Halogens

The halogens are a series of non-metal elements from group 17 of the periodic table (formerly VII). The
halogens include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially
created element 117 (ununseptium) may also be considered a halogen.

Physical Properties

Atoms get bigger down the group as additional electron shells are filled. When fluorine exists as a
diatomic molecule, the FF bond is unexpectedly weak. This is because fluorine atoms are the smallest
of the halogensthe atoms are bonded close together, which leads to repulsion between free electrons
in the two fluorine atoms.

The boiling points of halogens increase down the group due to the increasing strength of Van der Waals
forces as the size and relative atomic mass of the atoms increase. This change manifests itself in a
change in the phase of the elements from gas (F2, Cl2) to liquid (Br2), to solid (I2). The halogens are the
only periodic table group containing elements in all three familiar states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas)
at standard temperature and pressure.

The halogens are a series of non-metal elements from group 17 of the periodic table (formerly VII). The
halogens include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially
created element 117 (ununseptium) may also be considered a halogen.

Chemical Properties

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons or electron density towards itself within a
covalent bond. Electronegativity depends upon the attraction between the nucleus and bonding
electrons in the outer shell. This, in turn, depends on the balance between the number of protons in the
nucleus, the distance between the nucleus and bonding electrons, and the shielding effect of inner
electrons. In hydrogen halides (HX, where X is the halogen), the H-X bond gets longer as the halogen
atoms get larger. This means the shared electrons are further from the halogen nucleus, which increases
the shielding of inner electrons. This means electronegativity decreases down the group.

Halogens are highly reactive, and they can be harmful or lethal to biological organisms in sufficient
quantities. This reactivity is due to high electronegativity and high effective nuclear charge. Halogens
can gain an electron by reacting with atoms of other elements.

Fluorine is one of the most reactive elements. It reacts with otherwise inert materials such as glass, and
it forms compounds with the heavier noble gases. It is a corrosive and highly toxic gas. Fluorine's
reactivity means that once it does react with something, it bonds so strongly that the resulting molecule
is inert and non-reactive. Fluorine can react with glass in the presence of small amounts of water to
form silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). Thus fluorine must be handled with substances like the inert
organofluorine compound Teflon.

Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen fluoride:
 22 () + 22 () ==> () + ()

Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water. It slowly reacts to form hydrogen bromide (HBr)
and hypobromous acid (HBrO):

Iodine is minimally soluble in water, with a solubility of 0.03 g per 100 g water. However, iodine will
form an aqueous solution in the presence of iodide ion. This occurs with the addition of potassium
iodide (KI), forming a triiodide ion.

REACTIONS

Reactions with water

Fluorine reacts vigorously with water to produce oxygen (O2) and hydrogen fluoride (HF):[16]

2 F2(g) + 2 H2O(l) O2(g) + 4 HF(aq)

Chlorine has maximum solubility of ca. 7.1 g Cl2 per kg of water at ambient temperature (21 C).[17]
Dissolved chlorine reacts to form hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid, a solution that can be
used as a disinfectant or bleach:

Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)

Bromine has a solubility of 3.41 g per 100 g of water,[18] but it slowly reacts to form hydrogen bromide
(HBr) and hypobromous acid (HBrO):

Br2(g) + H2O(l) HBr(aq) + HBrO(aq)

Iodine, however, is minimally soluble in water (0.03 g/100 g water at 20 C) and does not react with it.[19]
However, iodine will form an aqueous solution in the presence of iodide ion, such as by addition of
potassium iodide (KI), because the triiodide ion is formed.

Reactions with metals

The halogens react with metals to make salts called metal halides.

metal + halogen metal halide

For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to make sodium chloride (common salt).

sodium + chlorine sodium chloride

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

The reaction between sodium and a halogen becomes less vigorous as you move down Group 7.
Fluorine reacts violently with sodium at room temperature. Chlorine reacts vigorously when in contact
with hot sodium. Iodine reacts slowly with hot sodium.

Noble gases

The noble gases are a group of chemical elements that make up Group 18 on the periodic table. These
gases all have similar properties under standard conditions: they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic
gases with very low chemical reactivity. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), Neon
(Ne), Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe), and Radon (Rn).

