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2 fj 2
Ne Ne f0 in general
( ) = 0 + +i
m j (bound)
2
j
2
i j m ( 0 i )
Ne 2 fj
where (0 ) = 0 + m 2 2
.
j j 0
Thi explains
This l i Assumption
A ti (1) on p. 259 for f the
th derivation
d i ti off
(6.107); namely, the macroscopic medium is linear in its electrical
property and it has negligible dispersion and negligible loss loss.
Questions:
(1) Assume an electromagnetic signal is propagating in the medium. medium
What is the condition on the signal in order for ( ) (0 )?
(2) Why
Wh is
i the
th assumption
ti off "negligible
" li ibl loss"
l " also
l required?
i d?
A Note about Terminology
In general, the electrical permitivity is a tensor (denoted by )
and we can write
11 12 13
D = E, where = 21 22 23
31 32 33
energy energy
Common feature of oscillatory behavior:
type 1 type 2
An oscillation requires {
energy storing mechanisms
energy exchange mechanism(s)
energy storing energy exchange
example medium
mechanisms mechanism(s)
mass-spring system 1 mv 2 , 1 kx 2 restoring force mass & spring
2 2
LC oscillator B2 , E 2 Q, I L, C , & wire
2 2
Assumption 4: { }{ }
E( x )
B( x)
=
E0 ik x
B0
e
2
2
k 2 k k ; k k k *.
k 2 k and k k unless
( ) { }
E0
(15) k 2 + 2
=0 k is real.
B0 k can be
b complex,
l but
b t k
is always real and positive.
= 1 Re
2 { k 0 0 0 ( )
1 k E 2 E k E ei (k k )x
} (20)
k =
Re { k E ( ) }
= 1 1 2
E0 k E0 ei (k k )x
(20.1)
2 0
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors ((cond))
k : complex constant
k = kn = (kr + iki )n n: real unit vector
Assumption 6:
and k , E0 , B0 are geometrically orthogonal
Hence k E0 = 0 (17) k E0 = 0 [See discussion (vi) below
Hence, below.]]
(19) (20) can be written
k
H0 = n E0 = n E0 (21)
E0 = n H0 = n H0 (22)
k
E0 e 2 ki nx n = 12 Re H 0 e2 ki nx n (23)
S t = 12 Re 2 2
What is the physical explanation for the imaginary part of k ?
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Discussion:
(i) Assuming , are given, (16)-(19) are conditions imposed
on , k, E0, B0 by the Maxwell equations.
(ii) The derivation of (16)-(19) only requires , , , k, E0, and
B0 to be constants, but not necessarily real (we have assumed
= real for the average power flow formula). Thus, any set
of complex constants , , , k, E0, and B0 can be a valid
solution of the Maxwell equations provided they satisfy
((16)-(19)
) ( ) and the boundaryy conditions ((if ppresent).
)
Discussion (cond)
(iii) As we have shown, the generalized is in general a complex
number with a small imaginary
g y ppart for dielectrics and a large
g
imaginary part for good conductors. In addition, can also
be a complex number. Either complex or complex can
lead to complex solutions for k, E0, and B0. Even when and
are real, boundary conditions (if present) can lead to
complex solutions for k, E0, and B0 (see the following
example).
(iv) (16)-(19) have the appearance of the familiar plane wave
solution, but they are capable of carrying much more
information than just the plane wave. Reason: Each complex
number carries twice the information as a real number and
(16) (19) are combinations
(16)-(19) bi ti off 5 complex
l numbers!
b !
Discussion (cond)
E
Example:l In
I the
th case off total
t t l internal
i t l reflection
fl ti (Jackson
(J k 7.4)
7 4) off
a wave incident from a dense medium to a tenuous medium (e.g.
water to air),
air) the fields in the tenuous medium have the form,
form
k = k xe x + ik z e z
E0 = E0 xe x + iE0 z e z
B = iB
0 B0 y e y
where kx, kz, E0x, E0z, and B0y are real constants to be determined
from (16)-(19) and the boundary conditions.
The complex nature of k (hence E0 and B0) results from the
boundary conditions at z = 0. We will study the problem of total
internal reflection later in this chapter. Here, we only quote the
form of the solution for illustrative purposes.
Discussion (cond)
Th physical
The h i l meaning i off suchh a solution
l ti becomes
b clear
l when
h
we construct the physical quantity E(x, t ) from the phasor E(x).
