Basin Research (2000) 12, 285305

Propagation history and passive rotation of mesoscale

normal faults: implications for synrift stratigraphic
development
I. R. Sharp,*1 R. L. Gawthorpe,* B. Armstrong and J. R. Underhill
*Basin and Stratigraphic Studies Group, Department of
Earth Sciences, The University, Oxford Road, Manchester
M13 9PL, UK
Department of Geology and Geophysics, The University of
Edinburgh, Grant Institute, The Kings Buildings, West Mains
Road, Edinburgh EH9 3JW, UK

ABSTRAC T
Field data from onshore exposures of the Oligo-Miocene Gulf of Suez Rift in the Sinai
document the passive rotation of early formed mesoscale synthetic and antithetic faults and
associated half-graben due to long-lived activity on large displacement (25 km) block-
bounding faults. Early formed small-displacement (<350 m) mesoscale antithetic faults and
half-graben within regional-scale fault blocks underwent progressive steepening due to
footwall uplift, rotational faulting and footwall flexing on large-displacement, block-bounding
faults. In contrast, mesoscale synthetic faults were progressively rotated to shallower angles.
Analysis of palaeohorizontal surfaces within synrift sediments deposited in half-graben
adjacent to the mesoscale faults indicate passive rotations of up to 25 about horizontal axes
since deposition. Passive burial and in-filling of early formed mesoscale faults and half-graben
by synrift sediments is consistent with extension being transferred from numerous mesoscale
faults to few block-bounding macroscale faults as extension preceded. Furthermore, this
transfer of extension appears to be associated with a marked change in basin configuration,
synrift sediment dispersal patterns and facies development. Identification of early formed,
passively rotated normal faults and half-graben is important for correctly reconstructing the
early stages of basin palaeogeography and sediment dispersal, and for addressing models of rift
basin evolution.

of the North Sea and Suez Rifts; Roberts et al., 1990,

INTROD UCTION
The incremental rotation of normal faults and fault blocks
in areas undergoing crustal extension is well documented,
typically resulting in a decrease of fault angle with
increasing extension (e.g. Wernicke & Burchfiel, 1982;
Jackson & McKenzie, 1983; McKenzie & Jackson, 1986;
Barr, 1987; Mandl, 1987; Jackson et al., 1988; Davison,
1989). The resulting rotated faults and domino fault-
block arrays have been widely described from rift basins
and are essentially scale independent, occurring at any-
thing from local outcrop scale affecting individual sedi-
mentary horizons, to basin-wide scale defining large,
regionally significant fault blocks (e.g. tilted fault blocks
1 Correspondence: Ian R. Sharp. Current address: Norsk Hydro
Research Centre, Sandsliveien 90, N-5020, Bergen, Norway.
Tel.: +47 55 99 67 55; fax: +47 55 99 57 04; e-mail:
ian.sharp@hydro.com
1993; Colletta et al., 1988; Patton et al., 1994; Bosworth,
1995; McClay et al., 1998). Several authors have shown
that the majority of extensional faults associated with
block-rotation and coseismic deformation are steeply
dipping planar structures with fault planes dipping
between 60 and 40 (e.g. Jackson et al., 1988). Once a
fault rotates to angles of less than 40, the energy involved
to continue normal faulting becomes too great, and a
new set of high-angle faults develop cutting the earlier
fault set. This results in the passive rotation of the older
faults to shallower angles (e.g. Morton & Black, 1975;
Jackson & McKenzie, 1983).
The majority of studies of fault rotation in extended
terranes have addressed synthetic faults and fault-block
arrays. What is less well documented is the effect of
rotation of long-lived crustal-scale (macroscale) faults
on early formed, medium-displacement (mesoscale)
antithetic- and synthetic-fault arrays. In this paper we

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I. R. Sharp et al.

