq. chord w as to be balanced. W e must hear all the notes
o f incisive accents and dynam ic inflections (as in- clearly; otherw ise the harm ony is not com plete.
19 6 C ASALS A N D THE ART OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 19 7

ated so as not to arrive at this piano too soon. T h e

strings w ere to begin in the full intensity o f their fortis-
simo, the violins accenting each upbeat, the bass line
expressively declaimed.

5 6 -6 1 C asals phrasing brought increased interest to the violin

line b y delineating its m otivic structure.

13 0 - 13 6 T h e cellos and basses brought clarity to the groupings

o f semiquavers b y distinctly enunciating the first note
o f each crotchet beat.
VI n s . 1 3 0

9599 T h e syncopation w as accented w ith the forc o f a

et seq. whiplash. T h e quavers w hich im m ediately fo llo w
w ere given clear articulation. T h e crescendo rose im -
petuously.
146150 Casals now conducted in minims, the oboe and second
et seq. violins singing serenely.
146
Q

dotce
t i" r
154155 T h e solo ilute w as allow ed a poco ritardando.
(poco rit.)

11 9 T h e storm begins to subside; sempre dim inuendo is

et seq. m arked in the score. A s it is eleven bars before piano is
indicated, Casals asked that the decrescendo be gradu-
dotce
198 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N A C A SA LS REH EA RSA L: THE P A STO R A L SYM PH O N Y 199

F ifth M ovement

Shepherds Song: H ap py and T h ankful Feelings after the Storm

Aegretto
C asals tem po: J - = c. 60
Bars
14 W ith the dissolution o f the storm, the clarinet entered
Casals performance o f this movement conveyed not
dolce, as i f from far a w a y givin g at once the
only its glory o f melody, but also its vitality o f
flo w in g tem po for the last m ovem ent. Casals asked
rhythm. Six-eight - not two-four! was his insistent
that each o f the first tw o bars recede in dim inuendo.
demand. Where the sixth and third quavers possess an
Bars 3 and 4 w ere gone over ligh tly in one unit.
upbeat quality (e.g. V J J) J ) they were always to
> * > >
be energetic, lively and strictly in time whether
played in forte or piano. Elsewhere, when appropriate,
Casals gave lilting emphasis to the two main beats
within the bar: m m . One experienced here,
> >
9 -16 T h e first violis n ow commenced their m elody o f as in Casals performances o f Bach, an interaction o f
thanksgiving. M oho legato, Casals entreated,
expressive song and vivacious dance. The vein o f deep
directing that the quaver w hich concludes B ars 9, 1 1 sentiment that runs through the movement was not
and 13 be sustained in tone and connected w ith as
allowed to subjugate the rhythmic pulse, thus becom-
smooth a b o w change as possible to the note that
ing sentimental; it was embraced within the dance and
follow s. Strin g players are inclined to take fo r granted
thereby raised to the ecstatic.
their ability to play legato, but it was o n ly after careful
rehearsal, producing sensitive listening on the part o f
17 et seq. The reiterated semiquaver pattern w as to be given
the violin section, that Casals could announce: T h at is
25 e seq. rhythm ic definition. Casals asked the violins to accent
beautiful; that is a song.
the first and fourth quaver beats.
17
Vln.1

'ju r r r r r r rf-r-fr'f irT r r r f r r r f r f i

T r> cresc. I
200 C A S A L S A N D TH E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS REHEARSAL: THE PASTO RA L SYM P H O N Y 201

46 H ere an even higher point o f intensity was reached, the

semiquaver A accented and tenuto.

Vlns. 44
43 <frr
m

&
L o w er s trs .
? (mf

ff
3233 D o not com e late w ith the second n ote, Casals
46
w arned. It must not sound h e a v y ! Q u aver and
crotchet w ere decisively accented. E ach o f the first tw o t.7 f f = f^ \
W?6- - f----- p t z z -------- l m .
crotchets had a dim inuendo to enhance the articula- " i irnf = r
tion; the third, a crescendo so as to bridge o ver to the ff)
C w h ich crow ns the phrase.
i>:. r t \ r 'h i i -------------------------------------
Vla.& Vlc. 1 y r # 1 v-------------------------------------
S (Jf T " ^ ? (= = )
32 (> .* '= )(>

ff
ti iUjj 5 0 -53 T h e notes m arked piano begin n ew m elodic w aves;
they w ere to be im m ediately vibrant.

34 T h e violins proclaim ed their upbeat w ith the most

vital o f accents.

5 4 -56 N o t lazy! - one, tw o, three, four, five, six! W e must

not lose time between the beats.

4245 T h e sem iquavers w ere to be full o f en ergy, but ab-

solutely w ithout rallentando. T h e tnf/cresc. gave to the
vio lin line a renew al o f mpetus, at the same time
a llo w in g the bass to com e through m ore clearly. T h e
long notes in the bass w ere to be played in dim inuendo 647 1 For Casals, a repetition in music signalled a n e w experi-
the better to hear the beginning o f the next phrase. ence o f feeling; he etnbraced the reappearance o f the
202 CASALS A N D THE ART OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 203

principal theme w ith heightened emotion. T h e dyna- 9598 E ven in this intmate and delicate pianissimo, the
mics w ere shaped in response to the rise and fall o f the tempo was to be maintained; the bass m arked each
m elodic line. T h e violins w ere not to be shy o f their pizzicato, emphasizing the pulsation w ith rhythm ic
upper notes (the C s in Bars 64, 66, 68); they w ere to exactitude.
bring soaring com pletion to the crest o f each phrase.
U sing his baton as he w ould his b o w , Casals
95
ardently caressed the shape o f the m elody. D o n t be Vln.1

afraid to express w hat you feel. E ve ry phrase is a rain- ^ , 1 -rq0 1, | ^ = ~ = > TT>-i1, 1 -
f * -------H T J -
l<\rr ------- v ------<
bow . \ w
Vlc. p p
B a ssC . P ' - arco
rnp *n --J----
i VJt------JJ-
=i &
L S - ---------------- -0-
1*
>)

9 9 -10 0 T h e dance lilt w as irresistible - the violins lightly

et seq. stressing the first and fourth quaver beats, the bass
vitalizing the upbeats.

