Mobility Support

Chapter 4
Mobility Support
Francisco Barcelo-Arroyo, Mari Carmen Aguayo Torres, Khalid Al-Begain,

Israel Martn-Escalona, and Vasos Vassiliou
4.1 Introduction
Wireless access allows independency between the users position and the
physical bearer used to access services from the network. However, this inde-
pendency does not imply that wireless networks show a full ability to cope with
any degree of mobility. This is because other constraints can limit the mobility
when accessing the network. The main constraints are registration and addres-
sing (e.g., of user, terminal, application) and handover. In general, procedures
needed to cope with those issues have a cost in terms of quality degradation,
need for more resources, or both; this is known as mobility cost. Performance
evaluation of mobility related issues in wireless networks requires a precise
knowledge and understanding of the way in which terminals move, the impact
of the movement on performance and quality, and the procedures and resources
allocated in the network to minimize the impact of the mobility.
A proper characterization of the movement is fundamental during the design
process of wireless networks. The users movement strongly depends on the type
of network and environment. In some networks, only a certain degree of noma-
dicity (i.e., the place where the user connects can change but users do not move
during the connection; wireless is not a strict requirement for this nomadicity)
can be tolerated, whereas movement at high speeds during an open connection is
accepted in other networks. Mobility speeds and patterns need to be character-
ized for every scenario in which extra resources need to be allocated to reduce the
cost of mobility. The degradation caused by mobility needs to be forecasted and
bounded to keep a quality of service close to that of classic wired networks.
The cellular concept together with the handover is the cornerstone to keep
the continuity of connections allowing mobility in scenarios with a heavy
amount of traffic. Whereas in lightly loaded scenarios it is possible though
not always convenient to design long radio ranges in single-site cells in such a
F. Barcelo-Arroyo (*)
Technical University of Catalonia, Spain
e-mail: barcelo@entel.upc.es
Y. Koucheryavy et al. (eds.), Traffic and QoS Management in Wireless 151

Multimedia Networks, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 31,
DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-85573-8_4, Springer ScienceBusiness Media, LLC 2009
152 F. Barcelo-Arroyo et al.
way that handovers are not needed, the trend to microcells and sectorization
greatly increases the capacity of the network. The cellular concept is usually
linked to frequency planning and resource allocation schemes. It is also neces-
sary to allocate admission controls to reduce the probability of a call being
interrupted at the expense of higher blocking probability for calls being
initiated. In case of emergency, extra prioritization schemes might be needed.
Implications of cellular design and handover become more complex in case
of discontinuous voice transmission (e.g., the channel is seized for duration of a
talkspurt only) as used in Voice over IP (VoIP) systems over high speed data
wireless networks (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System [UMTS],
Wireless Local Area Network [WLAN], and Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access [WiMAX]). Handover at network level when capabilities
such as multicast or broadcast are considered is also a major challenge. The
existing diversity of networks and protocols together with the trend to market
dual terminals able to connect to a variety of networks in a transparent way
raised the concept of handover in heterogeneous networks (i.e., between net-
works using different radio access networks [RANs]). The main goals of hand-
ing over to a different RAN are improving coverage and Quality of Service
(QoS) and reducing the cost of connections.
This chapter presents recent advances in the field of mobility support carried
out in the framework of COST 290 Action. In Section 4.2, several issues related
to the mobility models are analyzed together with the impact of mobility on
the perceived QoS. Section 4.3 deals with the problem of roaming between
networks that use different protocols. The QoS experiment in personal com-
munication systems is studied in Section 4.4, including high speed networks
for wireless access such as High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA).
Section 4.5 deals with wireless networks transporting IP flows and the issues
that arise to allow mobility at the network level.
4.2 Mobility Characterization
Mobile networks tend to concentrate most of the value-added services, main-

taining the fixed network as a plain transportation network. Most of the
assumptions made for such services in traditional fixed networks cannot be
directly applied to mobile networks, because such hypotheses do not account
for user mobility. In this scenario, simulation appears as a key tool for research
in mobile networks. The main reason is that simulation allows any system
configuration to be studied. There are a variety of reasons for using simulation.
Simulation allows the isolation of a parameter (i.e., studying the impact of a
single variable in the system while keeping other variables constant), the repeti-
tion of experiments under the same conditions, the study of any metric in the
system, and so forth. Notice that most of these features are difficult if not
impossible to achieve in field studies.
4 Mobility Support 153
Although simulation is a powerful tool, it is constrained by several issues. In

this sense, mobility is one of the most notorious. How do users move within the
simulation area? Are there walls or buildings that block their movements? Can
users cross such obstacles? What happens when users reach the simulation
boundaries? Do the users move alone or in groups? Are there predefined
paths where users move through? Do the users change their speed during
movement? How? When? All these questions should be answered by a proper
mobility model.
The study [Cam02] shows that the choice of the mobility model modulates
the results achieved in simulation, constraining the generalization of the con-
clusions achieved. Accordingly, research efforts have been oriented to develop
realistic and relatively simple models that can be used in simulations [Ats06].
Currently, there are several mobility models available. Random Walk is prob-
ably the simplest one. It consist of selecting a direction and speed from a
predefined range (usually [0, 2p] and [vmin to vmax]) at constant time interval
(t). It is a simple model and it is easy to implement, but it has been criticized
because it delivers unrealistic movements: sharp turns, sudden speed changes,
and so forth. The Random Waypoint Mobility model is probably the most
frequently used by the research community. It selects a random destination and
speed uniformly distributed within a predefined range. The speed remains
constant until the destination is reached. Then the user pauses for a while and
repeats the whole process. The properties of this model have been extensively
studied [Ats06], and it has been demonstrated that using this model leads to a
nonuniform spatial user distribution (i.e., users tend to move in the center of the
simulation area). Smooth Random Mobility models correlate the speed and/or
direction between consecutive changes. Thus, the movement is smoother. Ran-
dom Direction model is based on choosing a random direction and a uniform
speed. The user moves according to such parameters until it is closer to simula-
tion boundaries than a predefined parameter. All the models presented above
bounce the user when it reaches the simulation area limits. The Boundless
Simulation Area Mobility model wraps the movement of the users when it
reaches the boundaries of the simulation area. More realistic models can be
developed coupling some of the models presented [LeB05a, LeB05b]; for
instance, the work presented in [Jar03], where blocking areas are included and
a Voronoi map is used for building the allowed paths.
Mobility models are widely used as important components of studies for
street planning and performance analyses for mobile networks and mobile
applications. Some examples for the application of mobility models in scientific
studies are [Sch03] for city and street planning, [Lam97] for the dimensioning of
cells in cellular systems, [Sho97] for the parameterization of location update
procedures in mobile communication systems, [Kon05] for the evaluation of
pseudonymity and anonymity in mobile communication environments, [Luc07]
for the evaluation of distributed measurements of cell polygons by mobile users,
and [Iac00, Kub01] for the evaluation of hot-spot communication support
functions.
4.2.1 Random Direction Mobility Models
In this section, a brief overview on mobility modeling is given and current trends
are outlined.
4.2.1.1 Measures of Mobility

The aim of mobility modeling is to describe the mobility behavior of persons1 or
objects. In this section, a brief overview on representations of mobility is given
in preparation for the survey of modeling approaches in Section 4.2.1.2 and
following subsections. For the representation of mobility, several approaches
exist. The most important ones are
Time-dependent coordinate functions
Flows
Sojourn densities
Movability
The position of an object is a unique description of a place. This can be an
indirect position value via an index or direct specification of a coordinate. Coordi-
nates can be composed of continuous or discrete values. According to the dimen-
sion used for the mobility scenario, typical spatial dimensions are 1D, 2D, 2.5D or
3D, which will occur in all of the previously mentioned descriptions of mobility.
The description of positions as a time-function is simply defined by
x~
~ xt: (4:1)
According to physics of masses and forces, it can be required that ~ xt is
continuous and differentiable. A further requirement to the differentiability
might be that speed changes are possible according to the mass inertia and
realistic physical forces. In some studies, the requirements of continuity and
differentiability can be relaxed owing to a special model usage or owing to the
irrelevance of the resulting effects in study cases. A simple example of a con-
tinuous and exact definition of an object position as a function of time is a
straight movement as given by the formula
x~
~ xStart t ~
v: (4:2)
More complex movement patterns can be represented by time functions of

higher orders or as a combination of sections (i.e., a polygon). A typical
example for a polygon of straight movement sections applying the relaxation
of the differentiability requirement at the segment points is shown in Fig. 4.1.
The mobility of a set of n objects
o X can be described with a set of object
*
movement paths (i.e.,X xi t ) or, for example, for bus or train mobility,
by defining a group point and offsets for the individual objects.
1
Further on, mobile persons and objects are denoted for simplicity as mobile objects.
Fig. 4.1 Mobility description using a polygon of lines
Alternative representations for mobility are object flows and sojourn densities.
A flow is a measure of the object transition rate at a border or its normalized value.
Depending on the spatial dimension of the mobility scenario, a border is a point in
1D-case, a line in 2D-case, or an area in 3D-case. In a 2.5D-case, it might be a line
or an area. Flows can be the absolute transition rate for the whole border or
normalized to the border size. The measure of an object sojourn density represents
the number of objects per space element. In a 1D-case, a space element is a line
segment, in a 2D-case an area, and in a 3D-case a volume element. In a 2.5D-case,
again, it depends on the applied definition, if the sojourn density is defined for an
area or a volume element. Both measures can be used as time-functions, maybe
with low-pass filtering to avoid Dirac pulses, or as long-term mean values.
Further measures for classifying a mobility scenario are the mean impulse
and the mean kinetic energy, which is also denoted as the temperature.
Flows, sojourn densities, mean impulses, mean kinetic energies and tempera-
tures allow an estimation of the spatial distribution and the movability of
objects. They provide an averaged view on mobility scenarios but do not
consider individual objects. Based on this property, they can be derived from
position descriptions, whereas the conversion vice versa is not possible in
general. Typical applications for these averaged measures are evaluations of
aspects that are correlated with the number of objects or the frequency of
arrivals in distinct areas. An example is the application of object flows to
estimate the signaling load for location updates in cellular systems.
4.2.1.2 Modeling Approaches

Mobility models are used to generate mobility descriptions as introduced
before. In science, several approaches for mobility modeling are used. The
prevalent ones are
Direct models
Behavior models
Traces
which are discussed next.
Direct models just postulate position descriptions, flow descriptions, sojourn

density descriptions, and so forth, as time-functions. These postulates follow
ideas of mobility and are typically used to stimulate systems in a distinct way.
An example for this kind of mobility description can be found in [Iac00], where
the file delivery delay in an Infostation environment is derived.
The aim of behavior modeling of mobile objects is to describe a generation
process for positions of mobile object. The description of the mobility beha-
vior of objects is done by rules of how mobile objects change movement-
related parameters like direction, speed, and acceleration. The actions
defined by the rules are applied in the case of events like the arrival on
crossroads or time triggers. Popular examples for this kind of mobility
model are the Random Waypoint (RWP) and Random Direction (RD)
mobility models.
The main criteria for classifying generation processes are
The use of randomness
The influence of a fixed environment (i.e., street maps) on movement paths
The influence of other mobile objects
The history of mobility (i.e., Markov properties)
A simple example for a behavior description of a car in a street environment is
depicted in Fig. 4.2. When arriving at a crossroad, the next way segment for this
car is chosen randomly with the probabilities p1 for a left turn, p2 for a straight
continuation of the journey, and p3 for a right turn. For a complete behavior
Fig. 4.2 Behavior model for a car at crossroad