Fig. 1. Plate tectonic setting of the Gulf of Suez region, with the onshore parts of the Suez and Red Sea rifts shown in darker
shading. Lines XX, YY and ZZ refer to cross-sections in Fig. 1(B) and are 151 (re-drawn from Patton et al., 1994). Arrows
in (B) indicate the present Gulf of Suez coastline. The study area marked in (A) is shown in detail in Fig. 2.

describe several examples of moderate-displacement
(<350 m displacement), antithetic and synthetic faults
and associated half-graben located within regional-scale
(<25 km wide) fault blocks bounded by crustal-scale
(25 km displacement) faults. We demonstrate that crus-
tal extension and the consequent rotation of the block
bounding faults coupled with footwall flexing resulted in
progressive passive steepening of mesoscale antithetic
faults and associated half-graben during domino faulting.
In contrast, mesoscale synthetic faults were rotated to
shallower angles. Furthermore, we postulate that the
mesoscale fault population was progressively abandoned
as extension was transferred from numerous closely
spaced mesoscale faults to few, widely spaced macroscale
faults as rifting proceeded. These data have important
implications for models of rift basin evolution and indi-
cate that significant shifts in the style and polarity of
extension, and hence synrift sediment dispersal and
stacking patterns, can occur during the progressive evol-
ution of rift basins.
R EGIONAL SE TTING
The Gulf of Suez Rift is the NW extension of the Red
Sea rift which developed in the Oligo-Miocene due to

286 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305

 Rotation of mesoscale normal faults

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks, Sinai margin of the Gulf of Suez rift
(modified after Moustafa, 1993). This study concentrates on the Wadi Wasit, Thal Ridge, South Wadi Thal, Wadi Nukhul and
West Wadi Baba mesoscale faults located 14 km east of the block-bounding Coastal Fault Belt (CFB). Location of cross-sections
in Fig. 3 and sketch of south Wadi Baba region (Fig. 13) indicated.

the separation of the Arabian plate from Africa (Fig. 1A, normal faults which define a classic en echelon extensional
Robson, 1971; Colletta et al., 1988; Patton et al., 1994; fault array. The dominant rift-parallel faults strike
Bosworth, 1995). The rift is up to 300 km long and NWNNW and are linked by subordinate NNE, EW
80 km wide. In plan view the rift comprises segmented and N-S trending faults. In cross-section (Fig. 1B) the

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I. R. Sharp et al.

Fig. 3. Cross-sections of the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks (modified from Moustafa, 1993). The South Wadi Thal,
Wadi Nukhul Half Graben, and West Wadi Baba mesoscale faults are highlighted. See Fig. 2 for location of cross-sections.