E(x, t ) = Re E0eik x eit k = k x e x + ik z e z
E0 = E0 xe x + iE0 z e z
= Re ( E0 x e x + iE0 z e z ) eit +ik x x k z z
= [ E0 x cos (t k x x ) e x + E0 z sin (t k x x ) e z ] e k z z
Thus, the wave is a surface wave on the z = 0 plane, i.e. it
propagates in the x-direction with an amplitude peaking at z = 0
and decreasing exponentially in the positive z -direction.
Such a surface
Suc su ce wavew ve iss also
so ccalled ed an inhomogeneous
o oge eous pplanee
wave (p.298). The surface nature of the wave is implicit in the
complex vector k , which no longer has an interpretation as
obvious as the real k of an undamped (homogeneous) plane wave.
Discussion (cond)
( ) Orthogonality
(v) O th lit off vectors
t k, k E0, andd B0 in
i (17)-(19)
(17) (19)
k E0 = 0
E0 , B0 , and k are algebraically
(17) (19) k B0 = 0
(17)-(19)
E0 B0 = 0 orthogonal to one another
index of
refraction
of water vs
frequency
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
1 1 Lossless dielectric ( and are real,
Case 1.1 real 7.1,
7 1 7.2)
7 2)
Equation (16), k = , gives the phase velocity
1 c
v= = = , n= (index of refraction) (7.5)
k n 0 0
n = k
(21) gives
i k
k n E0
H0 = n E0 = n E0 H 0 = , (7.11)
Z
where Z is the impedance of the medium.
E0
Z= = (Jackson p.297)
H0
Z is the ratio of E0 to H 0 of the EM wave in the medium (The
definition is valid even if , are complex). In vacuum,
0
Z = Z0 = = 376.7
0
Case 1.1 (cond)
andd are reall in
i (16) k is
i real.
l Hence
H (23) gives
i
time averaged 1
S t =
2
= E0 n (7.13)
Poynting
P i vector 2
E = E0eik xit 1
ik x it
B = B0e 2
ti averagedd 1
time 1 2
ut= = E E + B B = E0 (7.14)
energy density 4 2
N t
Note: (21) (21)
Ne 2 f 0
= b + i = (7.58) (7.56)
m( 0 i )
(Drude model)
Case 2 (cond)
Up to frequencies
freq encies well
ell beyond
be ond the microwave
micro a e region,
region wee still ha
havee
<< 0 ( 0 is of the order of 4 1013 / s, see p. 312). Hence,
2
N f0
Ne Ne2 f 0 2 n is
m = m i<<the th free
f electron
l t density.
d it WhenWh
N ne
= 0 , real & independent of .
m( 0 i ) 0 0
Since / is
Si i muchh greater
t than I ( b ),
th Im( ) it contributes
t ib t tot mostt off
the imaginary part of . So we may assume b to be real.
= b + i / (7.56)
(7 56) A goodd conductor
d t is i de
d fined
fi d by
b
>> 1 ( b is of the order of 0 = 8.85 1012 farad/m) (24)
b
copper 5.9 107 / -m, graphite 6 104 / -m,
sea water 6 / -m, ground 103 -3.5 102 / -m
f =
2
= {
60 Hz for household current Why is it dangerous if an
0.3 300 GHz for microwaves
electrical
l i l appliance
li
into your bath tub?
falls
f ll
Case 2 (cond)
1 1
2 2 1 i 2 1
Thus = b + i i = (1 + i ) i = (e ) =
2 2 1
(1 + i )
2 2
1+ i
k = = (1 + i ) = (for forward wave) (5.164)
2
2
where = = skin depth We have assumed (5.165) and (8.8)
to be real.
