Mechanical Unit Operations in Waste Treatment

Mechanical Unit Operations in Waste Treatment SBA007 11. Nov.
2002
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................2
2. Particles and disperse systems .......................................................................................6
2.1 Particles and particle size distributions.......................................................................6
2.2 velocity of sinking particles, gravity ...........................................................................8
2.3 velocity of sinking particles with centrifugal forces ....................................................9
3. Dewatering.....................................................................................................................10
3.1 Sedimentation tank clarifier ...................................................................................10
3.2 Sedimentation with centrifugal force centrifuge and hydrocyclone ........................11
3.3 Filtration ...................................................................................................................15
3.4 Conclusions for dewatering .....................................................................................15
3.4 Conclusions for dewatering .....................................................................................16
4. Classification and sorting ...............................................................................................16
4.1 Classification Screening / Sieving / Sighting ............................................................16
4.2 Sorting Density sorting / Magnetic sorting / Sink-float ..........................................18
5. Mixing ............................................................................................................................23
6. Comminution..................................................................................................................24
6.1 General ....................................................................................................................24
6.2 Technical machines..................................................................................................26
6.3 Size Reduction with Shredders ................................................................................29
6.4 Energy Requirements of Shredders .........................................................................31
7. Impressum .....................................................................................................................32
- This handout is for completion during lecture !!! -
Lule Tekniska Universitet Unit operations for mechanical and biological waste treatment 1
Mechanical Waste Treatment
Dr.-Ing. Arne Pietsch Nov. 2002, Hamburg
1. Introduction
Basics for chemical engineering
a) is the process in steady state (continuous process) or not (batch process)?
Steady state: balancing equations with flows (kg/min; kJ/h) at any point of time.
Batch: balancing equations with summarized flows for a time interval.
b) balancing equations: In Out - pos. Change in the System e.g. Storage = 0
Waste water T1 Carbon Dioxide

Air T2
Steam T3 Water
e.g.
Mass-balance
(I) total mass: min m out mreacted + mpos.change of storage = 0
(II) One component: min m out mreacted + mpos.change of storage = 0
Energy balance
(III) Hflows into system Hflows out of system + Ein - Eout Estorage + Epos.heat of reaction = 0
b) additional equations (significant effects):

e.g. reaction kinetics, mechanical effects (stirrer, cutter, flow resistance.............)
Choose suitable boundary around investigated operation.

Define all energy and mass transport across this boundary.
Pay close attention to positive and negative effects!
Tab. 1.1 Some data about Solid Waste
Refuse components Generation Condition Bulk Material Moisture

Density Density
Municipal Waste range typical
USA, 1998
Mio tons % kg/m3 kg/m3 % %
Food waste 21.9 10.1% 50-80 70
loose 130-480
baled 600-700
Glass 12.0 5.5% 2500
Glass bottles whole bottles 300-400 1-4 2
crushed 1000-1600
Wood 11.6 5.3% 600 5-40 20
Paper and paperboard 81.5 37.6% 700-1150 4-10 6
Corrugated cardboard loose 200
Magazines loose 475
Newsprint loose 10-30
baled 400-600
Office paper loose 250 4-10 6
baled 420-450
Plasics 21.5 9.9% 900-1250
mixed 40-130 1-4 2
PETE, whole 20-25
baled 240-300
HDPE, loose 15
flattened 40
Plastic film and bags baled 300-475
granulated 410-440
Textiles 8.2 3.8% loose 40-100 6-15 10
Rubber and leather 6.6 3.0% 1-12 5
Ferrous metals 12.3 5.7% 7700
Steel cans unflattened 90 2-4 3
baled 500
Aluminium 3.0 1.3% 2700
Aluminum cans loose 30-45 2-4 3
flattened 150
Other nonferrous 1.3 0.6%
metals
Other materials 3.8 1.8%
Yard trimmings 27.7 12.8%
Yard waste mixed, loose 150-300 30-80 60
leaves, loose 30-150
grass, loose 200-300
Miscellaneous 3.3 1.5%
inorganic
Fines (dirt, etc.) loose 300-1000 6-12 8
Sum 214.7 99%
other Solid Wastes USA, 1998
Agricultural 250
Data from "Solid Waste Engineering"; P.Vesilind, W.
Industrial 400
Worrell, D. Reinhart; 2002; Brooks/Cole; USA; ISBN
Mining 1200 0-534-37814-5
Table 1.2 Summary of Techniques Used for Processing Solid Wastes
Processing Function Representative equipment