Physical properties

Boiling point
The noble gases all have low boiling points. This is a typical property of non-metals. You can see from
the graph that helium, at the top of group 0, has the lowest boiling point in the group. The boiling points
then increase as you go down the group.

Density

The density of a substance is a measure of how heavy it is for its size. For example, a small lump of a
very dense substance such as gold or lead has a high mass. The particles in gases are spread far apart, so
gases have low densities. You can see from the graph that helium, at the top of group 0, has the lowest
density in the group. The densities then increase as you go down the group. Radon, at the bottom of the
group, is the densest gas known (1 g/dm3 = 0.001 g/cm3).
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Inert Gases

The noble gases were originally also referred to as "inert gases," since it was believed that they did not
react with other elements to form compounds. In recent years, however, this term has fallen out of
favor, although you will occasionally see it in older literature. Scientists have discovered that, since the
heavier noble gas atoms are held together less strongly by electromagnetic forces than are the lighter
noble gases, such as helium, the outer electrons of these heavier atoms can be removed more easily.
Because of this, many compounds of the gases xenon, krypton, and radon can, in fact, be formed. Of the
six noble gases, only krypton, xenon, and radon have the ability to form stable compounds. These are
used as oxidizing agents.

Sulphur Family

In a general overview of the element we can at first describe Sulfur as a solid. It is a pale yellow non-
metallic, brittle element and is widely distributed in close proximity to hot springs and volcanoes and is
also found in many minerals and ores. The Physical and Chemical Properties are the characteristics of a
substance, like Sulfur, which distinguishes it from any other substance. Most common substances exist
as States of Matter as solids, liquids, gases and plasma.

Physical Properties of Sulfur

Physical Properties of Sulfur

Color Pale yellow - Non-metallic
Phase Solid
Crystalline structure & Forms Rhombic, Amorphous and Prismatic
*Allotropic There are several known allotropes including brimstone
Odor Odorless
Taste Tasteless
Solubility Insoluble in water
Boiling point The boiling point of sulfur is 444.6C
Conductivity A poor conductor of heat and electricity
Upon melting, sulfur is converted into a mobile yellow liquid, which turns brown
Viscosity (resistance to flow -
and becomes a viscous, dark brown mass at about 190C. The viscosity decreases
stickiness)
above 190C, and at 300C sulfur again becomes a flowing liquid

Chemical Properties of Sulfur

They are the characteristics that determine how it will react with other substances or change from one
substance to another. The better we know the nature of the substance the better we are able to
understand it. Chemical properties are only observable during a chemical reaction. Reactions to
substances may be brought about by changes brought about by burning, rusting, heating, exploding,
tarnishing etc. The Chemical Properties of Sulfur are as follows:

Properties of Sulfur
Chemical Formula S
Familiar compounds are Sodium sulfite, hydrogen sulfide (a poisonous gas that smells
Compounds
like rotten eggs) and sulfuric acid
The oxides are sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide, which when dissolved in water make
Oxidation
sulfurous acid and sulfuric acid, respectively
It is chemically reactive, especially upon heating, and combines with almost all the
Reactivity
elements. Upon heating, sulfur reacts with metals, forming the corresponding sulfides

Reaction

Compounds

Oxides

There are many different stable sulfur oxides, but the two that are commonly found are sulfur dioxide
and sulfur trioxide. Sulfur dioxide is a commonly found oxide of sulfur. It is a colorless, pungent, and
nonflammable gas. It has a density of 2.8 kg/m3 and a melting point of -72.5 oC. Because organic
materials are more soluble in SO2
than in water, the liquid form is a good solvent. SO2 is primarily used to produce SO3. The direct
combustion of sulfur and the roasting of metal sulfides yield SO2

via the contact process:

S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)(Direct combustion)
2ZnS(s)+3O2(g)2ZnO(s)+2SO2(g)(Roasting of metal sulfides)

Sulfur trioxide is another one of the commonly found oxides of sulfur. It is a colorless liquid with a
melting point of 16.9 oC and a density of kg/m3. SO3

is used to produce sulfuric acid. SO2 is used in the synthesis of SO3

2SO2(g)+O2(g)2SO3(g)(Exothermic, reversible reaction)

This reaction needs a catalyst to be completed in a reasonable amount of time with V2O5

is the catalyst most commonly used.