Let E0 = E0e x
E = E eikz it = E eikz it e = E e z ei( z t )e ((25)
5)
0 0 x 0 x
ikz it ikz it z i( z t )
H = H 0e
= n E0 e = 2 (1 + i ) E0e e
e y (26)
H = n E (21) Let n = e z
0 0
E = E0 e e
(
z i z t )e (25) = 1i = ((12+i ) = ((1+i ) H
x 2
( ) Pl =
Sub. ((29)) into (28) 1
H (0)
( )
2 useful form to explain
2 2 induction heating
= 2 1 2
= 4
H (0) (8.12)
(27) 1 1 2 1 1 2
= 2
H (0) = 2
K eff (8.15)
2 2
Note: If there is reflection, H (0) = H incident (0) + H reflected (0)
Case 2 ((cond))
Alternative derivation of power loss
ohmic heat in the conductor
Presistive =
unit volume
R J E = 12 E
2
= 12 Re
1 2 2z 1 2 2z
= 2
E0 e = 2
H0 e (5 169)
(5.169)
(25) (26) H0 = H||(z = 0)
1 2 2z 2
Pl = 0 Presistive dz = 2
H 0 0 e dz = 14 H 0
[[same as (8.12)]
( )]
Case 2 (cond)
Discussion :
z i( z t )
E = E0e e ex (25)
(i) z i( z t )
H = (1 + i ) E0e e ey (26)
2
Inside the good conductor, the wave has a wavelength
= 2 and it damps p byy a factor of 1/ e over a distance .
(ii) E and H are 45 out of phase in a good conductor.
(iii) E and H are continuous across the conductor surface, but E
and H drops to almost 0 a few into the conductor.
Case 2 (cond)
(iv) Wave incident from the outside into a good conductor (at
any incident angle) will propagate and attenuate inside the
conductor approximately along the normal to the surface
(see Jackson 8.1). The reason is shown in the figure below.
Hence, we can write the wave fields inside the conductor as (25)
and (26) with E||(0+) given by E||(0) and H||(0+) given by H||(0).
Question: Does it make sense to use power lines of very large
diameter (e.g.10 cm) in order to conduct higher current
and hence transmit more power?
Case 2 (cond)
( )
(v) The fields in a good conductor are similar to those in a
lossy dielectric in that they both represent an attenuated
plane wave and k, E, H, are geometrically orthogonal.
However for waves at the same frequency,
However, frequency the wavelength
is much shorter and the attenuation constant is much greater
in the conductor than in the dielectric.
dielectric
glass ( 1, 4, 2.1104 )
0 0
(
copper 7 105 cm )
= 2 = 2 1.5 cm (Case 1.2) = 2 4.4 104 cm
= 2 8.8
8 8 104 cm-1 (7.55)
(7 55) = P1 dP =
dz
2 4.
4 5 103
cm -1
EM Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (cond)
Case 33. Waves
C W at optical
i l frequencies
f i andd beyond
b d (7.5D)
7 5D)
Case 3.1 >> 0 but < j for all or some of the bound electrons
(a sub case of 7.5D,
7 5D pppp. 313
313-4,
4 total reflection of light
off the mirror and ultraviolet transparency of metals)
Ne 2 fj Ne2 f 0
= 0 + +i (7.51)
2 2
m j (bound) j i j m ( 0 i )
b Ne2 f 0
In general, j < j , see p. 310. m 2
( >> 0 )
In general,
general Re( b ) >> Im( )
b
The metal is a good conductor up to frequencies well beyond
the microwave region (see Case 2). 2) But,
But as shown above,
above when
>>0, the free electron term becomes predominantly real, a
qualitative departure from Case 2.
2 This radically changes the metal
response to EM waves. Examples are given below and in Case 3.2.
Case 3.1 (cond)
( )
Let n = Nf 0 be the free electron density in the conductor
(f 0 1, i.e. each atom in the conductor contains on average
approx. one free electron, see p.312), we obtain from (7.51)
2p
= b 2
0 (30)
where p is the pplasma frequency
q y of the conduction electrons
ne2
p = (31)
m 0
and we have replaced m in (7.51) by the effective mass m of
the conduction electrons to account for the effects of binding.
binding
For simplicity, we assume b to be real by neglecting the weak
damping effects of bound electrons
electrons.
Case 3.1 (cond)
S b = b 2p 0 / 2 into
Sub. i t k = , we obtain
bt i
2p 0
k = b 2 (32)
n=
0 0
( ) 1 z eiksinsinii x
2 2 2
k x2 n z k sin i
eikx = e
sin i0
eik x x
2
c =e 0
k = k x e x + i k z e z E0 = E0 x e x + E0 y e y + E0 z e z
E = 0 k E0 = 0 = k x E0 x + i k z E0 z
k * E0* = 0 = k x E 0*x i k z E 0*z k x E 0*x = i k z E 0*z
k E0 = k x E0x + i k z E0z = 2i k z E0z
z 0 {
1 Re i k E 2 2i k E 2 = 0
S t e z = 2 z 0z }
No power flow into z > 0 region total reflection as expected
Reflection and Refraction (cond)
So far, we have derived the following kinetic properties without
knowing the detailed nature of the b.c.'s and the fields: (i) i = r ;
i i = n ; and (iii) Condition for total internal reflection: n > n
sin
(ii) sin r n
( )
and i > i0 = sin 1 nn .