technique and applications
Manual component Separation of recoverable Visual inspection and removal via

separation materials, usually at point of conveyor belt picking stations
generation
Storage and Storage and transfer of wastes to Open storage pits for unprocessed
transfer be processed wastes, storage bins and silos for
processed wastes;
transfer equipment: front-end loaders,
metal and rubber belt conveyors,
vibratory conveyors with unprocessed
wastes; pneumatic conveyors and screw
conveyors with processed wastes
Mechanical volume Reduction of solid-waste volume; Hydraulic piston-type compactors for

reduction alteration of shape of solid-waste collection vehicles, on site compactors,
and transfer station compactors; roll
components; all modern collection crushers used to fracture brittle materials
vehicles essentially equipped with and to crush tin and aluminum cans and
compaction equipment other ductile materials
Chemical volume Reduction of volume of solid Mass-fired incinerators, with and without
reduction wastes through burning heat recovery, for unprocessed wastes;
rotary kilns for hazardous/containerized
(incineration) and bulk/sludge waste
Mechanical size Alteration of size and shape of Hammer mills, shredders, roll crushers,
and shape solid-waste components grinders, chippers, jaw crushers, rasp
mills, and hydropulpers
alteration
Mechanical Separation of recoverable Screening; air-separation, jig separation,

component materials, usually at a processing pneumatic separation, optical sorting,
sink-float, floatation (next Table)
separation facility
Magnetic and Separation of ferrous and Ferrous: magnetic

electromechanical nonferrous materials from Aluminum: Eddy-current
Glass from Fe and Al free scrap:
separation processed solid wastes electrostatic
Drying and Removal of moisture from solid Centrifuge and filtration used to dewater
dewatering wastes treatment-plant sludge,
Convection, conduction and radiation
dryers used for solid wastes and sludge
Table 1.3 Mechanical Methods for Separating Solid-Waste Components
Method Function Equipment , facilities,
applications
Screening Separate components by size Trommels and horizontal and
vibrating screens for unprocessed
and processed wastes;
Disk screens with processed
wastes
Air separation Separate light (organic) Zig-zag air, vibrating-air, rotary-air,
materials from heavy and air-knife classifiers used with
(inorganic) material processed wastes
Jig separation Separate light and heavy
materials by means of density
separation
Pneumatic Separate light and heavy
separation (stoners) materials
Optical sorting Separate plastics
Sink-float, flotation, Separate light and heavy
Inclined table, materials
shaking table
Table 1.4 Mechanical unit operations in chemical engineering

Disintegration Agglomeration
Crushing Granulating
Grinding Pelletizing
Cutting Compacting
Deagglomerization Tabletizing
Separation Mixing
Classification Homogenization
Screening / sieving Stirring
Clarification Mixing of solids
Sedimentation Kneading
Filtration Dispersing
Centrifugation / Decanting Emulsification
Removal of dust Spraying
Conveying etc. Analytics

Conveying, pneum.transport Sizedistribution of particles
Storage (bins, hoppers) Shape of particles
Dosification Dustanalytics
Fluidized beds
2. Particles and disperse systems
2.1 Particles and particle size distributions
Table 2.1 Examples of disperse systems

Example Disperse Continuous Sizes of
phase phase particles [mm]
Rocks, bricks etc. solid gas 10 - 1000
Bulk solids (sugar, sand, coal) solid gas 10-3 - 10
Dust, smoke solid gas 10-5 - 1
Suspensions, sludge solid liquid 10-2 - 1
Ore in rocks solid solid 10-3 - 100
Droplets, fog, aerosol liquid gas 10-5 - 1
Emulsions, milk liquid liquid 10-4 - 0.1
Porous solids, solid foam gas solid 10-5 - 10
* sampling
* how to measure the size?
* shape of particles
a lot of technical particles do not have not perfect spherical shape and complicated size
distributions.
sphericity = surface of sphere (identical volume)
real surface
equivalent diameters are used to simplify calculations