288 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305


Fig. 4. Composite stratigraphic section of the Hammam
FaraunEl Qaa region, Western Sinai (after Robson, 1971;
Moustafa, 1987). This study concentrates on the rift initiation
Abu Zenima and Nukhul Formations, and rift climax Rudeis
Formation. T & S in synrift refer to terrace and sequence
nomenclature of Krebs et al. (1997). Dates in Myr are from
Patton et al. (1994).
NWNNW trending faults bound major half-graben and
rotated fault blocks up to 40 km long and 25 km wide.
In this paper we concentrate on two fault blocks on the
eastern side of the Suez Rift, the Hammam Faraun and
El Qaa Fault blocks (Fig. 2). Both blocks dip moderately
(2030) towards the east and are bounded by large-
displacement (25 km) down-to-the-west normal faults:
the Coastal Fault Belt (CFB) and Eastern Boundary Fault
Belt (EBFB) to the west and east, respectively. The CFB
comprises the Hammam Faraun and Nezzazat fault seg-
ments, whilst the EBFB comprises the Thal, Baba-Sidri,
Hadahid and Gebah fault segments (Figs 2 and 3,
Moustafa, 1992, 1993, 1996; Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977;
Moustafa & Abdeen, 1992; Patton et al., 1994; Sharp
et al., 2000).
Prerift strata in both fault blocks comprise Precambrian
metamorphic basement overlain by a thick Palaeozoic
Eocene mixed carbonateclastic sequence (Figs 2 and 4).
Massive limestones and subordinate mudstones of
CretaceousEocene age typically form the uppermost
2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305
Rotation of mesoscale normal faults
prerift outcrops in both fault blocks, and are interpreted
to have been subhorizontal prior to extension. The
topographically highest exposure of prerift strata in the
western part of both blocks is in the footwall of the
Hammam Faraun and Nezzazat faults. Elevation
decreases towards the east defining a long dipslope
extending down to the hangingwall of the EBFB (Figs 2
and 3). The Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks
are thus interpreted to have developed due to eastwards
rotation about horizontal axes during extension on the
CFB and EBFB. Fault block rotation does not appear to
have been totally rigid. For example, the northern part
of the Hammam Faraun and Nezzazat fault blocks show
broad folding/flexing (Fig. 3, sections AA & DD).
Folding and flexing is most prevalent in the immediate
footwall of the fault blocks (14 km east of the CFB).
Folding and flexing of pre- and synrift strata is also
evident adjacent to intrafault block mesoscale faults
(Moustafa & Abdeen, 1992), and asymmetric hangingwall
synclines are developed adjacent to the EBFB. The latter
have been interpreted as being related to fault-
propagation folding and ductile deformation of prerift
lithologies during Oligo-Miocene extension (Patton, 1984;
Moustafa, 1987; Withjack et al., 1990; Gupta et al., 1999;
Sharp et al., 2000).
Prerift Eocene strata in both fault blocks is uncon-
formably overlain by a clastic synrift succession of Oligo-
Miocene nonmarine (Abu Zenima Formation), marginal
marine (Nukhul Formation) and open marine (Rudeis
Formation) strata (Fig. 4). The Abu Zenima and Nukhul
Formations are interpreted to have been deposited during
the proto-rift or rift-initiation period, whilst the Rudeis
Formation is interpreted to have been deposited during
the rift-climax (Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Evans, 1988;
Steckler et al., 1988; Prosser, 1993; Patton et al., 1994;
Krebs et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 1999).
The focus of this paper is several mesoscale antithetic
and synthetic faults and associated half-graben located
within the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa Fault blocks.
These faults include, from north to south, respectively,
the Wadi Wasit, Thal Ridge, South Wadi Thal, Wadi
Nukhul and West Wadi Baba faults (Fig. 2). These faults
and associated half-graben synrift fills are described
below.
ME SO SC ALE FAULTS A ND
HALF -G RAB EN FILL S
Mesoscale faults are defined here as medium-
displacement (50350 m displacement) faults, which
occur within the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault
blocks. They are typically planar in cross-section, and
can be defined as antithetic and synthetic with relation
to the block-bounding, large-displacement (25 km dis-
placement, macroscale) CFB and EBFB. In map view
the mesoscale faults comprise curvilinear strands of
differing trends defining an en echelon fault array. Strands
trending NNWNW and NS are typically the longest
289
I. R. Sharp et al.
Fig. 5. Sketch map and sections of the Wadi Wasit region, outlining the segmented, en echelon nature of the mesoscale faults.
Note strike variation in fault displacement, and the development of relay structures (partly breached). See Fig. 2 for location.
Line of correlation panel in Fig. 15 also indicated.
(15 km) and are linked by shorter (500 m to 1 km)
strands trending NENNE and WNW. Variations in
fault displacement along strike are clear, often associated
with displacement transfer between individual fault
strands. In the Wadi Wasit region, for example, decreasing
displacement on the Thal Ridge fault corresponds with
increasing displacement on the adjacent Wadi Wasit fault
(Fig. 5). A monoclinal flexure or relay ramp is evident in
the area of fault overlap (Moustafa & Abdeen, 1992;
Armstrong, 1997). Zones of tectonic transfer between the
mesoscale faults are either marked by unfaulted relay
ramps/flexures or breaching transfer faults. The
example shown in Fig. 5 can be interpreted as a hang-
ingwall breached relay zone (sensu Trudgill & Cartwright,
1994; Cartwright et al., 1996). This pattern of segmented
normal faults with strike variations in displacement and
trends is identical to that of the major block-bounding
faults (CFB and EBFB; Moustafa & Abdeen, 1992;
Patton et al., 1994; Moustafa, 1996; Sharp et al., 2000),
and extensional fault systems as a whole (e.g. Morley
et al., 1990; Schlische, 1992; Gawthorpe & Hurst, 1993).
Antithetic mesoscale faults
The Wadi Wasit, Thal Ridge, South Wadi Thal and
West Wadi Baba faults are steeply dipping mesoscale
faults developed within the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa
fault blocks. They are developed 14 km east of the CFB
(Figs 2, 3, 5 and 6), and can be defined as antithetic
structures with relation to the main block-bounding CFB
290
and EBFB. They have a down-to-the east sense of
displacement, typically of the order of 50350 m, and
juxtapose massive prerift Eocene limestones and subordi-
nate mudstones in the footwall against Eocene limestones
and synrift clastics of the Abu Zenima, Nukhul and
Rudeis formations in the hangingwall (Figs 3 and 5). At
all localities fault surfaces are planar (vertical profile/
cross-section) and associated with locally well-developed
slickensides, indicating predominantly down-to-the-east
dip-slip to minor oblique-slip displacement (minimum
rake of 80). Fault-plane dips are typically greater than
60 towards the east, commonly of the order of 7090
(Fig. 6). Vertical and (very rare) steep (>85) west-
dipping fault planes are also present in the Wadi
WasitWadi Thal region (Figs 5 and 6). These west-
dipping faults can be traced along strike into vertical and
ultimately steep east-dipping faults (Fig. 5). The apparent
sense of offset of the west-dipping faults hence implies a
steep-dipping reverse fault, although along strike the
sense of offset implies a steep-dipping normal fault.
Loss of displacement on the mesoscale antithetic faults
up-section (i.e. within stratigraphically younger units)
is well developed on both the South Wadi Thal and the
West Wadi Baba faults. At these two localities age-
equivalent synrift sediments are present in both the
footwall and the hangingwall (Figs 79). Offset of the
prerift/synrift unconformity at the northern end of the
West Wadi Baba fault is approximately 5060 m. Moving
up section the fault has progressively less offset, with the
uppermost synrift sediments (pro-delta facies of the
2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305
 Rotation of mesoscale normal faults