Fig. 4.3 Transformation of a behavior model to a trace usable in a simulation study
description of the arrival at a crossroad, the condition p1+p2+p3=1 is

obligatory.
Behavior models are linked with position descriptions by simulations, as
depicted in Fig. 4.3. Position descriptions as results of the simulation process
are polygons that are composed of segments. Typically, the created segments of
the movement path are lines, circles, arcs, splines, or any other mathematical
functions of the scalar parameter t.
The third major modeling approach is the use of traces. Traces are collec-
tions of real-world data of sample entities or a population of sample entities.
When using mobility traces for studies, the availability and the statistical value
of trace data has to be considered.
For the availability of mobility traces, the following aspects have to be taken
into consideration: path information of mobile entities is difficult to collect. In
contrast with the well-known traces of the communication behavior of com-
munication devices and applications, there is no aggregation point for mobility
measures. The most often used GPS system can only be used for outdoor
measurements, and only few devices are equipped with receivers. Additionally,
a system for collecting the decentralized measured data is needed. Within
buildings, special systems like active badge systems can be used but have to be
deployed. The evaluation of videos of public areas provides a lot of path
information of a significant amount of entities but typically only covers a
very limited area. Cell-based measurements can be obtained by cellular network
operators. Nevertheless, this position information (i.e., indexed position data
enhanced with rough angle and distance information) has some weaknesses.
Typically, it only covers communicating mobile entities, which is a special
situation, and the accuracy is not satisfactory for requirements of exact position
models. Furthermore, owing to business secrecy policies, this kind of mobility
data is not available in general.
The statistical value of trace data is influenced by several aspects (e.g., the
mobility of objects highly depends on the situation of mobile objects). The most
obvious situations are the type of transportation (i.e., pedestrians, car passen-
gers, train passengers, etc.) and the participation in office hours and rush hours.
This means for traces that the statistical properties of measured data vary
significantly over the time. Thus, the statistical value of traces is limited and a
conclusion from this property is that traces can only cover distinct examples
and scenarios (i.e., for protocol tests).
4.2.1.3 Model Creation and Model Selection

In science, model creation or idealization is the attempt to only consider
relevant effects and dependencies of systems. For this, descriptions of systems
are simplified and nonrelevant internal and external effects and dependencies
are neglected (idealization) or different states are integrated (averaging). For
the description of models, commonly mathematical formulations instead of
empirical data are used. The application of mathematical formulations allows
the extrapolation of the behavior of modeled systems and effects exceeding the
amount of observed cases. From this property, additional knowledge can be
gained.
Requirements to properties of mobility models arise from different areas:
generic requirements, requirements of the methods of investigation, and
requirements of the studies themselves. A typical generic requirement is the
modeling of relevant dependencies between system components and the absence
of not-needed interactions. From the method of investigation, the stationarity
of statistical properties is a very common requirement. Furthermore, the
absence of periodic behavior is necessary for statistical evaluations. Study
requirements might be that the model can be parameterized for different
scenarios and situations, the direct or indirect testability against reference
scenarios and the simplicity.
Typical approaches in model creation are to derive models from more
complex models by omitting parts, to determine models based on observations
and measurements using extrapolation methods and to postulate models with-
out a direct link to reality as basis for hypothetical studies. Methods to evaluate
models against other models or a real-world observation (i.e., to prove the
model assumptions) are direct comparisons of model properties with other
models or real-world measurements or indirect comparisons of effects caused
by models or real-world effects on stimulated objects. Especially for the case of
mobility models, where from case to case significant deviations in some
properties between reality and models can be accepted, the process of choosing
an appropriate model and its parameterization can be described as an iterative
process as depicted in Fig. 4.4.
4.2.1.4 State of the Art in Mobility Modeling

Now, as general aspects of mobility modeling have been discussed, a short
survey on current trends in mobility modeling for telecommunications research
is given. Especially, activities in stochastic modeling, comprehensive behavior
Fig. 4.4 Iterative model creation/selection
modeling for street planning, trip modeling, and the generation of trace data are
highlighted.
Stochastic mobility models, also denoted as Random Walk2 models, are typi-
cally simple behavior models that are easy to implement, with an easy parameter-
ization and with simple sojourn density distributions and user flows. Examples for
this kind of mobility model are the well-known Random Direction (RD) and
Random Waypoint (RWP) mobility models. Surveys covering this kind of mobi-
lity model can be found in [Cam02, Jug00]. A classification schema for stochastic
mobility models can be found in the survey part of [Bet01]. Extensions to the
simple models are models that take predefined paths into account (i.e., street
maps). Extensions of this kind for the RWP model are proposed, for example, in
[Ste05, Kra08]. Another approach to increase the parameterization complexity of
stochastic behavior models is the introduction of location-dependent behavior
rules as proposed in [Alp05] for the RWP model and [TD(05)052] for the RD
model. More comprehensive approaches for behavior models of mobile entities
taking influences of maps and other mobile entities into account can be found in
street planning research (e.g., [Hel99]). These models implement time and psycho-
logical influences of mobile objects and take into account object distances to each
other (e.g., the approximation behavior of drivers on motorways).
Trip models (e.g., [Mar97]) consider sources and sinks of mobile objects.
Typically, these kinds of mobility models are based on traffic matrices, maps,
and shortest path routing algorithms. The Traffic Matrices can be obtained
from street planning research (e.g., [WEB07]) and provide means to model
2
The notion Random Walk model is in literature sometimes used to denote Random
Direction (RD) mobility models. Recently, there is a trend to use the notion Random Walk
model as generic term for entity based stochastic mobility models whereas the Random
Direction denotes a specific mobility model.
rush-hours and fluctuating traffic flows. Another source for trip-based mobility
models are traces based on trip models as described in [Gun05].
As introduced before, trace data is difficult to obtain. Examples for the
collection of path information can be found in [Roj05]. Rojas took the
approach to let one person write a log book for journeys within the city of
Melbourne for the duration of 2 months. Bitzer collected path information by
converting a video of a crowded place covering some days into movement
polygons [Bit05]. As mentioned before, trace data has several problems con-
cerning its statistical value. Nevertheless, even if mobility models are not likely
to be replaced by traces, more trace data should be obtained to normalize
synthetic mobility models, as demonstrated by Rojas adjusting the parameter-
ization of a RWP mobility model using the trace date.
Known problems of mobility models are stationarity problems and unex-
pected sojourn-density clustering. The major problems and most frequent
errors occurring in literature have been outlined in [Yoo03] for the RWP
mobility model. Approaches to fix some of the problems are proposed in
[LeB05a, LeB05b] with his Perfect Simulation approaches, which allow omit-
ting simulation warm-up phases
A lot of work for providing realistic mobility models that allow sustainable
mobile network planning still have to be developed. Typical for evaluating new
communication technologies and communication protocols is owing to the
lack of sustainable models and owing to the limited influence of mobility on
many system parameters the definition of reference models for comparing
technologies (e.g., as done in [ETS98]).
4.2.1.5 Conclusions on Mobility Characterization

Synthetic mobility models as the Random Waypoint and Random Direction
models are simple to implement and provide if properly parameterized
stationary behavior. The major drawback of these models is that they only
provide unrealistic, simple user sojourn densities and traffic flows. In contrast
with this, the modeling approaches of graph- and trip-based models as well as
real-world traces of mobile entities provide more realistic mobility patterns. The
drawbacks of these approaches are that they are complex to parameterize, the
stationarity is an issue, and simulation results based on these models typically
are difficult to compare. The right choice of a mobility model for a certain study
is difficult to determine and has to be discussed and evaluated in each case using
the argumentations as introduced in this text.
4.2.2 Impact of Mobility on Performance of Cellular Networks

The study of the connection-related teletraffic variables in cellular networks is
very different from the study of the same variables in fixed networks. Moreover,
progressive cellular division introduces changes in the teletraffic analysis that

oppose the previous studies carried out on fixed network and even in the first
mobile cellular networks based on larger cells. The fact that the latest mobile
network designs are based on smaller cell size has, as direct consequence, an
increase of the number of handovers produced by a call. As consequence,
assumptions for traditional teletraffic variables cannot be applied anymore,
and new studies for these variables need to be carried out. For instance, the
channel holding time has been deeply studied using several approaches [Hon86,
Fan01, Chl00, Bar00, Chl97, Bol94]. From an analytical point of view, [Hon86]
studies the performance of several schedules on the channel holding time;
[Fan01] analyzes the applications of hyper-Erlang distribution and specifically
the implications of such distribution in the channel holding time when it is
applied to the users cell resident time. On the other hand, [Chl00] provides a
characterization of it using a simulation procedure, and [Bar00, Chl97] does the
same by means of a field-data analysis. Moreover, new variables appear in this
new mobility context. One example is the variables related with the handover
process, such as time between consecutive handovers, handover duration,
handover dropping probability, number of handover attempts until channel
achievement, and so forth. Most of these variables have been rarely considered
in the recent teletraffic research [Bar99, Rug98, Mar02, Pla02] and some of
them are not even addressed yet.
The interest on cellular-specific teletraffic variables is thus increasing with
handover rate becoming higher and cell size going smaller. This growth in the
handover rate is favored by new mobility models. Some years ago, only pedes-
trian users were expected in cellular networks. Nowadays, high-speed users are
relatively common. For instance, the amount of users with in-car phone adapters
is drastically growing; or customers using network services in trains or taxis until
they arrive at destination are only few examples of these new mobility conditions.
These high-speed mobility models intensify the effects of the cellularization.
Hence, the impact of mobility in teletraffic variables needs to be studied.
Mobility may impact many variables. However, handover processes are
directly related with the mobility of users and the density of sectors. Accord-
ingly, handover-related variables seem to be a representative set of variables to
study the impact of mobility in teletraffic parameters. From all the handover-
related variables, the ones that seem to cause more interest are the time between
two consecutive handovers and the duration of the handover. The former is
used to characterize the handover traffic. On the other hand, the duration of the
handover complements the first variable quantifying the amount of time that a
user spends until a new channel is reached. Notice that featuring these variables
is essential for several network purposes. For instance, for dimensioning the cell
resources properly, or to propose suitable call admission control algorithms, as
they should depend on the intensity of handover traffic and the load of the cell,
among other parameters.
Among all approaches, simulation seems to be the best one to study the
mobility in teletraffic variables, as it allows all parameters to be tuned and all
metrics to be analyzed. The study [Mar02] presents a simulator used to model a