7880 S ix -e ig h t : the quavers w ere to be equal to the

crotchets in vigo u r and decisiveness.
Strs. - ^ h
78 > > >
. . stacc. 0-
F f= =& =f =
= M = V-
"5
>
>
> >
= $ = F = i
t = = t = * f c d H = m a .
s > > > _

8082 In accordance w ith the lyrical m ood o f the w o o d w in d 1 1 7 1 1 8 T h e violins w ere to play their exquisite variation o f the
et seci' subject, the sfz was w arm , not harsh, the upbeats sus- et seq. principal theme w ith as m uch singng quality as pos-
tained but in tempo. sible but lig h tly , w ithout forcing the bow .

X> (totee
204 CASALS A N D THE A RT OF I N T E R P R E T A R O N A C A S A L S R E H E A R S A L : THE P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 20J

125129 Casals asked the violins not to rem ain'at one dynam ic 219
Vlns.
et seq. level; they w ere to fo llo w the design.

Vln.1 ff(sostenuto)

aj
125 stacc.. (*
A , tf-if f-f i t- 1 j & Bass
T i~l arfH------fcMr
1HbMPHR------rH1 e e s e e e
3M = = = = y = t -j-fr y | p | A r L 1 1 L.I. J 1n M .1 1
el cresc.
# V)
sf

1481 5 1 In the m ounting crescendo, Casals indicated that the

second quaver o f each group be played tenuto, w ith
237244 T h e strings n o w sang quietly, their sonority taking on
ever-increasing emphasis.
an in w ard tenderness akin to the voice o f Casals cello.
T h e tempo was delicately restrained (not the drastic
slo w in g-do w n one often hears). Casals gave individual
contour to the tw o-bar phrases, letting each one fall
aw ay in diminuendo. Bars 241244 w ere then bound
together in a single span. T h e concluding semiquavers
w ere allow ed to sing w ithout hurry. T h e beauty o f
such m usic-m aking cannot be conveyed in w ords, or
190 The impassioned line o f the violins retained rhythm ic the beauty o f feeling; this w as a moment o f benedic-
et seq. shape. tion.

Vln.1
237

jjp sotto voce

2 19 -2 2 2 T h e bass m arked a titanic w orld dance: the notes w ere
et seq. forged o f iron, the line rising in a crescendo in a
(poco rt.)
m ighty upw ard sw ing, the staccato upbeats com ing 241
like ham m er blow s. T h e w o o d w in d , brass and upper
strings sustained their sonority, incom parably majestic,
creso. p
w ith the grandeur o f an organ. (molto espr.)
206 C ASALS A N D T H E A R T OF IN T E R P R E T A R O N A CASALS R EH EA R S A L: TH E P A S T O R A L S Y M P H O N Y 207

245246 T h e orchestra again took up the dance fu lly a tempo

- the quavers accented w ith rustic vigo ur.
247248 The w ood w in d n o w played w ith gentle rubato in
contem plative remembrance o f Bars 243244.

(p o c o r t.)

(a te m p o ) O b s. v
245 , f O
A V
J ^ = 7 a, ^ ---- -f---
--- --- i . T h e last rehearsal had come to an end; yet for a moment no
w ~ >>
f dolce ) one m oved. T h e reverberations o f the m usics spirit lingered on
like ripples w hich persist long after a stone has been cast into
deep water. Casals sat in meditation, his eyes closed. D eeply
249252 T h e string and w o o d w in d choirs, in turn, sighed fare- m oved, he gave voice to his emotion: W h at a w onderful gift
w ell, the long notes decreasing in intensity. Beethoven has given to us! H e rose from his chair again an od
man and w earily, but resolutely, strode o ff the stage.

260263 Casals reminded the string players w h o accom pany the

gently receding horn cali, E ve n though yo u play
pianissimo, it is still a m elo d y.
263264 T h e f f quaver was to be short, the crotchet lon g -
w ith a natural dim inuendo .

Vln.1 2 6 0 ------------- - ~ --------- V ln .2

------------------ ____
Hn.

f
'