NITROGEN FAMILY

The Group 15 elements are generally known as the nitrogen family. All of the elements of this family
have five electrons in their outermost energy level. This group is divided into nonmetals, semimetals,
and metals by characteristic. The top two elements, nitrogen and phosphorus, are very definitely
nonmetals, forming -3 charge anions. Nitrogen is a diatomic gas and phosphorus is a solid. The elements
arsenic, antimony, and bismuth all have some characteristics of semimetals such as brittleness as a free
element.

Characteristics

-This family has five electrons in it's outer electron level.

-Each element in this family has a tendency to gain three electrons to have the stable
electron configuration.
-This family also, are strikingly different from each other in both physical properties and
chemical behavior.
-Nitrogen is a nonmetallic gas, phosphorus is a solid nonmetal, arsenic and antimony are
metalloids, and bismuth is a typical metal.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Nitrogen Family Reactivity

Nitrogen is chemically the least reactive of all elements, and enters into chemical reactions only at very
high temperatures. Nitrogen is considered as an inert element because nitrogen gas normally does not
interact with other substances. Individual atoms of nitrogen are highly reactive.

CARBON

It is a naturally abundant non-metallic element that occurs in many inorganic and in all organic
compounds, exists freely as graphite and diamond. One of the hardest substances known to man
(diamonds). The Physical and Chemical Properties are the characteristics of a substance, like Carbon,
which distinguishes it from any other substance. Most common substances, like Carbon, exist as States
of Matter as solids, liquids, gases and plasma. Refer to the article on Carbon for additional information
and facts about this substance.
Physical Properties of Carbon

The Physical properties of Carbon are the characteristics that can be observed without changing the
substance into another substance. Physical properties are usually those that can be observed using our
senses such as color, luster, freezing point, boiling point, melting point, density, hardness and odor. The
Physical Properties of Carbon are as follows:

Properties of Carbon
Two allotropes of carbon have different crystalline structures: diamond and graphite
*Allotropic
The physical properties of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form.
Forms of Carbon Graphite, diamonds and coal are all nearly pure forms of carbon
Color Diamond is highly transparent. Graphite is opaque and black
Diamond is one of the hardest substances known to man. Graphite is soft and often used as
Hardness
the "lead" in lead pencils
Conductivity Diamond has a very low electrical conductivity. Graphite is a very good conductor
Brittleness Very brittle, and cannot be rolled into wires or pounded into sheets
Phase Solid

Chemical Properties of Carbon

They are the characteristics that determine how it will react with other substances or change from one
substance to another. The better we know the nature of the substance the better we are able to
understand it. Chemical properties are only observable during a chemical reaction. Reactions to
substances may be brought about by changes brought about by burning, rusting, heating, exploding,
tarnishing etc. The Chemical Properties of Carbon are as follows:

Chemical Properties of Carbon

Chemical Formula C
Oxidation Combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and carbon monoxide (CO)
Reactivity Carbon does not dissolve in, or react with, water or acids
Chains of Atoms Carbon has the ability to make long strings, or chains, of atoms
Carbon forms more compounds than all other elements combined; several million
Compounds
carbon compounds are known
Carbon also occurs in a newly discovered form known as fullerenes or buckyballs. A
Buckminsterfulleren - C60 fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon. Fullerenes are similar in
structure to graphite
REACTION

Carbon and Water Reaction

The majority of Carbon compounds do not dissolve in water. Important water reactions - Dehydration
Synthesis involves taking water (one O and two H) whereas Hydrolysis involves adding water. When
carbon dioxide reacts with water a weak acid is formed.

Carbon Dioxide Reaction - Carbon Reaction with Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Under normal conditions it is stable, inert and
non-toxic. Carbon Dioxide is produced when carbon-containing materials burn completely, and it is a
product of fermentation and animal respiration. On freezing, Carbon dioxide hardens into a white,
snow-like mass known as dry ice, thus bypassing the liquid state. Carbon dioxide dissolves into organic
solvents such as acetone, benzene, chloroform and alcohols. When mixed with magnesium it gives
magnesium oxide and carbon. With oxygen and a metallic element, carbon forms many important
carbonates, such as calcium carbonate (limestone) and sodium carbonate (soda). Strong heating is
required to make carbon powder burn in oxygen. Carbon dioxide that subsequently formed can turn
lime water (calcium hydroxide solution) milky.