fixed channel allocation (FCA) network (e.g., as Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM)) and study handover traffic and handover duration,
among other teletraffic and QoS variables. This simulator allows urban cross-
shaped Manhattan and Random Walk mobility models to be used. The users
speed follows a Gaussian distribution function with average and standard
deviation as system parameters. Using such simulator, the authors of [Mar02]
characterized the handover duration in different mobility conditions. More
specifically, an average speed of 5.5 and 20 m/s with a standard deviation of
30% of the average speed were used in such simulations. Table 4.1 summarizes
the results achieved under different mobility and load conditions. The calls
follow either an exponential distribution with average call duration of 120
seconds or a lognormal distribution function with the same mean and a square
coefficient of variation of 1.75. As it can be seen, handover duration seems to be
slightly higher in the lognormal scenario for all loads studied. This is due to the
higher square coefficient of variation, which makes longer conversations more
likely to happen. Additionally, increasing the mobility of the users seems not to
impact the handover duration, where only slight variations are detected. In fact,
the authors think that these variations are due to the random error inherent to
the simulation process.
The simulator presented in [Mar02] was upgraded to cope with dynamic
channel allocation (DCA) networks [TD(06)001]. Propagation models, a power
control algorithm [Nua01], and a call admission control algorithm [Cap01]
suitable for UMTS networks were included as new features. Table 4.2 presents
the results of the handover duration for DCA networks as described in [Spe05].
Three average speeds are included. Standard deviation for speeds is set to 30%
of their average value. A static scenario (i.e., a scenario where users are ran-
domly spread in the simulation area but do not move) is included as reference.
As in the case of FCA networks, data provided in Table 4.2 include exponen-
tially distributed and normally distributed calls, where SCV stands for the
square coefficient of variation that applies to the latter. As expected, handover
durations for lognormal call durations with SCV of 1 are higher than in the case
of exponential. The exception is the static scenario, where handovers are usually
served instantaneously, but in the cases where interference does not allow one to
achieve a channel, the handover takes maximum duration possible.
Table 4.1 Average handover duration for exponential and lognormal call duration times in
fixed channel allocation networks
Speed (m/s) Load (%) Exponential (s) Lognormal (s)
40 0.0540 0.0500
5.5 50 0.1344 0.1347
60 0.2468 0.2526
20 40 0.0618 0.0650
50 0.1265 0.1391
60 0.2375 0.2455
Table 4.2 Average of handover duration (in seconds) for exponential and lognormal call
duration times in dynamic channel allocation networks
Speed (m/s) Load (%) Exponential SCV 1 SCV 3 SCV 10
50 0 0 0.0003 0.0041
0 70 0.0001 0.0005 0.0068 0.0209
90 0.0215 0.0351 0.0347 0.0538
50 0.0054 0.0020 0.0086 0.0108
13.9 70 0.0074 0.0035 0.0107 0.0164
90 0.0228 0.0135 0.0281 0.0372
50 0.0371 0.0239 0.0508 0.0859
25 70 0.1418 0.1270 0.1156 0.1957
90 0.3366 0.2748 0.4473 0.8248
SCV, square coefficient of variation.
Accordingly, in this scenario the handover duration is increased because longer

call durations are expected in the lognormal case. Again, the higher the load
applied to the system, the longer will be the durations of handovers. This is
because higher load involves more handover traffic and fewer resources available
for such traffic. In addition, the higher the SCV, the longer will be the durations
of handovers. This is because longer calls in the cell are more likely to happen and
mobility is increased accordingly. The impact of mobility is also remarkable. In
fact, handover durations are increased more than 10 times when going from 13.9
m/s to 25 m/s in certain loads (usually 70% or more). It involves less handover
arrivals being carried on their first attempt and hence remaining more time in the
handover condition. A higher call interruption probability is thus expected and,
as a consequence, worse system performance. Accordingly, mobility is a factor
that should be accounted for in the teletraffic variable characterization.
4.3 Handover in Heterogeneous Networks
IP-convergence has led to the coexistence of several IP-based wireless and

mobile access technologies (WLAN, GPRS, HSDPA, and UMTS). With the
existence of heterogeneous access technologies comes the need for seamless
mobility and uninterrupted services across these technologies, thus creating a
pervasive ubiquitous computing environment.
Advanced mobility management is needed to fulfill the seamless global
roaming requirement of the next-generation networks. Mobility management
protocols are in general responsible for supporting services seamlessly across
heterogeneous access technologies that require connection migration from one
network to the other. This is known as vertical handover, and the protocols
designed to support vertical handover should provide location and network
transparency.
A lot of research work is directed toward solving the handover problem
across heterogeneous access networks with optimum QoS performance. Based
Table 4.3 Comparison of mobility management protocols

OperatingLayer Protocol Advantages/Limitations
Network layer Mobile IP and its Triangular routing problem.
derivatives Changes are needed in the IP stack [Sid06b].
Transport protocol cannot handle the change in
IP.
Transport layer TCP extensions Timeouts suffered by TCP affects performance.
[Wes04], SCTP Depends on IPSec, adding overheads and delay.
Application SIP Maintains end-to-end semantics, suitable for
layer heterogeneous access networks.
Not suitable for fast handovers.
SIP, session initiation protocol; TCP, transmission control protocol; SCTP, stream control
transmission protocol; IPSec, internet protocol security.
on the layer in which they operate, these mobility management protocols are
classified as those operating on network layer [Per02], transport layer [Sno00,
Sid06a], or application layer [Sch00, Bel06]. Table 4.3, compares the mobility
management protocols at different layers.
The dependence on the access network decreases as one moves up the protocol
stack. Application-layer protocols are transparent to network-layer and lower-
layer characteristics. They maintain true end-to-end connection semantics and
are hence most suitable for heterogeneous access network environments [Sid06a,
Wes04]. Among the application-layer protocols, SIP is standardized by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and also supports terminal mobility
and personal mobility along with network mobility and is most appropriate
protocol for mobility management. SIP also has been accepted by the 3rd Gen-
eration Partnership Project (3GPP) as the signaling protocol in setting up real-
time multimedia sessions. Although SIP-based mobility management solves the
problem posed by Mobile IP route optimization, for some cases it introduces
unacceptable handover delays for multimedia applications with stringent QoS
requirements. Moreover, SIP entails application-layer processing of the mes-
sages, which may introduce additional delay. Hence, SIP-based mobility manage-
ment protocol is required to adopt a soft-handoff mechanism in order to
minimize the delay incurred due to application-layer message processing.
From the above discussion, it is clear that a complete mobility management
solution can be designed by combining the network-layer mobility with the
application-layer mobility schemes.
4.3.1 Mobility Support of Multiuser Services

in Heterogeneous Networks
This section describes multiuser mobility support [TD(04)006, Cer06] aiming at
the support of seamless multimedia and multiuser communications with QoS
support in the all IP scenario.
In the QoS Architecture for Mobile Multicast Multimedia Services (Q3M)

architecture, the seamless mobility of multiuser real-time sessions is supported
by the cooperation between the Seamless Mobility of Users for Media Distribu-
tion Service (SEMUD) [Vel07] and Multiuser Session Control (MUSC)
mechanisms [Cer06]. SEMUD provides seamless mobility to multiuser sessions
based on the combination of caches located at access routers (ARs), buffers
located in mobile nodes (MNs), and a session context transfer mechanism.
MUSC allows the setup of multimedia sessions with end-to-end QoS mapping,
QoS adaptation, and connectivity control. Because of the heterogeneity of the
communication infrastructure, the scheme is based on the separation of the
multiuser session identifier and the network locator. Whereas the session iden-
tifier has a global meaning, the network locator is only relevant inside each
domain. Moreover, each multiuser session can be composed of a set of flows
that are described by a Session Object (SOBJ), where the QoS parameters
requested for each flow are carried in a QosS Specification (QSPEC) object.
From the transport point of view, multicast is the most appropriate technique
to support multiuser sessions because it allows several receivers to get the
content of the subscribed sessions at the same time without packet duplication,
saving in this way the network resources.
The SEMUD mechanism uses caches to store packets in ARs. When packets
reach an AR, they cached and forwarded to the interested receivers. On the
other hand, at MNs, buffers are used to store packets. During handovers, the
data in the MN buffers will continue to be consumed by the applications in
order to provide a seamless service. When the handover starts, the most prob-
able MN destinations are predicted based on parameters like the moving
direction, velocity, current position, and historical records. Then, SEMUD
signaling messages are sent to the most probable destination ARs in order to
transfer the session context in advance, to trigger MUSC to reserve QoS-aware
distribution trees for the session, and to obtain information concerning the
capability and connectivity of the new attachment point (e.g., QoS level and
multicast channels preallocated for each flow of the session in the new access-
network). The information collected by the signaling protocol is sent back to
the requesting AR and will be used in the selection of the Next AR (NAR). For
example, ARs that give guarantees of QoS would be preferred to those that do
not give those guarantees or cannot build the branch to the multicast tree. When
the MN reaches the destination network, the session will be already active at the
NAR leading to a strong reduction in the latency handover and packet loss.
When the MN arrives to the destination network, it needs to fetch, from the
NAR, the packets lost during the handover period. To fetch the missing packets,
the MN sends a request to the NAR with the time stamp of the last packet received
before handover, the free buffer space, and the session identifier. With this
information, the NAR selects the packets that need to be sent to the MN and
sends these packets directly to the MN. Because packets have different importance
in accordance with the content that they carry, the cached packets are selected
based on their importance in the quality of the session (e.g., cached MPEG video
packets are selected taking in account the type frame they belong to). The MN gets
the fetched packets and inserts them into the buffer of the corresponding session.
MUSC cooperates with SEMUD in the seamless handover in the Q3M
architecture. It aims to control the mobility of users over heterogeneous envir-
onments by installing sessions on new paths with QoS and connectivity support.
The user access control is done in the AR through the interaction with Session
Initiation Protocol (SIP). After the session setup, SEMUD is triggered to create
a cache for a new session. Seamless handover is accomplished because SEMUD
triggers MUSC in the NARs to pre-setup the session on the new path(s) when
mobility occurs. Hence, a receiver-driven and source-initiated protocol is used
to exchange control information between MUSC agents using a software
approach. It is receiver-driven because it is triggered at the AR, and it is
source-initiated because MUSC starts the configuration of edge-agents at the
agent near to the source or, at the first agent, in the path toward the source,
which contains the requested session. This control avoids end-to-end signaling
to set up a session already present near to the receiver and aims to build
distribution trees taking into account the QoS characteristics of the path from
the source toward the receivers (which may be different from the reverse-path).
In each agent along the downstream session path, an interface with a resource
allocation controller allows MUSC QoS mapping operations to be performed
independently of the QoS model used to implement service classes in different
networks. This is done based on the association between the QSPEC of each
flow and the available service classes managed by the resource allocation
controller. After the mapping procedure, MUSC notifies the service class that
was selected and the bandwidth requirements for each flow of the session. When
the QoS mapping mechanism is unable to ensure the QoS requested by the
session, the MUSC QoS adaptation mechanisms is triggered to adapt the
session to the current network conditions; for instance, requesting the alloca-
tion of the session in another network service class or requesting more resources
in the selected class. Additionally, MUSC controls the session connectivity
among networks with the same and/or different address realms. This control
is done according to the connectivity technology offered by heterogeneous
networks and supported by the MNs. The connectivity control allows the
mapping of unicast flows into multicast trees and vice versa or even the map-
ping of sessions between networks with different multicast address realms.
Furthermore, multicast protocols can be activated in edge MUSC agents to
build QoS-aware multicast branches associated with each session flow.
The joint operation of MUSC and SEMUD was evaluated by simulation,
using Network Simulator (ns-2). Simulation results confirm the ability of the
proposed mechanisms to avoid packet losses and to increase the quality level of
a multiuser session during handover. To absorb rate variations and to effi-
ciently recover the missing packets, the buffer and the cache should be correctly
dimensioned. For example, for an average rate of 86 kB/s and handover dura-
tion of 500 ms, the losses for a video sequence will be totally eliminated when
combining cache sizes above 56.8 kB with buffer sizes above 71.5 kB.
4.3.2 Mobility Enabler for Multimedia Services
To cater to the existing heterogeneous environment in terms of access networks

and devices at the edge, next-generation network architecture is moving toward
convergence at the core. The 3GPP specified IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS)
[3GP07] is an effort toward the emergence of a converged service delivery
platform. Mobility-based multimedia services are part of the advanced next-
generation services that operators promise to provide. It enables seamless
multimedia session continuity across multiple devices (session mobility) and
across multiple access networks (terminal mobility) [Cui04, Kom06]. For the
above-mentioned services to be accepted by the users, it is essential to provide
acceptable and adaptable quality for the content. In this section, a novel service
component called mobility and quality (MnQ) enabler is proposed; it resides in
the application-plane of the IMS operator network and uses SIP [Sha06], which
is the signaling protocol of the 3GPP-specified IMS.
4.3.2.1 Motivation
Session mobility and terminal mobility are features that benefit both the users
and the operators. Some user benefits are
When a multimedia session is moved from a higher-cost access network to a
lower-cost access network, it is cost-effective to the users.
When the session moves from a lower-bandwidth access network to a higher-
bandwidth access network, it enhances the users Quality of Experience
(QoE).
When the session moves from a low-capability device to a high-capability
device, it enables enriched multimedia communication.
The single major benefit for the operators in providing mobility and session
continuity is that the users would tend to use the services for a longer time
resulting in revenue, and it also broadens the scope for providing innovative
services.
This win-win scenario is a motivating factor for designing the MnQ enabler,
which proposes to enable adaptive quality for mobility-based services, would
facilitate operators to provision such advanced services, and encourages users
to use these services.
4.3.2.2 Mobility and Quality Enabler