r =H

'T ' r ~1
co n so rd in o

EPILOGUE
In music, in the sea, in a flower, in a leaf, nanact of k in d n ess . ... f see
what people cali God in all these things.
ASALS held the frage piece o f paper in a hand that
C trembled not with age but with emotion. It is a wonderful
thing to realize, he said. Here Beethoven has written the first
sketch for the Ninth Symphony. Before this, there was nothing;
then, from the silence, carne these notes no more than a hint, a
mysterious beginning. And from this smallest partile o f thought
that great work carne to Iife. That is truly a miracle. This docu-
ment is my most precious possession.
I did not know then that this would be my last visit to Casals.
M y wife, daughter and I had arrived at his home late one after-
noon ^nd were greeted at the door with characteristic gracious-
ness by his wife, Martita. There, at the far end o f the room, we
saw Casals at the piano. A door near him opened out towards
the ocean. Only two sounds were heard: the music o f Bach and
the ceaseless rhythm o f the waves.
Casals rose at once upon seeing us. The warmth o f his greeting
made me feel that our visit was not an unwarranted intrusin.
Meeting our ten-year-old daughter for the first time, he ex-
pressed delight upon hearing that, in keeping with her ame
Pamina, she was studying the ilute. The ilute! he exclaimed
joyfully; I too once played that instrument and, as a child, I was
particularly enraptured by the piccolo. He spoke o f his early
ycars spent in the Catalan village o f Vendrell and showed us,
from among his mementoes, a large photograph o f men and boys
standing on each other s shoulders in a human pyramid, reach-
ing the height o f seven men. See what we do in my village!
Casals said, beaming with pleasure. Not even the circus people
are as skilful as the peasants.
EPILO G U E 209
W e spoke o f Spain o f the Feria o f Sville in which the whole
population, including tiny children, joins in spontaneous dance;
o f Crdoba, with its maze o f quet streets and shaded patios.
Casals leaned back in his armchair; Crdoba is beautiful, beauti-
ful, he sighed. But his mood changed when he spoke o f the
Spanish civil war. Deeply affected by these reminiscences, he
closed his eyes in meditation and said in a trembling voice:
Thank heaven for music - and for nature.
He told us o f his playing two preludes and fugues from the
Well-Tempered Clavier every day o f my life; I love all the
music, but I could not begin the day with another composer.
Bach showed us what music is. First comes Bach then all the
others.
Casals then brought out his treasures a page upon which
Mozart had written the conclusin o f the third act o f The
Marriage o f Fgaro, the manuscript o f Brahms String Quartet in
Bjj major, the sketch for the Ninth Sym phony. . .
When we touched upon a problem faced by many musicians,
namely stage-fright, he shook his head resignedly. For eghty,
for eighty-five years ever since I began to perform I have
lived with this. Many children are not nervous when they play in
public, but I sufered when I was a child and I suffer even today
when I must give a concert.
I asked him whether he thought it advisable to give children
simple pieces by Bach and other masters to play as soon as they are
ready for them, rather than having them wade through a morass
o f inferior music. Casals wholeheartedly supported this idea and
pointed out that Bach wrote such fine pieces for his own
children. He embraced our daughter and told her o f the wealth
o f beauty there is in music and how much she had to look
forward to.
I have had an idea, he said to us, a plan for the education
o f chdren. 1 have spoken o f it to important people and they
say: It is so simple, yet we have never thought o f it. It is
this: as soon as the child can understand the meaning o f a word,
he should be told that this word represents a miracle. When we
 210 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T OF I N T E R P R E T A T I O N EPILOGUE 2 11

speak o f the eye, w e should explain w hat a miracle it is to be able w a y w avin g farew ell, perhaps sensing that w e w ou ld not meet
to see. W e should explain w hat a miracle it is to be able to speak. again.
W h at a m arvel are our hands! W h en the w onder o f each w ord T h e next day, as I looked out at the ocean, the w aves seemed
has been m ade clear, then every child should be taught to realize: to melt into the eyes o f Casals, and the eyes back into the w aves. I
I am a m iracle and he is also a m iracle. I am a unique being; felt that the expanse o f sea, the are o f sky, the w o rld o f nature
there never has been a person like me since the beginning o f the and hum anity surrounding me had become a vast concert hall
w orld or w ill there be until our w o rld comes to an end. A nd in w hich sounded the resonance o f his soul.
he, too, is unique and w ill be so until our w orld w ill end. T h ere-
fore, I cannot kill him and he cannot kill m e ." O n ly in this w ay
can w e do aw a y w ith the impulse for wars. A t school they
teach that tw o plus tw o equals four. That is not w hat life is all
about.
A s Casals uttered the w ords I am a m iracle and he is also a
m iracle, he struck his hands to his chest. H is blue eyes shone
w ith indescribable radiance. H e experienced fu lly the m arvel o f
which he spoke. L oo kin g into those eyes, I th o u g h tn o to f the frail
body w hich contained them but o f the transcendent spirit w hich
resided there.
H e continued: R eal understanding does not com e from w hat
w e learn in books; it comes from w hat w e learn from lo ve love
o f nature, o f music, o f man. For on ly w hat is learned in that w a y PRINCIPAL REFERENCES
is truly understood.
I cannot believe that these m arvels w hich surround us the
m iracle w hich is life can com e from nothingness. H o w can
something com e from nothingness? T h e m iracle must com e from
som ewhere. It comes from G o d . Bach, Cari Philipp Emanuel, Versuch ber die wahre A rt das Clavier zu spielen.
Berln 1753, Patt H Berln 1762. English versin: Essay on the True A rt o f
Playing Keyboard Instruments. Trans. and ed. W. J. Mitchell, Norton, New