Carbon + Oxygen > Carbon Dioxide

Carbon Monoxide Reaction

Carbon monoxide is an oxide that does not form salts and does not react under ordinary conditions with
water, acids, or alkalis. Carbon monoxide (CO) is an extremely poisonous gas. The automobile emissions
of Carbon monoxide is a dangerous pollutant that is contributing to the greenhouse effect and global
warming. It is very slightly soluble in water and burns in air with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide is also formed (with oxygen) by decomposition of carbon dioxide at extremely high
temperatures. At high pressure and raised temperatures it reacts with hydrogen, in the presence of a
catalyst, to form methanol.

Calcium Carbonate Reaction

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is a white crystalline salt occurring in limestone, chalk, pearl and marble and
is used in the production of lime and cement. Calcium carbonate is largely insoluble in water. However,
it is quite soluble in water containing dissolved carbon dioxide, combining with it to form a bicarbonate.
Such a reaction on limestone results in the formation of stalactites and stalagmites in caves.

SILICON

It is a non-metallic element occurring extensively in the earth's crust in silica and silicates, having both
an amorphous and a crystalline allotrope. The Physical and Chemical Properties are the characteristics of
a substance, like Silicon, which distinguishes it from any other substance. Most common substances
exist as States of Matter as solids, liquids, gases and plasma. Refer to the article on Silicon for additional
information and facts about this substance. Refer to the article on Silicon Element for additional
information and facts about this substance.
Physical Properties of Silicon

The Physical properties of Silicon are the characteristics that can be observed without changing the
substance into another substance. Physical properties are usually those that can be observed using our
senses such as color, luster, freezing point, boiling point, melting point, density, hardness and odor. The
Physical Properties of Silicon are as follows:

Physical Properties of Silicon

Color Pure silicon is a hard, dark gray solid
Phase Solid
Luster A metallic shine or glow
*Allotropic Silicon has two allotropic forms, a brown amorphous form, and a dark crystalline form
Solubility Soluble in hydrofluoric acid and alkalis
Melting point Melts at 1417C
Boiling point Boils at 2600C
Conductivity It is a semi-conductor

Chemical Properties of Silicon

They are the characteristics that determine how it will react with other substances or change from one
substance to another. The better we know the nature of the substance the better we are able to
understand it. Chemical properties are only observable during a chemical reaction. Reactions to
substances may be brought about by changes brought about by burning, rusting, heating, exploding,
tarnishing etc. The Chemical Properties of Silicon are as follows:

Chemical Properties of Silicon

Chemical Formula Si
Compounds Silicon forms compounds with metals (silicides) and with non-metals
Combined with oxygen as silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) or with oxygen and metals as
Oxidation silicate minerals. It is stable in air even at elevated temperatures owing to the formation
of a protective oxide film
Flammability Dark-brown crystals that burn in air when ignited
Is transparent to long-wavelength infra-red radiation
Reactivity with acids Dissolves only in a mixture of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid
REACTIONS

Compounds of silicon and hydrogen, known as silanes, react explosively with oxygen and react
with water, forming silicon dioxide and water and silicon dioxide and hydrogen gas respectively.
Silicon accounts for 28 percent of the earth's crust but it does not appear naturally in its
elemental form.

All silanes take the form of liquids or gases without color when observed at room temperature.
In its pure elemental form, silicon is a lustrous gray substance, solid and very similar to a
diamond in formation and appearance. In nature, it appears as silicon dioxide and as a great
range of silicate minerals.

Only silane and disilane of the various silanes are stable on an indefinite basis. The various
silicate minerals which appear in nature, including yellow beryl, quartz, beryl and amethyst are
stable crystal formations which react nowhere near as regularly. They are too stable to undergo
the kind of explosive reactions silanes do upon contact with oxygen and water.

The huge variety of silicates and silanes makes mapping their reactions a complex question. In
general, there are predictable scenarios in which silanes will react and almost no scenarios in
which silicates will react with common substances. This makes the element, while complicated,
relatively easy to predict in its behaviors.