MnQ is a combination of SIP Application server and media server residing at
the application plane of the IMS operator network that enables the operator to
provide terminal mobilitybased and session mobilitybased services. It uses
SIP signaling protocol to interact with the end user and with the media control
element to provide the session continuity and quality adaptation.
Upon evaluating the relative merits of existing SIP-based approach

where mobility and session continuity are triggered by a third party
(using the Re-INVITE message) or one of the communicating devices
(using the REFER method) [Spa03, Sch00], a hybrid approach is proposed
where mobility is initiated by the end users but session continuity during
mobility and session quality adaptation is triggered by MnQ. Enhance-
ments are also proposed to the Session Description Protocol [Ros02] that
is used by SIP for quality negotiation to enable quality adaptation to
mobility and heterogeneous end devices.
4.3.2.3 Testbed Implementation, Experimentation, and Evaluation

An implementation of MnQ on an IMS test facility is proposed [TD(07)011], as
shown in Fig. 4.5.
Experiments should be performed to measure and evaluate the performance
of MnQ in enabling mobility and quality adaptation. The performance metrics
based on which MnQ would be evaluated are listed as follows:
Session Transfer Delay [Bel06] time for application setup and time for
media buffering.
Media Disruption frame loss/packet loss.
Fig. 4.5 MnQ implementation on the IMS testbed

Fig. 4.6 Session renegotiation delay (MnQ)
Quality Adaptation to heterogeneous access networks, different device

capabilities (display size, buffer capacity and media codec). This is measured
by the time taken for renegotiation by the SIP protocol.
Figure 4.6 depicts the renegotiation delay experienced due to quality adapta-
tion during mobility from UMTS to WLAN and vice versa. It is demonstrated
that the delay has been reduced by half by the deployment of MnQ. The
reduction in delay is due to the fact that MnQ acts as a broker and enables
negotiation and renegotiation between the communicating end points.
4.4 QoS in Wireless Communications Systems
Users of wireless communications assume that mobility will be added to the same
guarantees of quality and rate as wired transmissions provide. In that sense, they
expect that once a communication has been established, its quality will be pre-
served while moving around. Full coverage, no/low call blocking, no dropping,
and intelligibility (usually measured as BER/rate/jitter) [Lu07] are presupposed.
In cellular networks such as those of Personal Communications Services

(PCS), two main scenarios that can be considered as mobility issues are
addressed: intracell and intercell motion [Gao04].
Considering a unique access point or Base Station (BS), the position of the
User Equipment (UE) in the cell determines the attainable QoS. Power control
could compensate the low received power near the edge, but, even in those
conditions, interferences are harsher than they are near the BS.
Under certain QoS requirements, different wireless access technologies allow
distinct grades of mobility (Fig. 4.7). Physical layer technologies greatly influ-
ence the motion possibilities. Channel variability makes necessary adaptation
strategies in order to preserve certain throughput and Bit Error Rate (BER):
adaptive equalizers3 are able to estimate and track the channel state at the
receiver; adaptive modulation techniques can adjust the physical layer charac-
teristics to the variant nature of the channel. As the mobile node moves faster,
the coherence time decreases, the channel changes more rapidly, and the feed-
back time, at least one Transmission Time Interval (TTI), is relatively longer.
Even short delays in feeding-back Channel Quality Indicators (CQIs) would
result in outdated channel states for modulation adaptation and resource
allocation. As a consequence, the attainable QoS degrades.
A second major problem is how to keep providing the same level of quality to
the packet flow when the user moves from one cell to another (i.e., during and
after a handover). Handover involves not only maintaining a session but also
the QoS requirements of the applications running on the user equipment as the
point of access from a mobile device to the network changes [Wri07].
Usual handovers in PCS are horizontal; that is, they occur at the wireless link
layer as both base stations are operated by the same network operator under the
same wireless technology. An ongoing call should be accepted in the new BS
after a handover because dropping a session is a very undesirable situation from
1xEV-DO
HSPDA
1xEV-DV
802.20
EDGE
GPRS
Vehicular
IS-95B
GSM UMTS
IS-95A Cdma200
LTE/802.16m/IMT-A
Walk DECT 802.11b 802.11a
802.16a
Stationary Bluetooth 802.15
10k 64k 128k 384k 2M 20M 100M
Fig. 4.7 Mobility versus aggregated bit rate for several radio access technologies
3
Note that in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDM), continuous channel
estimation and compensation at the receiver can be considered as a kind of adaptive equal-
ization with number of taps equal to the number of subcarriers.
the user point of view. Dropping probability can be reduced by reserving

resources at the BSs for incoming calls from handovers.
For real-time connections, packet delay/jitter should be kept under certain
limits in order to accomplish the application QoS requirements. During hand-
overs, data suffer extra delay as the connection to the old BS is released and a
new connection has to be established. In hard handovers, both actions are done
sequentially. Soft handovers (i.e., when UE always keeps at least one radio link)
help accomplishing the QoS requirements at the expense of extra resources.
However, some technologies such as High Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA) only allow hard handovers, which makes it more difficult to maintain
the desirable quality during the process.
This section is devoted to QoS issues in PCS. The first two works address
handovers in two specific scenarios. Section 4.4.1 proposes new mechanisms in
order to avoid dropping of emergency calls in crisis situations. Section 4.4.2
studies the problem of handovers of a VoIP session in HSDPA. The last con-
tributions study motion within a cell. Section 4.4.3 focuses on link adaptation and
its associated limitations over high-mobility scenarios. Finally, Section 4.4.4
estimates individual QoS depending on the terminal situation in the cell.
4.4.1 Resource Management and QoS Control

in Emergency Situations
Issues related to QoS of emergency services include aspects of system capacity

design, reliable infrastructure, recovery operations, and aspects of resource
management policies. The rise in traffic demand due to emergency situations
causes congestion in a network, and it is necessary to design and apply special
resource management algorithms that employ different priority policies to
different users. This work is focused on the resource management and QoS
control in emergency situations. Resource management and call access control
(CAC) are based on traffic models that include normal and emergency load
conditions. In normal load condition, the objective is to minimize blocking rate
of new calls while keeping dropping rate of handover calls under the prede-
scribed small value. In emergency load condition, the objective is to minimize
blocking rate of new emergency calls (all users should be able to call for help)
and to minimize dropping rate (all important information should be exchanged
despite people moving).
This work is focused on control of handover calls. An effective way to reduce
the handover call dropping probability (CDP) is based on the advance resource
reservation for future handovers. Efficient advance resource reservation needs
good prediction methods to predict future new and handover call arrivals. In
search for good prediction models, both predictable and unpredictable situa-
tions are considered. Predictable situations include normal (stationary) mode
of operation, typically featured by random traffic, seasonal patterns (hourly,
daily, weekly, yearly), and special events (sport, meetings, open-air concerts,
etc.), whereas the unpredictable situations include abnormal (nonstationary)
mode of operation, typically featured by nonstationary traffic, random bursts
and impulse patterns, and sudden events (accidents, earthquakes, attacks, etc.).
4.4.1.1 Related Work

Resource reservation management based on CAC schemes [Per96] needs good
prediction models of call arrivals and call duration. Related methods use
Markov models, Kalman filters, Wiener filters, or Bayesian models [Bro91].
Univariate Wiener-based method, autoregressive-integrated-moving average
(ARIMA), and Multi-Media One-Step Prediction (MMOSPRED) [Eps00]
methods are compared in [Zha01, Roz03]. It has been shown that these models
offer similar performance for stationary traffic, but Wiener- and ARIMA-
based methods seem to be more adequate for nonstationary situations. Emer-
gency situations will require a more flexible approach to resource management
and control. In such situations, multi-inputmulti-output (MIMO) models may
include features such as random or stepwise capacity changes, different CAC
policies, exogenous variables, and so forth [Roz04]. Booking ahead a connec-
tion based on the predictions should guarantee availability of resources at the
time it starts. If the prediction is good, the targeted CDP (i.e., QoS) will be
realized. If the prediction fails, the CAC should apply preemption of ongoing
public calls to supply the required resources to new and handover emergency
calls [Gar92]. More user friendly approach for public callers is if the CAC
puts prioritized calls in a waiting queue(s). Combining queuing with preemp-
tion is considered in [Zho06] where the main three types of calls, emergency,
public handover, and public originated calls, are considered.
4.4.1.2 Resource Reservation and Call Admission Control