Later, w hen w e w ere about to depart, Casals gave a final York 1949:
Barbirolli, Sir John, quoted from Casals by D. Wheeler, prod. C. Venning.
em brace to each o f us. W hen yo u reach m y ag e, he said,
BBC broadeast, London, September 1975.
anything can happen any time; I am prepared for it, So I lo ve all Boult, Sir Adrin, Casals as Conductor, Music and Letters, vol. IV, April 1923.
the m ore every beautiful thing. H o w m oved I am to be am ong Casals, Pablo, Conversations with Casals [recorded by] Jos Mara Corredor.
m y friends. W e protested that w e w ere the grateful ones, but in Trans. Andr Mangeot, Dutton, New York 1956; Hutchinson, London
vain ; he w ou ld have none o f it. A s w e left, he stood in the door- 1956.
Las Memorias de Pablo Casals as told toThomas Dozier, Life en Espaol, 4
May, 18 May, I June 1959.
 212 C A SA L S A N D THE A R T OF IN T E R PR ET A T IO N
Cardus, Sir Neville, The Delights ofMusic, Gollancz, London 1966.
Chemiavsky, David, Casalss Teaching of the Cello, The Musical Times, vol.
93, September 1952.
Couperin, Francjois, L art de toucher le clavecn. Paris 1716, 1717.
Cramer, Cari Friedrich, Magazin derMusik. Hamburg 1783.
Czerny, Cari, her den richtigen Vortrag der siimtlichen Beethoven'schen
Klavierwerke. Vienna 1842. Ed. K. H. Fssl and H. C. Robbins Landon, Uni
versal, Vienna 1963.
Deutsch, Otto Erich, Franz Schuber: Die Dokumente seines Lebens. Munich,
1914. English versin: Schuber, A Documentary Biography. Trans. E. Blom,
Dent, London 1946* American edition: The Schuber Reader. Norton, New
York 1947.
Donington, Robert, The Inerpretafion ofEarly Music, Faber, London 1963.
Eisenberg, Maurice, in collaboration with M. B. Stanfield, Cello Playing of
Today. Lavender, London 1957.
Flesch, Cari, The Art o f Violn Playing (2 vols). Trans. F. H. Martens, Cari
Fischer, New York 19241930.
Furtwngler, Wilhelm, Gesprache ber Musik. Atlantis, Zurich J948. English
versin: Conceming Music. Trans. L. J. Lawrence, Boosey & Hawkes, Lon
don 1933.
Geminiani, Francesco, The Art o f Playing on the Violin. London 1731. Facs. ed.
D. Boyden, Oxford University Press, London 1952.
Groves Dictionary o f Music and Musicians. Macmillan, London 1878-89, 1904-
10, 1927-8, 1940,1954. American edition: St Martins, New York.
Hind, Pamela, Casals asTeacher , The R.C.M . Magazine, vol. 46, 1930.
Jeans, SirJames, Science and Music. Cambridge University Press, London 1937.
Kirk, -H. L., Pablo Casals. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1974;
Hutchinson, London 1974.
Lehmann, Lotte, More than Singing. Trans. F. Holden, Boosey & Hawkes,
London 1943.
Liszt, Franz, Gesammelte Schriften. Leipzig 1880.
Mozart, Leopold, Versuch einer grndlichen Violinschule. Augsburg 1756. In tran-
slating excerpts the author has consulted: A Treatise on the Fundamental Prin
cipies of Violin Playing. Trans. E. Knocker, Oxford University Press, London
1948.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Letter to his sister, 24 March 1770; Letter to his
father, 26 September 1781. Mozart: Briefe und Aufzeichnungen Gesamtausgabe,
vols 1 and 3. Ed. W. A. Bauer and O. E. Deutsch, Barenreiter, Kassel
1963.
Nettl, Paul, Beethoven Encyclopedia. Philosophical Library, New York 1936.
Quantz, JohannJoachim, Versuch einer Anweisung die Flote traversiere zu spelen.
Berln 1752. Transladons to which the author has referred: On Playing the
IN D E X TO M U SIC A L W ORKS 213
Flute. Trans. and ed. E. R. Reilly, Faber, London 1966. Excerpts trans. R.
Donington, The Interpretaron of Early Music. ed. cit.
Rousseau,Jean, Traite de la viole. Paris 1687.
Schumann, Clara, Tagebuch. February 1854.
Schumann, Robert, Neue Zeitschrift for Musik. Leipzig, October 1835, Feb
ruary 1841.
Schweitzer, Albert, J. S. Bach (2 vols). Paris, 1903. Trans. E. Newman,
Breitkopf& Hartel, London 1911.
Shakespeare, William, Hamlet. Ed. J. Dover Wilson, Cambridge University
Press, London 1934.
Shaw, George Bernard, article appearing in The World, 24 December 1890.
Included in Music in London 189094 by Bernard Shaw, vol. I. Constable,
London 1932.
Shakespear: A Standard Text, letter to The Times Literary Supplement, 17
March 1921. Included in Shaw on Shakespeare. Ed. E. Wilson, Dutton, New
York 1961.
Stanfield, Milly B., The Intermedate Cellist. Oxford University Press, London
1973.
Stravinsky, Igor, and Craft, Robert, Themes and Episodes. Knopf, New York
1966.
Suggia, Guilhermina, Violoncello Playing , Music and Letters, vol. II, Apnl
I9 21-
A Violoncello Lesson: Casalss Obiter Dicta, Music and Letters, vol. II, Oc
tober 1921.
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock, The Life ofLudwig van Beethoven (3 vols). Ed.
H. E. Krehbiel, The Beethoven Association, New York 192J.
Tosi, Pier Francesco, Opinioni de cantori antidii, e modemi. Bologna 1723 English
versin: Observations on the Florid Song. Trans. J. E. Galliard, London 1 7 4 3 -
Vaughan Williams, Ralph, The Making of Music. Oxford University Press,
London 1933. Included in National Music and other essays. Oxford University
Press, London 1963.
von Tobel, Rudolph, Pablo Casals. Rotapfel, Zurich 1941*
Wagner, Richard, Bericht an Seine Majestat den Konig Ludwig II., von Bayember
eine in Mnchen zu errichtende deutsche Musiksckule. 1865. English versin.
Report conceming a Germn music school to be established at Munich .
Trans. E. Dannreuther, includedin On Conducting, Reeves, London 1940.
Letzte Bitte an meine lidien Genossen. Bayreuth, 13 August 1876. Reproduced
in Wagner by Hans Mayer, Rowohlt, Hamburg 1959.
ber das Dirigiren.. 1869. English versin: On Conducting. ed. cit.
Walter, Bruno, Von der Mwstfe und vomMusizieren. Fisciier, Frankfurt 1 9 5 7 -
English versin: O f Music and Music-Making. Trans. P. Hamburger, Faber,
London 1961.
 IN D E X TO M U SIC A L W O RKS