example: Sauter mean diameter
The Sauter mean diameter assumes, that the volume of all real particles is represented by
the same volume of identical spheres which posses the same total surface area as the real
particles.
2.2 velocity of sinking particles, gravity
particles assumed as spheres !
sink velocity v
particle diameter dp density particle p particle volume Vp =

density liquid l dynamic viscosity liquid
gravity force: Fg = p Vp g (eq.1)

buoyancy: Fb = l Vp g (eq.2)
drag resistance : Fr = l /2 v2 /4 dp2 (eq.3)
drag coefficient = fkt (Re) ; Reynolds number Re = v dp l /
laminar flow: (only friction) Re < 0.25: =24/Re (Stokes) (eq.4)

5 0.5
general equation: Re < 2 10 : =24/Re + 4 / Re + 0.4 (Kaskas) (eq.5)
Figure
drag coefficient
(also named cw) vs.
Re number
for spherical particles
steady state Fg-Fb = Fr (no inertia forces) (eq.6)
sink velocity vsink = (4/3 dp (p-l) g / ( l) ) 0.5 (eq.7)

for laminar flow: vsink = dp2 (p-l) g / 18 (eq.8)
2.3 velocity of sinking particles with centrifugal forces
angular speed radius r
radius r0
In technical applications (centrifuge) usually gravity g << centrifugal force r 2
centrifugal force Fc = p Vp (eq.9)

buoyancy: Fb = l Vp (eq.10)
sink velocity vsink = (4/3 dp (p-l) / ( l) ) 0.5 (eq.11)
steady state Fc-Fb = Fr (inertia forces neglected) (eq.12)
In technical applications the particles are usually very fine ->laminar flow regime
for laminar flow: vsink (r) = dp2 (p-l) r 2 / 18 (eq.13)
3. Dewatering
3.1 Sedimentation tank clarifier
necessary: density difference between particles and liquid

critical particle size (minimum): 0.5 m
sink velocity -> equation (8)
dynamic viscosity [mPa s]

water (20C): 1.002 water (60C): 0.47 glycerol: 1500
suspensions, low solids: = 0 (1+2.5 Cvol); Cvol :volume concentration solids
shape -> multiply sink velocity with sphericity (e.g. cubes = 0.81)
high solids -> hindering of sedimentation, equations with special parameters
e.g. multiply sink velocity with ~ 0.5 for a solid content of 5-10%
principle of similarity to transfer experimental results to plant design

1. Archimedes number Ar = dp3 (p-l) g / l 2 (eq.14)
(kin. viscosity = /) ; [
2. Reynolds number a) Ar <9 : Re = Ar/18

b) Ar = 9 84,000: Re = (Ar/13.9)0.7
c) Ar > 84,000: Re = 1.73 Ar0.5
3. calculate sink velocity from Re
some values of sink velocity: salt crystals 2- 6 m/s

lime 0.2 m/s
clay 0.08 m/s
Fig. cylindrical tank classifier feed V0, c0, 0
Vi flow [m3/h] clarified water V1, c1, 1

mi total mass flow [kg/h]
ci solid-concentration [kg/kg]
i density suspension [kg/ m3] separation level
A separation area [m2]
Definition: critical particle size dp,crit

rake
all particles with sink velocity < flow
velocity = V1 /A are leaving the
apparatus with flow V1
sludge V 2, c2, 2
0.5
dp,crit = ( 18 v / ( g)) (eq.15)
technical design: e.g.
1. V0 should be known (needed throughput)
2. mass balances (no solids in V1), calculate:
V1 = V0 (0/1) (1-c0/c2) = m2/1 (c2/c0 1) (eq.16)
V2 = V0 (0/2) (c0/c2) (eq.17)
3. fix needed dp,crit and calculate sink velocity vsink (dp,crit )
4. calculate necessary cross sectional area A = vsink / V1
there is no theoretical influence of the classifier height on separation performance,

in practice however sufficient space for the sludge is needed
3.2 Sedimentation with centrifugal force centrifuge and hydrocyclone
two basic principles:

3. suspension in a rotating drum -> Centrifuge
4. suspension rotates in an unmoved apparatus -> Hydrocyclone
Fig. schematic drawing centrifuge
K relative centrifugal force (RCF)

K := r 2 / g r n2 / 900
r radius [m]
n rotational speed [1/min] r
r0 rm
vsink- centrifuge = K vsink
the needed area A is K times smaller than
with gravity sedimentation
dp,crit = ( 18 v / ( g K))0.5 (eq.16)
K is used to transfer experimental results (smaller model) to plant design
separation is better with higher K values

but: material strength limits either the drum diameter and thereby the throughput
consequences a) find optimum for problem b) different designs are established
technical: particle sizes 1 m 2 mm

diameter 0,2 2 m
K 400 10,000
n 800 8,000 1/min
throughput max. 100 m3/h
Table 3.1 Data of some centrifugal separators
a) sieve centrifuge, c) decanter c) disk separator

conical centrifuge with centrifuge with screw
scroll conveyor
K value 200 - 3500 1000 4000 4000 12,000
geometry conical drum, perforated horizontal drum, conical perforated
not perforated disk stack
discharge solids screw screw nozzles
separation filtration, washing sedimentation, sedimentation,
method classification, washing
clarifying, washing
solids, feed 5 60% 3 60% 1 25%
particle sizes 10 10,000 m 1 20,000 m 0,1 10,000 m
throughput 0.5 100 t/h 2 80 t/h - 100 t/h
example crystals, fibres proteins, polymers, kaolin, pigments,
sludge catalysts
b)
c) a)
Hydrocyclone
the liquid rotates in a stationary casing
a pump presses the liquid through the hydrocyclone and hydrostatic energy is
transformed to kinetic energy
a primary eddy flow forms, the particles are transferred to the inner wall and the bottom
of the hydrocyclone;
the apex nozzle at the bottom is closed except for an small sludge opening
the liquid flow is reversed at the bottom and a secondary eddy forms underneath the dip
pipe- called vortex finder
n = 30 v0 / (R ) (eq.17) Fig schematic drawing hydrocyclone

v0 velocity in entrance nozzle
R radius upper cylindrical section
centrifugal force ac = v0 2 / R
K = 4 p /( D) (eq.18)
g
p pressure drop [Pa]
density of liquid [kg/m3 ]
dp,crit = ( 18 v / ( g K))0.5 (eq.19)

velocity v = V1/A
V1 outlet volume flow V1 and the
A cylindrical separation area
underneath the dip tube
V1 ~ D2 p0.5 (eq.20)
dp,crit ~ D0.5 p0.25 (eq.21)
advantages

disadvantage

limitations
pressure drop p
3.3 Filtration
Filtration is separation of solid particles from suspensions with help of a porous filter
medium. The separated solids form a filter cake.
A density difference between liquid and solid is not necessary.
Driving force is the pressure difference p between suspension and filtrate.
two types: cake filtration, depth- or filter medium filtration (precoat filter)
Fig. schematic drawing filter

Pressure difference p = const. during
suspension (feed) V0
filtration
Hagen Poiseulle for laminar flow in

capillaries:
V1 [l/h] = r4 /8 p/ ( l) (eq.22) filter cake V2
r radius of capillary p h
filter medium
l length of capillary vacuum
dyn. viscosity
d Arcy equation for filter medium

V1 = A p / ( s) (eq.23) filtrate V1
s thickness filter medium
A filter area
filter resistance [m/m3]
Ruth equation (here V is volume!)
V12 + 2 V1 A C1 = C2 A2 t (eq.24)
filtration is stopped at certain h

no theoretical determination of C1 and
C2
scale-up:
1. test filtration with a hand filter
(leaf test, vacuum test)
2. two exp. data points -> determine
C1 and C2
3. design technical filter with these
values
4. problematic: filter cake properties
are not constant
Other filter types:
3.4 Conclusions for dewatering
Table Comparison of mechanical and thermal dewatering
plant energy product purity final product

costs costs alteration water-
content
mechanical lower lower
thermal higher higher
(drying)
4. Classification and sorting
Classification is separation of particles into groups of different ranges of particle size