In this work, a combined preemption and queuing scheme is proposed for call
admission control in cellular wireless networks [TD(05)038]. It is assumed that
new and handover emergency calls have higher priority, whereas handover
public calls have lower priority and new public calls have the lowest priority
and they will be preempted if needed (Fig. 4.8). When an originating emergency
call arrives and finds no channels to preempt (i.e., all ongoing calls are emer-
gency ones or some channels are booked ahead for in the near-future-arriving
handover emergency calls), it will be queued or necessarily blocked if the queue
is full. When a handover emergency call arrives in the cell, it is supposed to find
at least one free channel because the CAC system should book enough
resources based on predictions of the handover traffic. If an emergency call
handover arrives and finds no channel to preempt, it will be blocked directly. A
public handover call will be blocked only when the corresponding queue is full,
whereas a new public call will be blocked whenever the channels are all occupied
or booked. Required resource reservation can be realized through access
Fig. 4.8 Combined preemption and queuing scheme using separate queues for new emergency
calls and public handover calls
control of the new and handover public calls as follows: if the predicted number
of the required channels Ni in the home cell is less than the total number of
channels C0 in the cell, the new call is admitted into the system. In other words,
the new call is admitted into the system if the predicted one-step-ahead CDP is
below the targeted dropping call probability (TCDP). The necessary deadline
for starting the CAC algorithm depends on the handover in-going call rate, call
termination rate, and the actual system occupancy. Assuming that the joint
behavior of binomial random variables is Normal, the handover calls will be
normally distributed, so that the time precedence variable t is also a normally
distributed random variable, whose mean can be estimated from
N^h
ht i ; (4:3)
^
lterm
where ^ lterm represents the expected total rate of the encumbered terminated
calls, and N ^h is the expected number of channels required by handover calls.
Figure 4.9 shows an example where a short and very fast burst of emergency
handover calls arrives in the base station whose capacity is already fully occu-
pied. The handover traffic requires in total 25 channels in a 50-second interval.
In the worst traffic condition when the system capacity of 30 channels is totally
occupied, the necessary deadline amounts to about 150 seconds.
Figure 4.10 compares the CDPs obtained with univariate ARIMA [Roz03]
and MIMO ARIMA models [Roz04], respectively. There is obviously an addi-
tional gain in performance in the MIMO approach. The CDP for univariate
case in Fig. 4.10 exceeds the targeted CDP of 5% because the model does not
include exceptional events, thus the model is not able to predict unexpected high
handover traffic. The univariate ARIMA model is an inadequate one in this
Fig. 4.9 The total number of channels, new accepted calls, handover calls, and the reservation
time for burst-like handover emergency traffic
case because it is not fitted to traffic bursts but only to the stationary part of the
traffic. However, the MIMO ARIMA model is an adequate one because it
incorporates all traffic events. In this case, the benefit of applying the MIMO
model can be considered through ability of the CAC system to maintain the
predescribed QoS value even in irregular traffic situations.
4.4.1.3 Conclusion
In this work, an approach to call admission control and resource reservation is
presented in emergency situations. Attention is given to application of ade-
quate prediction models for exceptional events such as handover traffic burst
caused by entering rescue teams in the imperilled region in emergency situa-
tions. To ensure sufficient amount of resources at the projected time instant,
the control system must generate good prediction of traffic loads and must
start with resource reservation in time. Therefore, the necessary time prece-
dence for in time starting of the CAC mechanism is defined. Simulation results
show the superiority of the proposed approach for some typical nonstationary
situations.
Fig. 4.10 Handover call dropping probability: comparison for scenario of burst-like hand-
over traffic [Roz04]
4.4.2 Performance Evaluation of VoIP HSDPA
Upcoming wireless services are envisioned to be multimedia in nature. While the

initial scope of HSDPA was on Best Effort services, the interest in using HSDPA
also for real-time applications is growing. This interest is mainly pushed by the
increasing role of Voice over IP (VoIP) in both fixed and wireless networks.
VoIP, being a real-time service, has significantly different requirements on the
connection than do Best Effort services. Best Effort services require guaranteed
delivery of the data, but do accept additional delay, whereas for VoIP, delay is
the most critical issue, but loss of some packets can be tolerated.
Another trend is that services should be available anytime, anywhere, for
people who are always on the move. Under high-mobility situations, handovers
become an important issue for VoIP and other real-time services. This is the
focus of the research described in this study. As the soft and softer handovers do
not apply to the High Speed Downlink Shared Channel (HS-DSCH), the data
channel of HSDPA, the handover is a hard handover, with break before
make. This process is depicted in Fig. 4.11. After sending the last packet
over the Iub interface to the serving cell, some time needs to be included to
empty the buffer of the serving cell (i.e., the time between the switch_Iub and
switch_Uu moments). In the meantime, no transmission should start from the
new cell yet. The delay between these two switch moments is referred to as the
handover delay.
Fig. 4.11 Time evolvement

of the handover process,
including the two switch
moments that have handover
(HO) delay in between them
The time instances of stopping and starting should be such that the serving
(old) cell has sufficient time to complete transmission of packets already sent
over the Iub while avoiding a time gap in the transmission. Too short a hand-
over delay results in packets that are still waiting in the queue of the old Node-B
at the time of switching. These packets are, by definition, lost. At the same time,
any additional waiting time causes extra delay to packets waiting in the new cell.
This trade-off, in particular with respect to handover aspects of an HSDPA
system carrying VoIP services, has been extensively investigated in [Bru07a].
All results are gathered with the ns-2based Enhanced UMTS network level
simulator EURANE [Eur]. The cell layout has a hexagonal structure, where each
Node-B covers three cells. The users are moving at 120 km/h in a Vehicular A
(COST 231-Hata) environment, resulting in substantial number of handover occur-
rences. For more details on the assumptions, see [Bru07a]. Figure 4.12 shows the
basic layout of the cells in which the infinite world consists of groups of three
3-sector sites (i.e., nine cells). When a UE moves outside the center area of nine cells,
the UE repositions into the center area in the same relative position compared with
the sites as in the area it entered. Figure 4.12 shows this with the bent arrows.
Fig. 4.12 Basic cell layout (solid) and surrounding coverage areas (dotted)
The configuration with three 3-sector sites is selected as it is the smallest size
that can be created with hexagonal cells, while it still includes multiple sites and
sectors (to include both soft and softer handovers) and is rotationally sym-
metric. In an infinite world, the surrounding coverage areas also have cells and
traffic. The model assumes these are exact copies of what is happening in the
basic coverage area. One aim of the multicell propagation model is to create a
realistic pattern of handovers with as little cells as possible in order to keep the
simulation time within reasonable time limits. The study has used a model with
only three 3-sector sites, resulting in nine cells. Through this small number, the
simulations run considerably fast, creating more results in the same time. It has
been verified that this model is large enough to create a realistic pattern of
handovers.
As VoIP is a real-time service, the analysis considers delay of packets as the
key performance indicator. Moreover, a codec adaptive multirate (AMR) of
0.7% is assumed for VoIP. It turns out that VoIP can be carried by the
HS-DSCH effectively, see [Bru07a]. An Hybrid-Automatic Repeat request
(H-ARQ) model is incorporated, which utilized retransmissions to obtain a
higher likelihood of packet reception. The target BLock Error Rate (BLER) of
the first transmission is set to 10%, but due to the high speed of moving, the
link-layer information is very outdated by the time it is used. From Table 4.4, it
is clear that only after the third transmission is the residual BLER below the
required packet loss ratio. H-ARQ adds a considerable delay (up to 24 milli-
seconds, based on 12 milliseconds in between subsequent retransmissions).
Because of the high velocity of the users, the scenario described in this study
is considered a worst case. Users moving at lower speed will encounter less
handovers, which implies a lower packet loss. Results for other schedulers can
be found in [Bro07].
4.4.3 Impact of Mobility on Next-Generation OFDMA

Cellular Systems4
The growing use of wireless devices has raised an interest in analyzing the
impact of mobility on the overall performance. Commonly, mobility manage-
ment functionalities perform optimally for low-mobility scenarios, it being
Table 4.4 Conditional and residual BLER values for the first, second, and third H-ARQ
transmissions (Round-Robin scheduler)
Conditional BLER Residual BLER
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
29.0% 7.9% 7.3% 29.0% 2.3% 0.2%
4
This part was partially published by Departamento de Engenharia Informatica (DEI),
Facultade de Ciencias e Tecnologia, Universidade de Coimbra (Portugal). Editors: Torsten
Braun, Dimitri Konstansas, Saverio Mascolo, and Markus Wulff (mwulff@iam.unibe.ch).
precisely the objective of new features to extend the degree of terminal mobility
as much as possible while keeping the target quality. A number of papers have
addressed the mobility management protocols to optimize the performance
during handover process [TD(05)017, TD(07)029]. On the other hand, link
adaptation is strongly influenced by terminal speed. Next-generation cellular
standards, as the so-called Long-Term Evolution (LTE) [3GPP1], aim to pro-
vide valid service at extremely high speed. Therefore, there is an ongoing work
focusing on link adaptation and its associated limitations over high-mobility
scenarios.
LTE specifications are targeted to define a high data-rate, low-latency, and
packet-optimized radio-access technology [3GPP2]. LTE will offer a broad-
band wireless access at data rates of multiple Mbit/s to the end-user and within a
range of several kilometers. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
(OFDMA) [Nee00] at the physical layer, in combination with channel-aware
scheduling at the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, provides an optimized
resource allocation and QoS support for different types of services. High
spectral efficiency in OFDMA environments is achieved by dividing the total
available bandwidth into narrow subbands to be shared by users in an efficient
way. Besides, Adaptive Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (AQAM) is also
used to maximize the transmission efficiency while keeping the Bit Error Rate
(BER) below a desired target (BERT). These techniques require the transmitter
to be instantaneously channel-aware so that proper modulation schemes and
frequency subbands are selected dynamically. Thus, the transmitted signal is
continuously adapted to the varying channel conditions.
In order to select the modulation scheme for each subcarrier, the channel has
to be known at the transmitter. With this objective, Channel State Information
(CSI) is fed back from the receivers to the transmitter. However, potential
delays in the reception of CSI through the feedback channel may cause certain
degradation of the system performance. Impairments in adaptation due to the
delayed reception of CSI were analyzed in [Par04] for a generic AQAM system.
Such a delay is a further undesirable effect as mobile terminal speed increases
because channel coherence-time is shorter.
A model based on LTE specifications was presented in [Mor07] in order to
evaluate the impact of mobility on the overall performance. Concretely, the
maximum admissible feedback channel delay was evaluated for different term-
inal speeds. This model includes the LTE physical layer of a downlink scenario
where CSI is fed back, as Channel Quality Indicators (CQIs), from each User
Equipment (UE) to the Evolved Node-B (eNodeB).
Different UE speeds were simulated in order to identify the maximum speed
that fulfills the predefined QoS requirements (in terms of BER). Main simula-
tion parameters are listed in Table 4.5. Feedback delay has been normalized to
the LTE Transmission Time Interval (TTI) of 1 millisecond. Users speed varies
from 5 km/h (pedestrian) to 30 km/h. Higher UE speed implies faster temporal
changes in channel response and, as a consequence, the influence of the feed-
back channel delay on the transmission adaptation is greater. On the contrary,
Table 4.5 Configuration parameters

Parameter Value
FFT size 2048
Data subcarriers 1200
Cyclic prefix length 144 samples
Carrier frequency 1.8 GHz
Sampling frequency 30.72 MHz
FFT, fast fourier transform.
Fig. 4.13 BER versus average SNR for different feedback channel delays: (a) UE speed: 5 km/h;
(b) UE speed: 15 km/h
CQI from UE at lower speed (i.e., experiencing slow varying channels) will be
even less affected by the feedback delay.
Figure 4.13 illustrates the effect of feedback channel delay on the average
BER for different UE speeds and same BERT= 102. For a UE speed of 5 km/h
(Fig. 4.13a), channel response has a very slow variation, and, therefore, a delay
in feedback channel does not affect significantly the BER results, which remain
under the target even for 5-millisecond delay.
However, it is clear how results get worse as the terminal speed increases.
When a UE moves faster (15 km/h) (Fig. 4.13b), the impact of feedback channel
delay is higher, leading to a significant performance degradation. The max-
imum admissible delay for the feedback link is about 3 TTI (3 milliseconds)
when the UE moves at 15 km/h. The shadowed area in the figure represents
those BER values above the target.
In Fig. 4.14, average BER results are presented as a function of feedback
channel delay for different UE speeds, assuming an average Signal to Noise Ratio
(SNR) of 20 dB. In case (a), BER results are always below the BERT 102 for
quasi-pedestrian speeds (5 and 10 km/h). However, for higher UE speeds, the
target BER is exceeded even for small delays (e.g., 1.5 milliseconds is the max-
imum admissible delay at 30 km/h).
For a more restrictive constraint (e.g. BERT 103), BER requirements
are only fulfilled by pedestrian UE (5 km/h). When UE speed is higher (from
Fig. 4.14 BER versus feedback delay when target BER value is 102 (a) and 103 (b) for
different UE speeds
10 km/h on), even a small delay causes BER values higher than BERT (e.g.,
2.75 milliseconds at 10 km/h and 1.75 milliseconds at 15 km/h).
Simulation results show the impact of user mobility on adaptive modulation
functionality. As a conclusion, CQI feedback delay on an OFDMA system may
cause a wrong selection of instantaneous modulation scheme because the
CQI used in that selection may not match the current channel conditions. A
system performance degradation is detected for pedestrian speeds (5 km/h)
when feedback channel delays are above 5 milliseconds. However, BER results
are kept under the target value if delays are below 5 milliseconds even for a
BERT = 103. When UE speed is higher, channel time coherence is lower (i.e.,
temporal correlation decreases). Hence, CQI information becomes outdated
sooner, and average BER results are below the specific target only for low
feedback delays.
4.4.4 Estimating Individual QoS
Function of QoS support is divided into subsystems in mobile networks. The