BACH.J. S. cont. A major, Op. 69

Suites cont.
3rdmvt., 22, 56,37. 76
V ioloncello Solo cont. Finale, 47, 48, 93, 03
N o . 1, G m ajor, 141 C major, Op. 102, No. 1
IN D E X TO M U SICAL W O R K S Prelude, 146 ist mvt., 39, 35
A llem ande, 142, 143 Finale, 49, 84, 118
C ourante, 146,147 D major, Op. 102, No. 2
Page numbers in talic indcate musical quotations. ist mvt., 12, 78, 84,126
M enuet, 21, 22, I42n.
N o . 2, D m inor, 141142 2nd mvt., 76, 81, 99, 118,
Prelude, 22, 82 136, 137
BACH.J. S. istmvt., 27, 113 Sarabande, 123 3rd mvt., 6, 78,79 _
Brandenburg Concertos 3rd mvt., 2 9 ,3 4 ,3 5 , 94-93 M enuet, 123, I42n. Symphonies
No. 2, ist mvt., 94 No. 3, G minor N o . 3, C m ajor, 141 No. 2, 2nd mvt., 34, 63,120, 121
No. 3 ,2nd mvt., 155 ist mvt., 148,149 Prelude, 129, 141 No. 3 (Eroica), 138
No. 4, ist mvt., 161,162 3rdmvt.,jo C ourante, 143 ist mvt., 42, 116
2ndmvt., 162 Violin Solo, No. 1, G minor Sarabande, 1 22, 123 3rd mvt., 10
3rd mvt., 160, 162, 163 ist mvt., 154 B ourre, I42n., 144 No. 4, ist mvt., 37, 96, 98, 99,
No. 5, ist mvt., 117 Violin and Clavier, No. 3, G igue, 1 4 5 , 14b, 163 9
3rd mvt., 59 E major N o . 4, Eb m ajor, 142 2nd mvt., 3, 6, 11, 23, 66, 69,
No. 6, 2ndmvt. , 42, 124, 125 3rd mvt., 133 Prelude, 130,142, 33 70,71
Cantatas, 140 Suites A llem ande, 142 4th mvt., 37,57
No. 110, Unser Mund sei voll Orchestra, 139 N o . 5, C m inor No. 6 (Pastoral), xiii, 5, 85n.,
Lacheas, i54n. No. 1, Ouverture, 9 P relude, 68, n o , 111, 130, 164-16S, 207
No. 146, Wir mssen durch viel No. 2, Ouverture, 112,130 31, 142, 144 ist mvt., 163180
Trbsal, 131152 Sarabande, 42 Sarabande, 107, 108, 142, 163 2ndmvt., 180190
Concertos Polonaise, 139 N o . 6, D m ajor 3rd mvt., 190193
Clavier (or Violin), D minor No. 3, Ouverture, 136,137,138 Prelude, 141 4th m vt., 193-197
2ndmvt., 130,13 j, 152 No. 4, Ouverture, 134, 135 W ell-T em pered C lavier, 209 5th mvt., 198-207
Violin, A minor, istmvt., 119 Violoncello Solo, 13, 18,68, 101, First P relude, 143 No. 8, ist mvt., 43, 46, 47, 52,
Mass in B minor, 1 34n., 140 114, 136, 163 BEETHOVEN ,
33, 77, 7 8 88,94n.
Passions, 163 Casals discovery of, 140-141 Concertos 3rd mvt., 38
St. Matthew, 139, I32n. character of suite established Piano, N o . I, 3td m vt., 72, 73 4th mvt., 34,112
Blute nur, du liebes H erz, 132, inprelude, 141142 N o . 4, ist m vt., 41 No. 9, istmvt., 208, 209
53 continuity of tempo, 146 2nd m vt., 72 Trio, Bb major, Op. 97
Ach, nun ist mein Jess hin, 73 dance rhythms, 143-147 3rd m vt., 119 2nd mvt., 73
Sonatas dynamic inflections, 142143 T riple, O p . 36, 2nd m v t., 132 3rd mvt. ,'61
Viola da Gamba harmonic considerations, 107 Sonatas BOCCHERINI
No. i,G major 108, 122-123,142n., 143 Piano, O p. 106 (Hammerklavier) Concert, Violoncello, Bb major
istmvt., 26 27, 134 linear polyphony, 143144 ist m vt., 78 xiii-xiv
2nd mvt., 133, 36 sarabandes, 123,146 V ioloncello ist mvt., 81, 113