We now investigate the dynamic properties, i.e. the intensity,
phase and polarization of reflected and refracted waves w
phase, w.r.t.
rt
the incident wave, which are contained in the complex E0 , E0 , and
E0 and can be obtained form the boundary conditions:
D continuous [ ( E0 + E0 ) E0 ] e z = 0 (42)
B continuous
i [k E0 + k E0 k E0 ] e z = 0 (43)
E continuous [ E0 + E0 E0 ] e z = 0 (44)
H continuous 1 ( k E0 + k E0 ) 1 ( k E0 ) e z = 0 (45)
Reflection and Refraction (cond)
[ p
[S-polarized wave or TE wave]]
Case 1: E0 plane of incidence (the x - z plane)
k = k xe x + k z e z
k = k xe x + k z e z
k = k xe x k z e z
E0 = E0e y
E0 = E0 e y
E = E e
0 0 y
(42) is automatically satisfied.
satisfied
(43) ( k x E0e z k z E0e x ) e z + ( k x E0e z + k z E0e x ) e z
( k x E0 e z k z E0 e x ) e z = 0
E0 + E0 E0 = 0 (46)
(44) also gives (46).
Case 1 (cond)
(45) 1
( k x E0e z k z E0e x ) e z + 1 ( k x E0e z + k z E0e x ) e z
1 ( k x E0 e z k z E0 e x ) e z = 0
1 k z ( E0 E0 ) 1 k z E0 = 0 k z = k cos i = c n cos i
k z = k cos r = c n cos r
n ( E0 E0 ) cos i n E0 cos r = 0 (47)
E
0= 2 n cos i 2 n cos i
=
E0 n cos i + n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r
(46)
(7.39)
(47) n cos i
n 2
n 2
sin 2
i n cos i
n cos r
E0
= =
E0 n cos i + n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r
n sin i = n sin r n2 n 2 sin 2 i = n cos r
Reflection and Refraction (cond)
[[P-polarized
p wave or TM wave]]
Case 2: E0 plane l off incidence
i id
k = k ( sin ie x + cos ie z )
k = k ( sin
i re x + cos re z ) (48)
k = k ( sin ie x cos ie z )
E0 = E0 ( cos ie x + sin ie z )
E0 = E0 ( cos re x + sin re z ) (49)
E0 = E0 ( cos ie x + sin
i ie z )
Sub. (48) and (49) into (42)-(45) yields
E
0= 2 nn cos i 2 n cos i
=
E0 n2 cos i + n n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r
(7.41)
E n2 cos i n n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i n cos r
0= =
E0 n2 cos i + n n2 n 2 sin 2 i n cos i + n cos r
Case 2 (cond)
If i = 0 (hence
(h r = 0),
0) bboth
th (7
(7.39)
39) andd (7.41)
(7 41) reduce
d to
t
E0 2 2n
E =
n + n
0
+ 1
=
(7.42)
E0
1 n n The sign convetion is for a p-polarized
E = wave. If n > n, there is a phase reversal
n + n of the refelcted wave at the surface for
0
+ 1
a s-polarized
l i d wave.
Brewster's angle iB (for E0 plane of incidence)
Let = and i = iB , where iB satisfies
(
n4 cos 2 iB = n 2 n2 n 2 sin 2 iB )
( )
n4 1 sin 2 iB = n 2 n2 n 4 sin 2 iB
( ) (
n 4 n4 sin 2 iB = n2 n 2 n2 )
2 n 2
sin iB = 2
n + n2
n
tan iB = (7.43)
n
Case 2 (cond)
Alternative derivations of iB :
Snell s law: n sin i = n sin r
Snell's
i + r = 90
i iB = n sin(90
n sin i (90 iB ) = n cos iB
n
tan iB = ((7.43))
n
The physical mechanism for this can be qualitatively understood from the manner in which electric
di l iin the
dipoles th media t p-polarized
di respondd to l i d light.
li ht O
One can iimaginei th
thatt li
light
ht incident
i id t on the
th surface
f is
i
absorbed, and then reradiated by oscillating electric dipoles at the interface between the two media. The
polarization of freely propagating light is always perpendicular to the direction in which the light is
travelling.