technological QoS parameters are used for control of resources, power control,
switching, and codec parameters control. However, the resulting de facto QoS
(i.e., the one experienced by an individual user) is not controlled or measured in
any way. For instance, the current end-user equipment has no technical means
to evaluate perceived service level.
In reality, any mobile network will have both some spots of coverage zone
and time intervals where communication conditions will deteriorate to the level
where they may be defined as not ensuring sufficient service quality. Normally
these unfavorable spots are distributed throughout the network and are not
seen on the average statistics. However, users who might happen to be in one of
those poorly serviced spots on a regular basis (e.g., those living or working in
one of the poor coverage areas) will as a result suffer from poor quality much
more frequently than will an average user. As an example, Ascom report
[Asc03] provides the results of measurement data, recorded in Denmark.
These measurements reported that in 5.3% of call attempts, speech quality
was found fair, and in 2.3% of call attempts, quality was poor. The mean
percentage of poor-quality links is not very significant, but distribution of
cases of poor communication quality was not uniform among users. Cases of
poor communication quality were attributable to those users who were in some
specific geographic locations or used services when the network load was high.
Very often, such locations of poor quality may be found very near base stations
or near cell edges.
According to International Telecommunication Union (ITU) recommenda-
tions, QoS is a conditional subject. The main criterion is the satisfaction of the
end user. This formulation of QoS permits quality evaluation at the application
level. The degree of satisfaction depends on the perceived service level, user
expectations, and cost. Service level is merely a reflection of the subjective perso-
nal impression of the users, and consequently the best way to estimate it would be
the testing conducted with a selected set of persons. Based on this principle, there
were several proposals for evaluating the QoS provided de facto to individual
users the individual-QoS (iQoS) [Kaj04, Kaj05]. The essence of these proposals
is that in mobile networks, the speech quality should be measured by individual
users and at an individual users location (i.e., at the mobile terminal).
Relations between the Service Provider (SP) and the end-user are usually set
out in the service agreement (network/services subscriber agreement). However,
today most of such agreements have very few, if any at all, provisions dealing
with QoS. Usually, the most important focus of such agreements is to set out the
rules for accounting of provided services (calling time, amount of sent data), but
without direct link to the quality of those provided services.
Because it is not possible to guarantee the same service level throughout the
entire service coverage area of mobile networks, it might be then logical to
divide a network into zones with different QoS already during the network
design phase. Such zones may be around centers of cells and near cell edges. The
contractual obligations between the SP and the end-user (Service-Level Agree-
ment; SLA) in such circumstances shall be supplemented by a clause about
quality level or quality class. As a matter of fairness of service, the SLA may
include provisions for compensating the user economically (e.g., reduction of
service fees) when specified QoS is not fulfilled in reality.
To make this new SLA quality concept feasible, it is necessary to comple-
ment mobile terminal with iQoS module, which would provide ongoing mea-
surement of received iQoS and could also relate these evaluations with an
amount of supplied service (e.g., amount of calling time, sent data, etc.). For
the latter, the iQoS modules might also be integrated with pricing tools.
The proposed iQoS module [Kaj05] collects all information required to
evaluate the actual service received by the end-user, which can include poor
service reception due to wireless channel impairment or unavailability due to
network congestion. This information could then be collected by the network

and used to adjust service charges to particular users.
However, the practical implementation of iQoS modules would require
solving certain difficult issues. One of these is the problem of finding technical
monitoring parameter that would represent subjective voice quality. This pro-
blem is complex because voice quality highly depends on the location of lost
packets in a signal. There are works (e.g., [Wer04]) that relate received voice
quality with radio channel parameters. Alternatively, the proposal presented
here allows calculation of distribution of the perceived speech quality based on
the series of actually lost frames and using conditional rates of quality classes,
where q may be Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor and Bad as defined in ITU-T
Recommendation P.800 (i is number of lost frames in a measurement period,
i = 0, 1, 2 . . .).
A call with duration of 2N seconds may be divided into 2-second
intervals, which allows estimating number ij of lost frames in j-th interval,
then calculating the number ni of intervals in which i frames were lost and
finally calculating the resulting distribution of received voice quality as
follows:
1X
Pq ni pq=i: (4:4)
N i0
Conditional rates of quality classes p(q/i) were estimated experimentally. In

simulation experiments, sentences 2 seconds in length were used (ITU-T Rec.
P.800 recommends using sentences of 2- to 3-second duration).
Table 4.6 shows distribution of rates p(q/i) when 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, or 5% of
packets are lost in 2-second sentence by using AMR12.2 voice codec. For
simulation of packet loss, the models of lost frames were used as described in
Section 3.3.1 of Chapter 3. The voice quality using Perceptual Evaluation of
Speech Quality (PESQ) (ITU-T Rec. P.862) was measured. Boundaries between
adjacent voice quality classes were defined as in ITU-T Rec. G.107.
Figure 4.15 presents an example of distributions P(q) of quality classes
calculated for a 60-second call, which was performed using experimentally
collected voice packet loss traces at center of the cell (good conditions), near
the edge of the cell, and at the very edge of the cell (bad conditions).
Table 4.6 Distribution of conditional rates of quality classes

p(q/i) 1 2 3 4 5
Excellent 0.329 0.176 0.117 0.08 0.058
Good 0.416 0.321 0.236 0.199 0.172
Fair 0.225 0.391 0.402 0.354 0.303
Poor 0.028 0.093 0.183 0.248 0.301
Bad 0.001 0.093 0.183 0.248 0.301
Fig. 4.15 Experimental

distributions of quality
classes
This example clearly demonstrates the de facto quality of service received

when the user is located at cell edges varies very significantly. Therefore, it
becomes obvious that averaging in such conditions is not the best option for
estimation of perceived speech quality.
4.5 IP Mobility Protocols in Wireless Networks

The evolution in mobile networks has given rise to several different yet
complementary access networks such as second- and third-generation wireless
cellular (2G/3G), Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs), wireless broad-
band (WiMAX), and high-altitude and satellite networks that offer a broad
range of services targeted toward diverse subscriber needs [Sah04,
TD(06)005].
In such environments, the mobility of communication devices is well sup-
ported from the physical point of view. However, continuous reachability and
seamless handovers have to be achieved on upper-protocol layers, too, in order
to satisfy QoS requirements for multimedia services. With the aim of effectively
supporting the integration of the different access technologies to the core net-
works, IPv6 and Mobile IPv6 are envisioned to provide transport and mobility
solutions. IP-based wireless networks are a research area of importance because
the networks proposed for the latest releases of Universal Mobile Telecommu-
nications System (UMTS) and the next generation (4G) of wireless networks
are all-IP based.
One of the most promising IP-based mobility management protocols at the
macrolevel is Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6) [Sah04, Joh04]. To provide satisfactory
services to the customers, the handover delays, control messages, and radio link
inefficiencies need to be reduced. Innovative interfaces and smaller cells are
solutions proposed to address these problems. From a signaling point of view,
smaller cells mean increased traffic when legacy mobility protocols are used.
The main drawbacks of macromobility management protocols, like MIPv6, are
signaling overhead and handover delays, which gave a rise to development of
micromobility solutions [Cam02].
Integration of multicast multimedia applications with interactive channels and

asymmetric traffic on unidirectional broadcast access networks in heterogeneous
mobile IP infrastructures requires efficient handover mechanisms and QoS sup-
port for mobile applications with return channel requirements.
This section deals with handovers and mobility issues including a study
on the actual performance of MIPv6, enhancements of Hierarchical
MIPv6 (HMIPv6), and the interaction/combination of MIPv6 and
HMIPv6 with multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) to support future
networks. Practical issues for the implementation of IPv4/IPv6-based mul-
ticast are also presented, which lead to the description of two mobile
multicast protocols. The section ends with a study on handover issues in
broadcast networks.
4.5.1 Handovers and Mobility Protocols

Mobile IP (MIP) allows a mobile node (MN) to move from one link to another
without changing the mobile nodes home IP address [Joh04]. A home address is
an IP address assigned to the mobile node within its home subnet prefix on its
home link. Packets may be routed to the mobile node using this address
regardless of the mobile nodes current point of attachment to the Internet,
and the mobile node may continue to communicate with other nodes (station-
ary or mobile) after moving to a new link. While a mobile node is attached to
some foreign network, it is also addressable by one or more care-of addresses.
When away from home, a mobile node registers one of its care-of addresses with
a router on its home link, requesting this router to function as the home agent
(HA) for the mobile node. The HA intercepts, encapsulates, and forwards
packets to the mobile node through its registered CoA.
Roaming support implies that a mobile user could have the ability to switch
its reference network node without any noticeable lack of availability in deliver-
able services during the switch. This kind of transaction should be transparent
for registered users. The main objective is to have a Mobile IP scheme that needs
limited user management involvement in order to support the movement of a
user. A Mobile IP scheme could use information coming from lower layer
(L2 triggering) in order to support users movements in heterogeneous network
architecture.
To support better mobility managements, new protocols have been proposed
by IETF. The Hierarchical MIPv6 (HMIPv6) [Vas07a, Vas07b] protocol
reduces the handover latencies using a new entity, the Mobility Anchor Point
(MAP). Another MIPv6 enhancement is the Fast MIPv6 protocol (FMIPv6)
[Koo05]. The goal of FMIPv6 is to allow a MN to configure a new CoA before
it moves toward a new subnetwork with the aim of being able to use it straight
away after its connection to the new Access Router.
4.5.1.1 Handover Latency Performance Characterization and Optimizations

for Mobile IPv6
MIPv6 suffers from several well-known weaknesses such as long handoff
latency and signaling overhead. Handoff latency is the time taken for mobile
node to obtain a new address and register it with the HA.
The handoff latency is the main cause of packet loss in a wireless network,
and therefore high handoff latency limits the QoS. In order to reduce handoff
latency (Layer 2 or Layer 3), increase the QoS, and reduce signaling overhead,
many mobility management protocols have been proposed. MIPv6 has been
designed for macro (interdomain) mobility, so when used for intradomain
mobility control, it introduces larger handover delays.
Here the handover process of Mobile IPv6 is examined in a real wireless
testbed, based on IEEE 802.11b, and the information on the actions taken by
network entities during the movement of a mobile node is extracted. The main
focus is on the decomposition and analysis of all the initiated events and
exchanged signals and measures in a real-life scenario, all the delays associated
with them, both in the Link and the Network layers. Particular attention is
given to the period leading to the L3 registration part of the handover, as this
has been identified by many as the choking point of the whole process.
Experimental results help in understanding the effect of Duplicate Address
Detection, Router Advertisement Intervals, and Wireless Beacon Intervals on
the handover delay.
This work provides real-implementation results for significant parts of the
handover process, which cannot be obtained through simulation. The testbed
setup is considered to reference a very realistic topology (Fig. 4.16), and all the
results were obtained with no optimizations on the L3 part of the
2001:1a18:1:10:: 2001:1a18:1:9::
MN IPv6 Network MN
HA FA
Home subnet Visited subnet
CN
2001:1a18:1:2::
Correspondent subnet
Fig. 4.16 MIPv6 testbed topology (copyright # 2006 SOFTCOM [TD(07)041])