3rdmvt., 126 variety in bowing textures, F m ajor, O p . 5, N o . 1 2nd mvt., 28,128
No. 2, D major 144-147 ist m vt., 23,63 3rd mvt., 118, 119
2I C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F IN T E R P R E T A T IO N 217
IN D E X T O M U S IC A L W O R K S
Sonata, Violoncello, No. 6, No. 43 (Farewell), 2ndmvt., 7 M O ZART, W . A.cont. Unfinished, ist mvt., 6 6 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 5
A major No. 94 (Surprise), 6-7 Symphoniescont. Trio, Bb major, Op. 99
2nd mvt., 6o 2ndmvt.,93 No. 38 (Prague) 2nd mvt., 67
BRAHMS No. 93,6 ist mvt., 62 SCHUMANN
Concert, Double, Op. 102 ist mvt. 54 Finale, 92 Adagio andAllegro, Op. 70
3rd mvt., 89 3rd mvt. 93 No. 39, ist mvt., 28, 404 1, 46, ist mvt., 106
Quartet, Bb major, Op. 67, 209 No. 101 (Clock), istmvt. 79. 4 8 , 99, 100 2nd mvt., 2 6 ,8 3
Sonatas, Violoncello LA LO 2nd mvt., 10 , 15, 16, 17, 3 1 , 79 Concert, Violoncello, 34
E minor, Op. 38 Concert, Violoncello 3rd mvt., 94 ist mvt., 3, 4, 27, 29, 43, 6 7 , 82,
ist mvt., 24, 3 2 , 3 8 ,3 9 , 6 1, 63, 2nd mvt. 1 2 4thmvt., 116 97, 102,106,120
67,115, 27 LO CATELLI No. 40, ist mvt., 7, 8 ,3 9 , 40, 43, 3rd mvt., 24,5 8 ,91
2ndmvt., 97 Sonata, Violoncello, D major 46, 64, 104 , 103, 115, i 6 , Fantasiestcke, Op. 73
3rdmvt., 1112, 131 istmvt., 12 1 12 0 ,12 7 3rd mvt., 1 1 7
F major, Op, 99 M ENDELSSOHN 2nd mvt., 2 5 , 3 1 , 4 3 , 74 FnfStcke imVolkston, Op. 102
ist mvt., 72 Symphony No. 4 (ltalian) 3rd mvt., 94 No. 1, 73
2ndmvt., 1 1 4 istmvt., 3 3 , 66, 68 4th mvt., 63 No. 2, 80
3rd mvt., 83, 89, 90 2nd mvt., 59 No. 4i,2ndmvt 1 1 No. 3, 80
4-thmvt., 13 3 3fdmvt., 44, 45, 6 1, 62, 7 4 -7 5 SAINT-SAENS Symphony No. 4
Variations, St. Antotti, 90 M O ZART, W . A. Concert, Violoncello, A minor ist mvt., 2 3 ,3 6 - 3 7 ,5 8
COUPERIN, F. Concertos 5,51,87, 131 3rd mvt., 1 1 7
Pieces enConcert, Air de Diable, 73 Flute, G major, 2nd mvt., 75 SCHUBERT 4th mvt., 84, 8 5 , 1 1 3
DVORAK
Piano, Eb major, K. 271 Symphonies W AG N ER
Concert, Violoncello, 4,98 2nd mvt., 92 No. 4, 2nd mvt.,5 9 , 1 2 1 Siegfried Idyl!, 2, 3, 27, 28, 30, 63,
ist mvt., 4, 43, 34,5 3, 57, 64, 86, Eb major, K. 482 No. 5, ist mvt., 65 97
87, 88, 98, n o , 123, 12 4 , 12 7 , 2nd mvt., 92
i29n., 137 The Marriage o f Fgaro, Act III,
2nd mvt., 1 1 , 3 2 , 72, 8687, 98, 209
120 Quartet, Eb major, K. 428
3rd mvt., 4, 5 4 ,5 6 ,98 ist mvt., 105
ELGAR
Sinfona Concertante, K. 364
Concert, Violoncello, 12-13, 18 2nd mvt., 92
ist mvt., 33, 36 Symphonies
3rd mvt., 13 No. 29, ist mvt., 91
4th mvt., 13, 74 2ndmvt., 1 1 3
HAYDN
4th mvt., 91, 92
Concert, Violoncello, D major, 6 No. 33,49
ist mvt., 32, 33, 48, 56, 82, x13, No. '33 (Haffner)
12 7 istmvt., 54
2nd mvt., 19, 20, 26 2nd mvt., 93
3rd mvt., 93 3rd mvt., 94
Symphonies No. 36 (Linz)
No. 44 (Mourning), 7 istmvt., 22, 23,92
 G E N ER A L INDEX 21 9