TRANSITION METALS

The Transition Metals are the elements found between the Group IIA Elements and the Group IIB
Elements in the periodic table. The Group IIb are sometimes considered transition elements. The
transition elements are also known as the d-block elements, because while the outermost level contains
at most two electrons, their next to outermost main levels have incompletely filled d sub-orbitals, which
are filled-up progressively on going across the periodic table from 8to 18 electrons. The filling of the d
sub-orbitals of the transition elements across a row of the periodic table is not always regular. The
transition metals are placed in the centre of the periodic table, between groups 2 and 3. They are
generally hard and dense, and less reactive than the alkali metals. Iron, copper, silver and gold are
important transition metals.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METAL

The transition metals have the following properties in common:

they form coloured compounds

they are good conductors of heat and electricity
they can be hammered or bent into shape easily
they are less reactive than alkali metals such as sodium
they have high melting points - but mercury is a liquid at room temperature
they are usually hard and tough
they have high densities
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSITION METAL

The transition metals have some characteristic chemical properties, including:

o Forming compounds with variable oxidation states.
o A strong tendency to form complexes.
o Forming coloured compounds.
o Useful as catalysts.
Much of these properties are brought about by the fact that the transition metals can
form variable oxidation states.

REACTIONS

Reactions with Oxygen: Oxides

Transition metals generally form +2 and/or +3 ions when reacted with oxygen.
4 Cr (s) + 3 O2 (g) 2 Cr2O3 (s)
3 Fe (s) + 2 O2 (g) Fe3O4 (s)
Note that in the latter reaction, each formula unit of Fe3O4 consists of one Fe2+ ion and two Fe3+ ions.

Oxides of transition metals can also be formed by heating their carbonates:

CoCO3 (s)

CoO (s) + CO2 (g)

Redox Reactions & Oxidation Potentials

Metals tend form positive ions. Chemically, this involves loss of electrons, which means that the metal is
oxidized to form the positive ion.
Every chemical reaction that proceeds spontaneously does so because the products have less total
energy than the reactants. In electrical terms (remember that electricity is electrons in motion), the
voltage between two points in a circuit is a measure of the energy difference between those two points.
The concept applies equally to electrons in chemical reactions. The voltage associated with a redox half-
reaction is a measure of the energy change associated with the half-reaction.
When we saw the spontaneous reaction between aluminum metal and copper (II) ions, the two half-
reactions were:

Al (s) Al3+ (aq) + 3 e driving force = E ox = +1.66 V @ 1 mol

L

Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e Cu (s) driving force = E red

= +0.34 V @ 1 mol
L

Thus, the driving force for the entire reaction is 1.66 V + 0.34 V = +2.00 V and the reaction proceeds
spontaneously. (This also means that if you made a battery using aluminum and copper, it would
produce a voltage of 2.00 V.)
The reverse reaction does not occur spontaneously:
 Cu (s) + Al3+ (aq) no reaction
because the driving force for the reverse reaction would be 2.00 V.In general, you can think of
oxidation and reduction as being like a contest between the different metals. The higher E ox (or lower
E red

) wins; i.e., the metal with the higher E ox gets oxidized, and the metal with the lower E ox (or
higher E red

) gets reduced. Additionally, if the overall voltage for the combined reaction is positive, the
reaction will proceed spontaneously; if the overall voltage is negative, it wont.

You can look up E values for redox half-reactions from published tables. On the AP exam, you will be
given a table of reduction potentials ( E red

). These are the voltages associated with reduction reactions.
To convert these oxidation potentials ( E ox ), change the sign.

E.g., the table lists:

Al3+ (aq) + 3 e Al (s) E red

= 1.66 V @ 1 mol
L

This means the reduction reaction is nonspontaneous, and that you would need to supply a voltage of
1.66 V to make the reduction half-reaction happen in 1 M solution. However, the oxidation reaction
would be:

Al (s) Al3+ (aq) + 3 e E ox = +1.66 V @ 1 mol

L

This reaction is spontaneous, and a 1 M solution would produce a voltage of 1.66 V for the half-reaction.

However, recall that one atom cannot be oxidized unless another is reduced, and vice-versa. This means
that you need the oxidation potential for the oxidation half-reaction and the reduction potential for the
reduction half-reaction in order to calculate the voltage for the overall reaction. We will revisit this
concept when we study electrochemistry.