Table 4.7 MIPv6 handover delay breakdown

Delay Component Normal Operation After Optimizations
DL2+RD (L2 probe + RA reception) 0.6484 0.0771
DDAD (IPv6 DAD) 1.4136 0.5788
DREGHA (registration with HA) 1.0031 1.0031
DREGCN (registration with CN) 0.6123 0.6123
Total 3.6776 2.2715
HA, home agent; DAD, duplicate address deatection; RA, router advertisment; CN,
correspondent node.
implementations used. The results shown in the first column of Table 4.7 have
been obtained through experimentation.
The applied set of optimizations include turning the duplicate address
acknowledgment off, enforcing explicit router solicitations, and reducing the
number of wireless beacons.
The results illustrate how the link layer detection, the movement detection,
and the address autoconfiguration delays of the handover can be reduced. More
information on the experimental setup along with extended results can be found
in [Vas07a].
4.5.1.2 Improving Mobility Anchor Point Selection Efficiency by Predicting

Future Movement of Mobile Nodes
The most notable micromobility approach, Hierarchical Mobile IPv6
(HMIPv6), is defined in RFC 4140 [Sol05]. Besides the well-known Home
Agent (HA) entity, HMIPv6 introduces an additional entity called Mobility
Anchor Point (MAP). While HA manages location of a Mobile Node (MN) on
a macrolevel, MAP keeps track of the precise location of the MN on a micro-
level. MNs may choose among different MAPs, making a decision that affects
efficiency of the protocol.
The baseline MAP selection algorithm, proposed by the authors of the
HMIPv6 protocol, always selects a MAP that is furthest in terms of routing
hops. The aim of the selection algorithm is to minimize the number of
required MAP changes and thus reduce the signaling overhead and handover
delays. The two recognized drawbacks of furthest MAP selection are high
load burden on distant MAPs and unnecessary signaling delays for MNs that
move locally. New MAP selection algorithms have been proposed in the
literature [Hus05, Cam02, Kaw02, Pac06]. They are classified into three
distinct groups: speed-based algorithms, history-based algorithms, and adap-
tive algorithms. In [Pac07], an extensive comparison of the above algorithms
can be found.
In [TD(07)041], a novel way of selecting MAPs is proposed. The majority
of existing proposals assume complete randomness of the MN movement.
However, MNs may move according to some repeating patterns. The
frequency of repetitions may vary of the order hours, days, weeks, or even
months. Following the same path to work, regular sport activities, weekend
trips or vacations are some illustrative examples of repeating movement
patterns.
Furthermore, public transport vehicles such as buses, trains, and airplanes
move along very deterministic travel paths. It is expected that a concept of
network mobility [Dev05] with Mobile Routers (MRs) is going to be deployed
on such vehicles, where a MR takes mobility management responsibilities and
may keep track of repeating patterns.
The proposed solution is based on the assumption that the knowledge of
MAP availability in the future can be predicted with some certainty. The closest
to this idea are history-based selection algorithms. They base their decisions on
the knowledge of MN/MR movement in the near past. Their approach repre-
sents the first attempt to consider the moving pattern of MNs. To achieve better
MAP selection, the usage of the information about the MAPs availability is
proposed.
A comparison of the proposal presented to other existing proposals by
means of simulations is provided in [TD(07)041]. Unlike the majority of related
studies in the field, here irregular nontree-like network topologies are used in
order to achieve better modeling of overlapping areas. Average distance from
the selected MAP and average number of MAP changes during the observed
time period will be used as the evaluation metrics. Average distance from
selected MAP is in tight relation with signaling delay, intradomain route
optimality [Nov06], and load balance, while average number of MAP changes
directly influences the amount of signaling overhead and additional signaling
delays.
4.5.1.3 Mobility in Virtual Circuit (VC)-Based Radio Access Networks

The increased requirements of an IP-based radio access network (RAN) can be
met when the scalability and reduced latency of HMIPv6 is combined with the
switching performance and traffic engineering capabilities of multiprotocol
label switching (MPLS).
The distinguishing feature of MPLS is the ability it offers to users to specify,
and tightly control, the communication paths based not only on hop informa-
tion but also on a wide range of QoS parameters and policies. Given the
tremendous increase in the use of wireless devices to access the Internet and
multimedia services, concerns related to providing and maintaining specific
service levels arise. It is therefore reasonable to consider an extension of
MPLS into the mobile domain. Design issues for combining Mobile IP with
MPLS have been made in [Vas06b].
In [Vas07b, Vas06b], a framework for micromobility-enabled MPLS is
proposed, called the Overlay MMPLS. The goal of this section is to explain
how mobility can be introduced, and especially how handovers can be handled,
in Overlay MMPLS. The framework creates a micromobility-enabled MPLS

network, using HMIPv6. The two protocols are combined in an overlay fashion
because this seems to be the simplest form of interaction and operation. In
addition, it does not involve any changes in the existing protocols, and its field
deployment can be gradual.
This work builds on, and extends previous work [Vas02, Vas03], which
proposed and examined an integrated framework for the integration of
MPLS and HMIPv6 for use in a RAN.
4.5.2 IPv4/IPv6-Based Multicast
This section is focused on the study of multicasting, including native multicast

routing protocols, and Alternative Group Communication Services (AGCS)
proposals. The work is backed up by practical experiments, using Zebra and
GateD routing software on RedHat Linux platform for IPv4, and pim6sd and
pim6dd on FreeBSD for IPv6. The deployment of a multicast testbed is more
complex than a unicast one. It involves a multicast traffic source, at least one
member for that multicast group and the multicast routers. A testbed for native
IPv6 multicast was used to evaluate the available routing protocols such as
Protocol Independent Multicast-Dense Mode (PIM-DM) and Protocol Inde-
pendent Multicast-Sparse Mode (PIM-SM) [TD(04)010].
From an objective perspective, some of the metrics (stress, resource usage,
and stretch) can be evaluated, whereas the other metrics (control overhead, join
latency) can be determined only through measurement in a real testbed. Stress
represents the number of identical copies of a packet carried by a physical link.
For example, if on a link the packet arrives tunneled from the source and then it
is distributed through multicast, the stress on that link has a value of 2. In
general, the stress on all links should be kept as low as possible.
Resource usage is defined as
X
L
di si; (4:5)
i1
where L is the number of links active in data transmission, di is the delay of link
i, and si is the stress of link i.
The resource usage is a metric of the network resources consumed in the
process of data delivery to all receivers. There is the assumption that links with
higher delay tend to be associated with higher cost. Stretch, also called Relative
Delay Penalty, represents the ratio of the delay between the source and the
receivers along the AGCS route to the delay of the unicast path. Control
overhead quantifies the cost of maintaining the AGCS topology in terms of
control information exchanged (number of messages and bandwidth). Join
latency, also known as Time to First Packet, defines the time required for a
newly joined member to start receiving the data flow [TD(06)010].
Fig. 4.17 CastGate Router with PIM-SM support (copyright # 2006 SOFTCOM
[TD(07)041])
One solution to the lack of native multicast is called CastGate. It makes use
of tunneling to transmit data to end hosts. A solution is proposed, CastGate
with PIM-SM (as shown in Fig. 4.17), which offers the benefits of native
multicast combined with CastGate [Bla05]. This mechanism can be general-
ized to other AGCS proposals like XCast [Boi00]. The join latency in a native
IPv6 multicast testbed was determined, demonstrating that its average value
could be higher than the round-trip time between a multicast receiver and the
closest router belonging to the distribution tree of that group. The possibility
of using CastGate architecture in IPv6 is investigated, with a remaining IPv4
tunnel.
Another solution makes use of XCast, an explicit multicast service based on
unicast routing only. The proposed implementation, called XCast [Shi01], is
based on PIM-SM. The aim is to extend the number of receivers of a multicast
session, to provide a more efficient use of network resources, and to simplify the
deployment mechanisms. The performance of XCast was evaluated and
compared with that of other XCast schemes: XCast with network support,
with premature X2U, with semipermeable tunneling, XCast with network
support and with semipermeable tunneling. Obviously, once native IPv6 multi-
cast is fully available, any CastGate/XCast architecture, no matter its version,
will be replaced. However, as an intermediary solution, CastGate with PIM-SM
is recommended, because the resource usage is only 15% higher than that for
native multicast, but about 2 up to 5 times lower than that for the other
CastGate scenarios. The increase in stretch for the CastGate Router and
CastGate with PIM-SM scenarios must be noticed. With respect to XCast,
taking into account stress, resource usage, and stretch metrics, the proposal is as
efficient as the best XCast-based scenario (i.e. XCast with network support).
The slightly higher stretch value obtained is compensated by the ease of deploy-
ment, as only one device is needed. In the case of XCast, the values are
comparable with those of native multicast, due to the use of PIM-SM.
4.5.3 Mobile Multicast Protocols
4.5.3.1 Overview of SReM

Scalable Recursive Multicast Protocol (SReM) [Yew04] was proposed as a
method to deliver packets by using a dynamic branching node-based multicast
tree (DBT). In SReM, three types of messages are used to build this DBT; that
is, join/leave signaling messages (JoinMs/LeavMs), registration request/reply
messages (RqMs/RpMs), and branching node messages (BNMs). In joining/
leaving process, each receiver wanting to join or leave a multicast group (G)
sends a join/leave message to its Local Multicast Router (LMR) by IGMPv.3,
and then this LMR sends a registration request message to the source (S) on
behalf of the receiver. Each LMR keeps the information about receivers cur-
rently attached to this LMR at a multicast destinations table (MDT). The
source upon receiving this registration request message sends back a registra-
tion reply message. At an initial stage, the source is the first Branching Node
Receiver (BNR), so it starts sending BNMs messages to set up and establish the
DBT. After that, both the multicast source and the BNRs will take the respon-
sibility for updating the multicast DBT. Each of the BNRs in DBT maintains a
MFT with a Multicast Tree Identity (MTI) of (S,G), which includes the address
of the previous BNR as well as a list of its next branching nodes addresses. After
building the DBT, SReM delivers the multicast packets unicastly via the BNRs.
4.5.3.2 MoSReM
As in SReM [Yew04], Mobile Scalable Recursive Multicast Protocol
(MoSReM) allows the multicast tree to be built dynamically between the
branching nodes when the roaming in or out process of multicast members
happens. The DBT is built using a pair of BNMs messages that carry all the
required information. These and other messages are used at MoSReM. Two
controlling messages are introduced there to achieve the mobility on receivers:
Roaming-in control message (Rm_in) and Roaming-out control message
(Rm_out). These messages are used to update the DBT for mobility support.
When a Mobile Node (MN) is in roaming, the roaming procedure includes
the following process:
1. Mobile node (MN) sends an Rm_OUT message toward its current LMR
(old LMR).
2. Old LMR triggers a procedure of update of DBT, if no more MNs attach to
the old LMR.
3. MN sends an Rm_IN message toward its new LMR.
4. New LMR triggers a procedure of update of DBT, if the MN is the first
member attached to the new LMR.
5. The process of update of DBT is similar to the join/leave operation in SReM,
except for no registration/de-registration toward the source.
When the previous procedure finishes, the MN is able to receive the multicast
packets from the new LMR.
Smooth handoff management is a key point in designing a mobility multicast
protocol. There are many proposals to deal with fast and reliable handoff, such as
preactive handover [Kem00] and fast handover [Koo05]. In MoSReM, it is
assumed that all the LMRs are able to actively participate and perform the
detection of movement of mobile receivers. As part of the smooth handoff
(procedure), the mobile receiver may request that its new LMR (nLMR) attempts
to notify its old LMR (oLMR) on its behalf, by including an oLMR notification
extension in its registration request message sent to the nLMR. The nLMR then
builds a binding update message and transmits it to the mobile receivers oLMR
as part of registration, requesting an acknowledgment from the oLMR. Upon
receiving the binding update message, the oLMR will then send a notification,
that includes the mobile receivers nLMR, or new CoA, allowing the oLMR (or
its foreign agent) to create a binding cache entry for the mobile receiver to serve as
a forwarding pointer to its new location. After this procedure, all the multicast
packets for the mobile receiver that arrived at its oLMR will then be tunneled by
the oLMR to the mobile receivers nLMR or new CoA.
4.5.4 Seamless Handover Using Broadcast Networks
Unidirectional broadcast technologies, such as Digital Video Broadcasting-