Boult, Sir Adrin, xii short noces/ornaments, 56,58-60,

GENERAL IND EX
Agogic accents, 81
examples in various contexts, 16, 24-
25, 353*5, 8183, 181, 183, 185
Appogiature
articulation of, 114113
dual impulse, examples of, 29
expressive significance of, 39, 83, 102,
130,152153
phrase continuity, 29, 42-43
Articulation
o f accents, 50-55, 63, 163, 174, tpi,
192,200-201
analogy to speech, 50-52, 55,63
of appoggiature, 114-115
bringing melodic notes into relief, 171,
179,182
of repeated notes, 56-58, 117, 183, 197
o f short notes/omaments, following
long notes, within legato slur, 56,
58-61, 63, 75, 168, 170, 174, 182,
183, 190-191, 193, 196
oftrills, 123-124,177, 182
see also Bowing: attack; Finger per-
cussion; First note; Left-hand piz
zicato
Bach, Anna Magdalena, 160
Bach, Cari Philipp Emanuel, xi
on dotted rhythms in triplet passages,
59n.
dynamic nuances in his performance,
i8n.
on expression, 18
on rubaro, 8on., 8jn.
Bach.Johann Sebastian, 3, 208, 209
his art
analogy to Shakespeare, 148
dancing and singing elements, 154
156,160, 161,162, 199
distinctive character o f themes, 148-
158,160-163
o f c o n t r a p u n t a l v o ic e s , 1 5 5 , 1 5 6 -
158,161
e x p r e s s io n r e la te d t o t e x t , 1 5 2 - 1 5 3
tr a n s fo r m a t io n of
W o rk s in t o c a n ta ta s,
I54n.
its expressive range, 140-141, 163
national styles, 153154
variety o f colour, 145
interpretation o f his woiks
Casals conceptions vs. prevalent at-
titudes, 141,145, i5!, 153
Casals flexibility, 159-160, 162-163
comparison with interpretation o
Chopins music, 153
dotted rhythms, 159
histrica) misunderstandings sui
rounding Bacb interpretation,
138-141
see also Index to Musical Works: Ba
Suites, Violoncello Solo
Barbirolli, Sirjohn, 129
Bartk, Bla, 107
Beethoven, Ludwig van, xii
love of nature, 164
Schumann on, 181
Berg, Alban, 107
Bcrgonzi-Gofriiler cello, 133
Boccherini, Luigi,6
Bowing
attack, 51,78, 110-113, 147
bow as servant of music, 110, 121
change of bow stroke
on long notes, 114
while preserving legato, 4 2 -4 3 . 1 H.
181, 198-199
relatedness to vibrato, 134-137
repeated notes, variety in, 115117
tone colour, its relation to speed, pres-
sure, placement of bow, 120121,
136-137, 181,203
variety in textures, 109-110, 113, 144
145, 147, 155, 156-158, 160
see also Articulation
Brahms, Johannes
tempo related to unit of musical pulse,
89-91
on Bach Gesellschaft, 139
in stru m e n ta l
British Broadcasting Corporation, 146
1 5 1 1 5 2 ,
Brueghel, Pieter, the Eider, 192
Cardus, Sir Neville, 12-13
Chartres Cathedral, 8889
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 92
Chekhov, Antn, 100
Chiaroscuro, 60
Ch i-yun, 12, 14
Chopin, Frdric, xii, 153
rubato of, 85
Chords
building of, 122123
variety in interpreting, 123
Couperin, Francos
on rhythmic flexibility, 8on.
on notation, 70
Cramer, Cari Friedrich, l8n.
Czerny, Cari, xii
on Beethovens playing, 72-73
Diminuendo
as bringing clarity to:
accents, 50-55,63, 163, 174, 191, 192,
200-201
repeated notes, 5*5-57. 183
75. 170
syncopations, 62-63,157-158
bringing economy to a subsequent
crescendo, 23, 31, 63, 157-158,
160, 169-170
going to the infinite, 117-120, 166
lightening long accompaniment notes,
61-62
note endings, 117120, 166, 168, 183,
206-207
gradation o f phrase endings, 64-66,
184, 185,188, 191
gradation o f long diminuendi, 176,
185, 196-197
Donington, Roben, I59n.
Dynamic nuances, their relevance in
various contexts
general guiding principies, 20-21
long notes, 20, 26-29, 41, 4647, 173,
177, 206
melodic curve, some typical examples,
15-16, 20-26, 33-37, 39-41. 46-49,
142-143, 149153, 154-158, 167-168,
169-170, 175-176, 179-180, 184-185,
202
range o f forte/piano, 20, 21, 28, 55
relativity of dynamics, 6567, 187
repetitions in music, 20, 21, 151
analogy to speech, 29,49
note repetitions, 20, 21, 30-31, 41,
151, 154,157-158,168,183
phrase repetitions/sequences, some
typical examples, 20-22, 32-37,
39, 45-46, 147, 150-153. 157-158,
162, 183, 184
see also Phrase spans
see also Diminuendo
Eighteenth-century performing practice
bowing, 145
lack of expressive markings in scores, 7,
15-18, 49, 142
dotted rhythms, 71, I59n.
dynamic nuances, 1718
expressivity, 7, 1718, I5in.
 220 C A S A L S A N D T H E A R T O F I N T E R P R E T A TI O N
rubato, 8on., 8in., 82, 85
see also C. P. E. Bach, Couperin,
Geminiani, L. Mozart, W .
Mozart, Quantz, Tartini, Tos
Einstein, Alfred, 137
Elgar, SirEdward, 13
Extensions, 129-130
Festival Casals Orchestra o f Puerto Rico,
xi, 160-163, 164
Fingering
1-23 System, 130n.
o f open strings, 106
release after playing, 129, 130-131
semitone shifts, 132
use o f stronger fingers, 131132
see also Extensions; Left hand
Finger percussion, 128-129, 166-167, 170
First note
articulation
bow, n o -ri3 , 147, 154155
left hand, 128129
expressiv significance of, 4, 25-26, 35,
51, 67-68, 82, 91-92, 110-113, 147,
'54-155, 165,181, 183
vitality of phrase beginnings, 68, 111-
112, 166-167, '73. 174-175, '76, 180,
185, 200, 2or, 203
Fonteyn, Dame Margot, 85
Fox Strangways, Arthur Henry, 9on.
Furtwangler, Wilhelm, 148
Geminiani, Francesco
on dynamic nuances, 17
on bowing, 1450.
Glissando
Casals usage, 125128
bringing variety to phrase
repetitions, 127
as expressive bridge, 126
orchestral, 127
taste in, 127