Sorting is separation of particles into groups of different materials or properties
4.1 Classification Screening / Sieving / Sighting

feed
coarse
Bild fraction
fine fraction
sieving, dry: minimum 100 m particles,

sieving, wet: to remove finest particles (e.g. clay particles)
sighting (e.g. to winnow corn). principle: separation by different sink velocities in air
wet classification, hydrocyclone -> chapter 3
typical screens for municipal solid waste

a) Trommel screen
b) Disc screen
Fig. Trommel screen Fig. Screen with vibration
(not typical for waste)
Fig. Disc screen
4.2 Sorting Density sorting / Magnetic sorting / Sink-float
density sorting
principle: usually wet sorting under gravity
1. pulsating water stream; min.density difference 1200 kg/m3
2. float-sink separation: use of a separation liquid with
suitable density (1300- 3000 kg/m3) between the density of
the two fractions;
with fine particles (min3-5 mm): low sink velocity.
for even finer particles: hydrocyclone
magnetic sorting
separation of easily magnetizable materials (iron, steel and

iron-oxides, -sulfides and silicates) from others
principle: use of conveying belts ands permanent magnets or
direct current magnets
iron, steel and iron-oxides, -sulfides and -silicates
optimum particle size: 1-10 mm
electrosorting
new technique and still in development
separation of electric conductors from non-conductors
principle: high voltage field with 15-40 kV direct current, all
particles receive a negative charge and are attracted to a positive
charged rotating drum, conductors are discharged faster and fall
off earlier
iron, steel and iron-oxides, -sulfides and -silicates
optimum particle size: 1-10 mm
optical sorting
flotation
principle: sorting of very fine particles in a suspension with the help of air bubbles, the
formed foam (froth) carries certain particles and floats to the upper region of the apparatus
the wetability depends on the materials and added chemicals
used for minerals
5. Mixing
a) mixing of liquids or dispersion of gases and solid particles in a liquid:
various stirrer types, needed energy principle of similarity, ReM-number and Ne-
number
ReM = n d2 / (eq. 25)
Ne = P /( d5 n3) (eq. 26)
p power requirement [W] d diameter stirrer
n rotational speed [1/s]
Ne = function (ReM) - manufacturer diagramms
static mixers
b) kneading of viscous or plastic components: e.g. with screws
c) mixing of solids,
characterization of mixing quality: standard deviation of the content xi of a certain
component in a defined number of samples N
standard deviation = [(1/(N-1) (xi xM)]0.5 (eq. 27)
median content xM = 1/N (xi) (eq. 28)
problematic are dry mixtures with large size and density
6. Comminution
6.1 General
reduction in size for :

1. preparation for separation
2. preparation for chemical / biological reactions
3. quality of final product
4. increase of density -> decrease of transport and/or landfill volume
types
compactors Definitions
Void ratio = Vvoid / Vsolids
milling / grinding
Porosity = Vvoid / (Vsolids+ Vvoid)
cutting / slicers
Important material data:
Approximate Waste bulk densities

a) Loose kg/m3
b) in compaction truck kg/m3
c) baled refuse kg/m3
d) compacted landfill kg/m3
-stored loose, app.20 meters kg/m3
mechanisms of comminution:
Influence of pressure on compaction:
Figs. Compression of municipal waste
6.2 Technical machines
Roll crusher
Jaw Crusher other type: rotating cone crusher
Hammer mills (Shredders)
Fig. Vertical hammermill shredder
Shear Shredders
6.3 Size Reduction with Shredders
Fig. Size reduction of various municipal solid waste components after shredding
Fig. RRSB plot for particle size distribution
Fig. Explanation Particle size distribution
Fig. Data from an evaluation study of a vertical hammermill shredder
6.4 Energy Requirements of Shredders
Fig. Experimental data 1983. Degree size reduction = (dfeed dafter mill) / dfeed
Source Significance of Size Reduction in Solid Waste Management Vol.3. Effect of Machine parameters on Shredder Performance
M.Savage, J.Tuck, P. Gandy, G. Trezek, Cal Recovery Systems, Inc. 1983
7. Impressum
- handout for study purposes only