g The dipoles
p that produce
p the transmitted (refracted)
( ) light
g oscillate in the polarization
p direction
of that light. These same oscillating dipoles also generate the reflected light. However, dipoles do not
radiate any energy in the direction along which they oscillate. Consequently, if the direction of the
refracted light is perpendicular to the direction in which the light is predicted to be specularly reflected,
the
h dipoles
di l will ill not create any reflected
fl d light.
li h Since,
Si by
b definition,
d fi i i th s-polarization
the l i ti is i parallel
ll l to
t the
th
interface, the corresponding oscillating dipoles will always be able to radiate in the specular-
reflection direction. This is why there is no Brewster's angle for s-polarized light.
Case 2 (cond)
Applications Brewster Window
Gas lasers typically use a window tilted at Brewster's angle to allow
th beam
the b t leave
to l th laser
the l t b Since
tube. Si th window
the i d reflects
fl t some s-
polarized light but no p-polarized light, the gain for the s polarization
is reduced but that for the p polarization is not affected. This causes
the laser's output to be p polarized, and allows lasing with no loss
due to the window.
purely s-polarized
partially s-polarized
partially p-polarized mostly p-polarized
Reflection and Refraction (Summary)
B = 0
B = 0 B Jackson p.156 and
B D = E + P E = lecture notes Ch. 4
E = 0 t
t P 1
D = 0 1 E = = pol =J [(5.79)]
H = B M
0 0
0 M
H = D
t B = 0 0 E + 0 M + 0 P
t t
E
= 0 0 + 0 J M + 0 J pol
t
L
Lecture notes Ch.
Ch 4
Discussion (cond)
We see from
W f th microscopic
the i i form
f off the
th Maxwell
M ll equations
ti th t in
that, i
dielectric ( 0) and permeable ( 0) materials, bound electrons can
produce polarization charge (poll), ) polarization current (Jpoll), ) and
magnetization current (JM) upon actions by the electromagnetic fields.
These charges
g and currents will ggenerate electromagnetic
g fields of their
own. In the source-free macroscopic Maxwell equations, pol, Jpol, and
JM, are hidden in D and H, but the fields they generate will appear in the
solutions. For example, as a wave in incident from a vacuum into a
dielectric medium, it will induce pol and Jpol (pol = 0 inside a uniform
medium,
di whereas
h Jpol is
i always
l ) pol andd Jpol are the
present). h sources
which generate the reflected wave and cause refraction of the transmitted
wave In the case of a charged particle traveling in a dielectric medium
wave.
at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium, the pol and Jpol
induced by the fields of the charged particle will generate the Cherenkov
radiation (Jackson, 13.4).
7.8 Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity
We first give a simple physical picture of the phase and group
velocities
velocities.
Consider the superposition of 2 waves, cos(1t k1 x) and
cos(2t k2 x) (see Fig.
Fig 1) in a medium in which and k are related
by some dispersion relation = ( k ), and assume 1 2 , k1 k2 .
cos(1t k1 x)
cos(2t k2 x)
{cos((1t k1 x)
+ cos(2t k2 x)
= 2 cos (t kx ) cos ( 1 2
2
t
k1 k2
2
x )
(A) (B)
destructive
1 +2
where = 2 ( 1 2 ) and k = k1 +2k2 ( k1 k2 ) . interference
The result is a modulated wave (see Fig. 2). Factor (B) gives the
speed of propagation of each modulation,
modulation
1 2
2 1 2d
vg = k1 k2
= (groupp velocity)
(g y)
k1 k2 dk
2
Factor (A) gives the phase speed of the wave within the modulation,
v ph = (phase velocity)
k
Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
When an infinite number of waves (centered around 0, k0 with
a spread k, see Fig. 4) are superposed, interferences can result in
cancellation everywhere except for a region of length x (see Fig.
Fig 3),
3)
where the waves are constructively superposed into a wave packet.
L t eachh componentt off the
Let th wave packet
k t
be uk ( x, t ) = A(k )eikx i ( k )t , then
u ( x, t ) = 1 A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk (7.80)
2
A(k ) = 1 u ( x )e ikx dx
2
0
(7.81)
where, for clarity, we have replaced
Jackson's notation u ( x, 0),
), i.e. the field
profile at t = 0, with u0 ( x). xk 12 (7.82)
.