Crove's Dictionary o/Musicand Musicans, 80
Haldane, Lord, 70
Haydn,Joseph
expressive range, 6-7
A. vitality, 93
Hseih Ho, r
Illuminated manuscripts, 67-68
Intonation
bow pressure and, 109
equal-tempered, 102-105, 107-109
expressive intonation, 102109, 132
gravitational attractions within a
tonality, 103-108
open strings and, 106
semitones, 103-108
delayed resolutions, 106,107,108
fingering of, 132
speed of, 106-107
string performance with keyboard, 109
trills, 124
tuning procedures, 109
Israel Festival Youth Orchestra, 49
Jeans, Sir James, 55n.
Kreisler, Fritz, 109
Lamoureux Orchestra, xii
Left hand
changes o f position, 130-131, 132
left-hand pizzicato, 129
suppleness, 128-133, '35
see also Extensions; Fingering; Finger
percussion, Vibrato
Lehmann, Lotte, 24, 128
Liszt, Franz, xii
describes Chopins rubato, 85
on notation, 70
London Symphony Orchestra, xii
Marlboro Festival Orchestra, xii, 61,
154-155, i63n., 164
Memling, Hans, 101
Mendelssohn, Flix
and Bach revival, 139
Casals love of, 44n.
Metric articulation, 83, 93, 147, 192, 199-
200, 203, 204
GENERA L INDEX
Metric articulation cont.
interplav o f melodic and metric factors,
87-88,155
melodic priorities: avoiding bar-line
accents, typical examples, 23, 167-
168
see also Bach, J. S., his art: dancing and
singing elements
Miller, Frank, 9
Mozart, Leopold, xii
on dotted rhythms, 7 1
on dynamic nuance, 1 7
on expression, 7n., 17
on rubato, 82
spiritoso defined, 92n.
M ozart, W olfgang Amadeus, xii
adm iration for Bach, 139
on expression, 7
rubato of, 85
tem pi, 91-94
Nature, its kinship with music, 18-19
Notation, limitations of, xiv, 6971
Ornaments, expressive significance of,
6 3 6 4 , l 8 l , l 8 8
see tilso Articulation: of sHort notes/or-
naments
Orquestra Pau Casals, xii
Passage w ork\ 47 49
Phrase endings, expressive culmination
of, 10, 11,64
see also Diminuendo: gradation of
phrase endings
Phrase spans
interconnection of musical elements,
42-43, 189-190, 198
separation o f musical elements due to
motivic delineation, 3741. 44-4*5.
48, 143-144. '47. 152. 156-158. '66,
167, 171, 180, 184
variants, 4445
Portamento, see Glissando
Prades Festival Orchestra, xii, 15-16, 160,
i 6 3 n.
22!
Quantz, JohannJoachim, xi
on dotted rhythms in triplet passages,
15911.
on dynamic nuance, 18
Reoccurrence o f a theme, 172, 177, 201
202
Rests, 98-100
Rhythm
melodic influence on short notes, 76,159
natural rhythms
concisin in note groupings, 7279.
155156, 166167, 188189, 191
dotted, innate vitality of, 15, 70-72,
74-76,159
Ritardandi, balance in , 8687
Rococo style, 6 ,8i
Rontgen, Julius, xii
Rousseau, Jean, I45n.
Routine, avoidance of, xiv, 38, 132, 159
160
Rubato
applicable to any period, 79-81
determined by character of the given
work, 80-81
extending over phrase, 8384
extending over longer section, 96-97
fantasy with order, 85-86
applications of, 8189, 95, 97. 98.
143, 146, 149, 186-187, 206
rhythmic anticipation, 84-85, 186-187
see also Agogic accents
Saint-Saens, Camille, 5
Schubert, Franz, 111
Schumann, Clara, 3
Schumann, Elisabeth, 128
Schmann, Robert
account of mental distress, 3
on Beethoven, 181
expressive accents in, 3-4, 113
on inner measure, 91
rubato in works of, 80, 97
Schweitzer, Albert, 139
Serkin, Rudolf, 41
222 CASALS AND THE ART OF IN TE R PR ET A T IO N
Sforzando: varied in expression accord-
ing to musical context, examples of, 3-
4, 41, 113, 175, 192, 202
Shakespeare, William
Hamlet, 45, 138, 148
Ktng Lear, 29, 148
Richard 111, 50,52
Shaw, George Bemard, i8n., 140
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, xv, 190
Slow-motion practising, 101102, 108
Stage-fright, 209
Stravinsky, Igor, 7911.
Suspensions
dual impulse, examples of, 28, 16211.
phrase continuity, 42-43, 160
Syncopations, 6263, 79, 94, 102, 130,
G2-153. 157. I9d
Tartihi, Giuseppe, 14511.
Tempo
modifications, 95-97
overall proportions, 8889, 98
as related to unit of musical pulse, 77,
89-95, Hd, 149, 162, 190-191, 192,
193-194, 199, 203
six-eight time, 89-90,91-92,93, 199,
202
Tone Colour
bowing factors contributing to, 120-
121, 136-137,181, 203
purity, factors conditioning, 137
use o f A string, 137
use of open strings, 137
variety in, 21, 24, 109, 136-137
see also Vibrato
Toscanini, Arturo, 9, 97n.
T os, Pier Francesco, 81 n.
Tremolo, expressive signifcance of,
116
Trills
articulation of, 123-124, 177, 182
baroque, 124-125
distinctive character of each, 123-124
dynamic nuance, 123,182
expressive signifcance of, 125
intonation of, 124
speed related to musical context, 123
Tutti passages, 4547, 174,194-195
Variety, essential to performance (main
references), 18, 21, 29, 55, 63, 109-110,
161-162
Vaughan Williams, Ralph, 70
Vibrato
direction o f motion, I35n.
expressive variety of, 134137, 188
register, I35n.
relatedness to bowing, 134137
speed of, 135
string performance with keyboard, 134
taste and discretion in, 5, 133137, 188
width of, 135
Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, xii, 38
Vocal art, its kinship with instrumental
performance, 6, 48
crest of phrase, 2324, 49
glissando, 128
rubato, 81
Wagncr, Cosima, 2
Wagner, Richard, xii
on clarity, 58
on interpretation of Mozart, 1617
polemics against, 139
on tempo modification, 95n.
Walter, Bruno, 71,97
Weber, Cari Maria von, 80
Wilde, Oscar, i8n., 138