- for data use check original literature also -
to contact lecturer
Arne Pietsch
Eurotechnica Ingenieurbro GmbH
An den Stcken 55
D 22941 Bargteheide, Germany
Tel. ++49 4532 -267708

Fax a) ++49 4532 -267709
Fax b) ++49 4532 -8959
email pietsch@eurotechnica.de
Literature and source of data, several figures and pictures
Perrys chemical engineers handbook, e.g. 7th edition, McGraw-Hill, 1997

"Solid Waste Engineering"; P.Vesilind, W. Worrell, D. Reinhart; Brooks/Cole; USA, 2002
"Introduction to particle technology" Martin J. Rhodes, Wiley, 1998
"Handbook of powder science & technology", M. E. Fayed, Chapman & Hall, 1997

Mechanical Unit Operations in Waste Treatment

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Mechanical Unit Operations in Waste Treatment

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Mechanical Unit Operations in Waste Treatment SBA007 11. Nov.

- This handout is for completion during lecture !!! -

Basics for chemical engineering

a) is the process in steady state (continuous process) or not (batch process)?

b) balancing equations: In Out - pos. Change in the System e.g. Storage = 0

Waste water T1 Carbon Dioxide

(I) total mass: min m out mreacted + mpos.change of storage = 0

(II) One component: min m out mreacted + mpos.change of storage = 0

b) additional equations (significant effects):

Choose suitable boundary around investigated operation.

Refuse components Generation Condition Bulk Material Moisture

Processing Function Representative equipment

Manual component Separation of recoverable Visual inspection and removal via

Mechanical volume Reduction of solid-waste volume; Hydraulic piston-type compactors for

Mechanical Separation of recoverable Screening; air-separation, jig separation,

Magnetic and Separation of ferrous and Ferrous: magnetic

Table 1.4 Mechanical unit operations in chemical engineering

Conveying etc. Analytics

Table 2.1 Examples of disperse systems

equivalent diameters are used to simplify calculations

particles assumed as spheres !

particle diameter dp density particle p particle volume Vp =

gravity force: Fg = p Vp g (eq.1)

laminar flow: (only friction) Re < 0.25: =24/Re (Stokes) (eq.4)

steady state Fg-Fb = Fr (no inertia forces) (eq.6)

sink velocity vsink = (4/3 dp (p-l) g / ( l) ) 0.5 (eq.7)

angular speed radius r

In technical applications (centrifuge) usually gravity g << centrifugal force r 2

centrifugal force Fc = p Vp (eq.9)

steady state Fc-Fb = Fr (inertia forces neglected) (eq.12)

3.1 Sedimentation tank clarifier

necessary: density difference between particles and liquid

dynamic viscosity [mPa s]

principle of similarity to transfer experimental results to plant design

2. Reynolds number a) Ar <9 : Re = Ar/18

3. calculate sink velocity from Re

some values of sink velocity: salt crystals 2- 6 m/s

Fig. cylindrical tank classifier feed V0, c0, 0

Vi flow [m3/h] clarified water V1, c1, 1

Definition: critical particle size dp,crit

there is no theoretical influence of the classifier height on separation performance,

3.2 Sedimentation with centrifugal force centrifuge and hydrocyclone

two basic principles:

Fig. schematic drawing centrifuge

K relative centrifugal force (RCF)

dp,crit = ( 18 v / ( g K))0.5 (eq.16)

K is used to transfer experimental results (smaller model) to plant design

separation is better with higher K values

technical: particle sizes 1 m 2 mm

a) sieve centrifuge, c) decanter c) disk separator

n = 30 v0 / (R ) (eq.17) Fig schematic drawing hydrocyclone

dp,crit = ( 18 v / ( g K))0.5 (eq.19)

Fig. schematic drawing filter

Hagen Poiseulle for laminar flow in

d Arcy equation for filter medium

Ruth equation (here V is volume!)

filtration is stopped at certain h

Table Comparison of mechanical and thermal dewatering

plant energy product purity final product

4. Classification and sorting

Classification is separation of particles into groups of different ranges of particle size

4.1 Classification Screening / Sieving / Sighting

sieving, dry: minimum 100 m particles,

typical screens for municipal solid waste