Superposition of Waves, Group Velocity (cond)
The dispersion relation k = [with = ( )] implies
= (k ) and (k ) is a complicated function. Expand ( k ) about k0
d
( k ) = ( k0 ) + ( k k0 ) + ... 0 + vg ( k k0 ) , (7.83)
dk k0
0
d
where vg will be shown later to be the group velocity.
dk k0
Sub. (7.83) into u ( x, t ) = 1 A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk
2
(7.80)
i( k0vg 0 )t ik ( x vg t )
u ( x, t ) 1 e A(k )e dk (7.84)
2
u0 ( x vg t )
+ 12 1 A (k )e i ( k + k ) x dkdx
1 ixy 2
e dx = ( y )
2
= 2 A(k ) + A ( k ) (54)
2
ikk x
e t
u ( x, 0)dx = 2
2
[i (k ) A(k ) + i (k ) A (k )] (55)
( k )
(54) i 1(k ) (55)
A(k ) = 1 e ikx u ( x, 0) + i u ( x, 0) dx
2
d (7 91)
(7.91)
( k ) t
Broadening of a Pulse in Dispersive Medium (cond)
x2
u ( x, 0) = exp( 2 ) cos k0 x (7.92)
2L
Example : u ( x, 0) = 0 (7.93)
t dvg d 2 2
2 2
a k = 2
= a 0
dk
(k ) = [1 + 2 ] dk (7.95)
expect spreading of pulse
1 ikx i
A(k ) = e [u ( x, 0) + u ( x, 0)]dx
2 (k ) t
1 ikx x 2 / 2 L2
= e e cos k0 xdx
2
L L2 L2 2
= exp[( ) ( k k0 ) ] + exp[( ) ( k + k0 ) ]
2
(7.94)
2 2 2
Broadening of a Pulse in Dispersive Medium (cond)
1 1 ikx i ( k )t
u ( x, t ) = A(k )e dk + c.c.
2 2
L2 L2 a 2k 2
L ( k k0 ) 2 ( k + k0 ) 2
ik i t (1+
ikx )
= Re [e 2 +e 2 ]e 2 dk
2 2
1 ( x a 2 k0 t ) 2 a 2 k02
exp[ ] exp[ik0 x i (1 + )t ]
1 (1 + ia t ) 2
2 1
2 L2
(1 +
2
ia t ) 2
= Re L2 L2 , (7.98)
2 a wave packet propagating forward
+ (k0 k0 ) a wave packet propagating backward
where L is a function
of t given by
2 1
L(t ) = [ L + ( L t ) 2 ]2
2 a
(7.99)
Appendix
pp A. t-space
p and -space
p
E ( ) = E ( t ) eit dt (A.1)
1 it
E ( t ) = E ( ) e d
2
1 it it
= 0 E ( ) e + E ( ) e d (A.2)
2
1 i i( + )t i i( )t
= E0e e + E0 e e dt
2
= E ( ) + E ( + )
where E E0e i (A.5)
1
(A.2) E ( t ) =
E ( ) + E ( + ) eit d
2
1
= E e it + E it
e = Re E eit (A.6)
2
Appendix A (contd)
In linear equations, we may write (A.6) as
E ( t ) = E eit (A.7)
Thus, by writing E ( t ) = E0 cos (t + ) as E ( t ) = E e it . We
Thus
have entered from the t -space into the -space. Equations derived
y using
by g ((A.7) are -space
p equations,
q , e.g.
g
D = E (A.8)
E0 in ((A.4)) is a real t -space
p qquantity. ( )
y E = E0ei in ((A.4)) is
a complex -space quantity and is called a phasor.
To convert a phasor back into the t -space, we multiply it by
eit and take the real part [see (A.6)]. Thus
D ( t ) = Re D e it = Re E eit
where E E 0 ( e x ie y ) ((A.12))
Appendix A (cont
(contd)
d)
Discussion:
Examining the phasors E E0ei (A.5) and E E 0 (e x + ie y )
(A.12), we find that the phasor, an -space
space quantity, may or may
not have a clear geometric direction, e.g. E in (A.5) has the
same geometric direction as E0 , but Ew in (A.12)
(A 12) does not have
a clear geometric direction. The reason is that, in the time space,
E(t ) = E0 (cos te x sin te y ) has a geometric direction which
rotates with time. When E(t) is transformed into the -space, in
which t is no longer a variable,
variable we obtain a phasor Ew without a
clear geometric direction .
Homework
Problems: 7.4, 7.12, 7.21