Anatomy: The Brain

There are four major areas of the brain:

1. Cerebrum 2. Diencephalon 3. Brain Stem 4. Cerebellum

Cerebrum-within the cerebrum there are different lobes.

1. Frontal Lobe- Is the last to develop and consist of judgement, personality, reasoning,
concentration. Also Broca’s area- develop words/verbalize words- Physical speech.
2. Parietal Lobe- Texture, space, 3D & somatosensory area (especially skin and muscle)
3. Occipital Lobe- Responsible for vision
4. Temporal Lobe- Hearing, acoustic, consist Wernicke’s area- processing what you are
hearing, allowing interpretation and understanding. (above ear)
Diencephalon: Consist of Thalamus and Hypothalamus.
Basal ganglia on the bottom of thalamus, helps to walk.
Thalamus: Relay structure and processing center for most sensory information going to
the cerebellum.
Hypothalamus: Integrating system for the autonomic nervous system; regulation of
temperature, water balance, sex, thirst, appetite, and some emotions (pleasure and fear);
regulates the pituitary glands and controls endocrine function.

Brain stem: located on top of start of spinal cord.

Midbrain- Relays information (sensory and motor); associated with visual reflexes.
Pons- Relays information (sensory and motor); plays a role in respiration
Medulla oblongata- Vital function (regulation of HR, blood flow, BP, respiratory
centers); reflex center for coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting.
Cerebellum: Located below occipital lobe of brain.
Function: responsible for equilibrium; smooths out and coordinates voluntary muscle
activity; helps in the maintenance of balance and muscle tone. (Upright and gait)

Reticular Formation/ Reticular Activating System: Extending through the entire brain
stem, with numerous connections to the cerebral cortex, is a special mass of grey matter.
The RAS is concerned with sleep/ wake cycle and consciousness. Signals passing the
cerebral cortex from the RAS stimulate us, keeping us awake and tuned in.
RAS is sensitive to the effect of certain drugs such as benzodiazepines, and alcohol,
causing damage/permanent unconsciousness to RAS.

LOC/Wakefulness

• Alert
• Lethargy
• Stuporous
• Semi-comatose
• Comatose
Limbic system: Experience of emotion and behavior. Referred to as, “Emotional Brain.”
Includes parts of the cerebrum and the diencephalon. It also include contributes to
memory. For instance, when the limbic system is stimulated by microelectrodes, states of
extreme pleasure or rage can be induced.

Basal Nuclei: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus and others. Motor control
(modification) from the basal nuclei represent the extrapyramidal system.
Meninges and Related Structures
Meninges are protective tissue and fibers. Prevents shifting of the brain.
Dura mater: outer layer
• Epidural space
• Subdural space
Arachnoid mater: connective tissue. Allows CSF to come through
• Subarachnoid space
Pia Mater: thin covering over the brain tissue; transparent membrane.

Blood-brain Barrier: fourth layer of protection. It is an arrangement of cells associated

with the blood vessels that supply the brain and the spinal cord. The cells select the
substances allowed to enter the CNS from the blood.
Very selective only some antibiotics are permeable, just as some toxic substances are
permeable (alcohol). WBS and RBC doesn’t go through membrane.

1. Monroe-Kellie Doctrine (hypothesis)

-States that , because of the limited space for expansion within the skull, an increase
in any one of the components causes a change in the volume of the others. Because
brain tissue has limited space to expand, compensation typically is accomplished by
displacing or shifting CSF, increasing the absorption or diminishing the production of
CSF, or deceasing cerebral blood volume. Without such changes, ICP will begin to
rise. Under normal circumstances, minor changes in blood volume and CSF volume
occur constantly due to alterations in intrathoracic pressure (coughing, sneezing,
straining), posture, blood pressure and systemic oxygen and Co2 levels.
CSF Flow
Cerebrospinal fluid circulates within the subarachnoid space and forms a cusion around
the brain and spinal cord.
Autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic NS:
“Fight or flight” responses
Main neurotransmitter is norepinephrine

Parasympathetic NS:
Controls mostly visceral functions
Regulated by centers in the spinal cord, brain stem, and hypothalamus
Neurotransmitters: Communicates messages from one neuron to another or to specific
target tissue.
Neurotransmitter Source Action
Acetylcholine Many areas of the brain; Usually excitatory, parasympathetic
(major NT of autonomic system effects sometimes inhibitory
Parasympathetic NS) (stimulation of heart by vagal
nerve)
Serotonin Brain stem, hypothalamus, Inhibitory, helps control mood and
dorsal horn of the spinal sleep, inhibits pain pathways
cord
Dopamine Substantia nigra and basal Usually inhibits, affects behavior
ganglia (attention,emotions) and fine
movement.
Norepinephrine Brain stem, hypothalamus, Usually excitatory; affects mood
(major NT of postganglionic neurons of and overall activity.
Sympathetic NS) the sympathetic nervous
system
Gamma- Spinal cord, cerebellum, Excitatory
aminobutyric acid basal ganglia, some
cortical areas
Enkephalin, Nerve terminals in the Excitatory; pleasurable sensation,
endorphin spine, brain stem, thalamus inhibits pain transmission
and hypothalamus,
pituitary gland