Handheld (DVB-H) [DVB, IPD] based on one-way transmission, are able to
provide cost efficient and high speed transport of multicast/broadcast traffic to
mobile receivers supporting scenarios for mobile television, streaming distribu-
tion, mobile content delivery, carousels, and reliable file downloads.
The goal is to develop efficient handover strategies for applications using
unidirectional networks based on interactions of IP tunneling mechanisms for
bidirectional connectivity emulation [RFC3077] and IP mobility protocols,
especially IPv6 Mobile IP (MIP6) [Joh04] and Fast Handovers for MIPv6
[Koo05]. Challenges for network discovery and handover optimization based
on IEEE 802.21[802.21] are considered.
4.5.4.1 Enhancement of IETF IP Tunneling Mechanisms (RFC 3077) to Support

Seamless Handover to Unidirectional Broadcast Networks
The IP (IPv4 and IPv6) mobility and address configuration protocols are based
on the assumption that the network interfaces of the mobile node are bidirec-
tional. The unidirectional link and a bidirectional wireless network for return
connections can differentiate in the coverage range, bandwidth, signal strength,
delay, and other performance characteristics that impact the connectivity of the
combined access network infrastructure.
To provide bidirectional connectivity of IP hosts with unidirectional net-
work interfaces, the Link Layer Tunneling Mechanisms (LLTM) (RFC 3077
protocol defined by IETF Unidirectional Link Routing [UDLR] Working

Group) is used. LLTM supports emulation of bidirectional connectivity at
MAC sublayer, which is a mediation layer between data link (L2) and network
layer (L3). LLTM configures dynamically IP tunnels from receivers to end
points at the sender, called feeds. The Dynamic Tunnel Configuration Pro-
tocol (DTCP) is used to provide information about the feeds to the receivers.
Use of LLTM for integration of unidirectional links in mobile IP infrastructures
is reported in a few studies and experiments. In a Cisco/Boeing effort on global
mobile router mobility, the tunneling facilities are used to provide roaming
capability in unidirectional satellite IP infrastructures [Kim01].
In heterogeneous mobile IP access environment involving mobile receivers
with unidirectional link interfaces, the LLTM is used to support the bidirec-
tional connectivity between mobile terminal with receive only capability and
access routers providing the connectivity to IP Core. In the LLTM network
model (Fig. 4.18), the access router (AR) connecting (downstream) the unidir-
ectional network to the IP Core is called a feed-AR. This AR provides IP
tunnel end points (feeds) for the emulation of the return channel from the
mobile node.
The return channel is built between the mobile receiver and the feed-AR IP
addresses using an additional bidirectional wireless access network (called
interaction access network), return-AR for the interaction network and
IP tunnel. A network model describing the bidirectional tunneling in mobile IP
using LLTM is given.
Fig. 4.18 Bidirectional emulation based on RFC 3077 for unidirectional links in
heterogeneous mobile IP access infrastructures (copyright # 2006 SOFTCOM [TD(07)041])
Depending on the QoS and business goals, the interaction networks can be
based on different wireless technologies UMTS, WLAN (IEEE 802.11), or
WiMAX (IEEE 802.16).
Enhancements are aimed to provide mechanisms for interaction of LLTM
and Mobile IP. Their goal is to learn the IP address of the feed-AR for
emulation of bidirectional connectivity together with the prefix of the new
CoA IP address of the unidirectional broadcast network. This improves the
time for the execution of the handover to the unidirectional broadcast network.
Because LLTM was designed for fixed IP environment, the feed capabilities
are obtained using DTCP protocol without interactions with mobility protocols
to care for handovers. This means that when the mobile node moves to the next
unidirectional network, the learning of the corresponding IP feed tunnel
address for emulation of bidirectional connectivity will be delayed at least until
a HELLO message is received by the mobile node at the next unidirectional
network. Analysis of handover delay based on integration of the feed IP
address in the MIPv6 and Fast Handovers for MIPv6 is discussed in [Mil07].
4.5.4.2 IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handover for Applications

Using Unidirectional Broadcast
The IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handover (MIH) is aimed to enable
handover decisions of mobile nodes with multiple network interfaces [802.21]
on different layers.
MIH includes cross-layer services that can request and deliver informa-
tion related to intelligent handover decisions at different communication
layers.
The standardized information, event, and control entities by IEEE 802.21
offer unified interfaces to obtain information and events, as well as to enforce
controls between network devices and modules. The handover support is based
on the following main interactions:
Local and remote layer 2 interfaces deliver events and triggers to upper layer.
The upper layers (network, transport, and application) issue commands to
MIH middleware to control layer 2.
IEEE 802.21 allows development of handover schemes for mobile nodes with
multiple interfaces, as well as services on network and transport layers making
use of multiple interfaces. An example is the dual-interface mobile host model
[Li07]. MIH services are also used to support the handover process in FMIPv6
based on the provisioning of L3 address information of neighbor access net-
works [Mus06].
Currently, the IEEE 802.21 does not consider the handover of mobile
services using unidirectional broadcast access networks. In order to support
seamless mobility of mobile nodes with unidirectional links and policies con-
cerning the usage of the unidirectional networks, 802.21 services (primitives) for
IP feed information exchange must be defined.
Fig. 4.19 MIH 802.21 for services using unidirectional links (copyright # 2006 SOFTCOM
[TD(07)041])
The resulting MIH architecture, supporting handovers for interactive multi-

cast/broadcast services in unidirectional networks, is illustrated in Fig. 4.19.
The integration of feed IP address (and capability) information elements in
802.21 will allow reduction of the handover time to unidirectional broadcast
networks, because the IP feed addresses for the emulation of the bidirectional
connectivity will be delivered together with the address prefix of the unidirec-
tional link by the 802.21 information service.
In addition to the IP feed address, capability information concerning the
QoS of the feed (i.e., the bandwidth and performance characteristics describ-
ing the attached interface to the IP feed) can be provided. This can support
better use of the resources and planning of QoS for bidirectional services on
broadcast networks.
4.6 Conclusions
This chapter presented several issues related to the mobility of terminals in

multimedia wireless networks. The characterization of possible mobility pat-
terns and its impact on the quality provided by the network has been analyzed.
Not only is the speed of the terminal (directly related to the handover rate)
relevant to the networks performance, but also other features of the mobility
pattern have an impact on QoS. Several approaches to provide support for
roaming in heterogeneous networks have been proposed and analyzed in order
to provide both session and terminal mobility. The QoS has been studied for
different network technologies and scenarios, including emergency. The
research presented in this chapter shows QoS measurements obtained in the
field and through simulation. Also, several proposals for IPv4 and IPv6 mobi-
lity protocols have been presented and evaluated.
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Mobility Support

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Chapter 4

Francisco Barcelo-Arroyo, Mari Carmen Aguayo Torres, Khalid Al-Begain,

Y. Koucheryavy et al. (eds.), Traffic and QoS Management in Wireless 151

4.2 Mobility Characterization

Mobile networks tend to concentrate most of the value-added services, main-

Although simulation is a powerful tool, it is constrained by several issues. In

4.2.1 Random Direction Mobility Models

4.2.1.1 Measures of Mobility

More complex movement patterns can be represented by time functions of

Fig. 4.1 Mobility description using a polygon of lines

4.2.1.2 Modeling Approaches

Direct models just postulate position descriptions, flow descriptions, sojourn

Fig. 4.2 Behavior model for a car at crossroad

Fig. 4.3 Transformation of a behavior model to a trace usable in a simulation study

description of the arrival at a crossroad, the condition p1+p2+p3=1 is

4.2.1.3 Model Creation and Model Selection

4.2.1.4 State of the Art in Mobility Modeling

Fig. 4.4 Iterative model creation/selection

4.2.1.5 Conclusions on Mobility Characterization

4.2.2 Impact of Mobility on Performance of Cellular Networks

progressive cellular division introduces changes in the teletraffic analysis that

metrics to be analyzed. The study [Mar02] presents a simulator used to model a

Accordingly, in this scenario the handover duration is increased because longer

4.3 Handover in Heterogeneous Networks

IP-convergence has led to the coexistence of several IP-based wireless and

Table 4.3 Comparison of mobility management protocols

4.3.1 Mobility Support of Multiuser Services

In the QoS Architecture for Mobile Multicast Multimedia Services (Q3M)

4.3.2 Mobility Enabler for Multimedia Services

To cater to the existing heterogeneous environment in terms of access networks

4.3.2.2 Mobility and Quality Enabler

Upon evaluating the relative merits of existing SIP-based approach

4.3.2.3 Testbed Implementation, Experimentation, and Evaluation

Fig. 4.5 MnQ implementation on the IMS testbed

Fig. 4.6 Session renegotiation delay (MnQ)

Quality Adaptation to heterogeneous access networks, different device

4.4 QoS in Wireless Communications Systems

In cellular networks such as those of Personal Communications Services

Walk DECT 802.11b 802.11a

10k 64k 128k 384k 2M 20M 100M

the user point of view. Dropping probability can be reduced by reserving

4.4.1 Resource Management and QoS Control

Issues related to QoS of emergency services include aspects of system capacity

4.4.1.1 Related Work

4.4.1.2 Resource Reservation and Call Admission Control

4.4.2 Performance Evaluation of VoIP HSDPA

Upcoming wireless services are envisioned to be multimedia in nature. While the

Fig. 4.11 Time evolvement

4.4.3 Impact of Mobility on Next-Generation OFDMA

Table 4.5 Configuration parameters

4.4.4 Estimating Individual QoS

Function of QoS support is divided into subsystems in mobile networks. The

network congestion. This information could then be collected by the network

Conditional rates of quality classes p(q/i) were estimated experimentally. In

Table 4.6 Distribution of conditional rates of quality classes

Fig. 4.15 Experimental

This example clearly demonstrates the de facto quality of service received

4.5 IP Mobility Protocols in Wireless Networks

Integration of multicast multimedia applications with interactive channels and

4.5.1 Handovers and Mobility Protocols

4.5.1.1 Handover Latency Performance Characterization and Optimizations

Home subnet Visited subnet

Fig. 4.16 MIPv6 testbed topology (copyright # 2006 SOFTCOM [TD(07)041])

Table 4.7 MIPv6 handover delay breakdown