Fig. 6. Lower hemisphere stereographic plots of the Wadi Wasit, Thal Ridge, South Wadi Thal and West Wadi Baba antithetic
mesoscale faults. Note the steep-dipping (>60) to locally overturned (Wadi WasitWadi Thal region) attitude of the faults. The
dip of originally horizontal bedding surfaces from both prerift and early synrift strata are also plotted.

Lower Rudeis Formation) showing minimal (10 m) or no
displacement (Fig. 7B). Similarly, the South Wadi Thal
fault has approximately 40 m of displacement at the
prerift/synrift unconformity, whilst the uppermost expo-
sures (upper part of the Nukhul Formation, sandstone
packages FS3 & FS4, Figs 8 and 9) extend as a continu-
ous, unfaulted sheet from the hangingwall to the footwall.
This indicates that the South Wadi Thal half-graben
topography was filled at the time of deposition of these
upper units.
Synrift sediments in the hangingwall to antithetic faults
define divergent wedge-shaped bodies in cross-section,
with individual synrift units thickening and diverging into
the hangingwall and thinning and onlapping away from
the faults. This situation is particularly well exposed in
south Wadi Thal, where a 1-km-long dip section exposes
the entire synrift hangingwall fill to the South Wadi Thal
antithetic fault (Figs 8 and 9). The fill comprises a lower
nonmarine package of rock-fall breccia, lacustrine marls,
limestones, fluvial conglomerates and palaeosols (Abu
Zenima Formation) and a upper package of bioturbated
and cross-bedded tidally influenced sandstones, siltstones
and mudstones interpreted to have been deposited in a
mesotidal estuarine setting (Nukhul Formation).
Conglomerates and tidal channel sandstones in both pack-
ages thicken, amalgamate and cut down to the south-west,
i.e. into the hangingwall, and thin and pinch out to the
north-east, where they are replaced by finer grained
lithologies (palaeosols, lacustrine limestones, tidal-flat
mudstones and heterolithics). Thinning and pinch-out to
the north-east is associated with intraformational onlap
and overstep (sensu Schlische & Anders, 1996) of younger
synrift strata (Fig. 9). Similar geometrical relationships
are evident adjacent to the West Wadi Baba fault, with
shallow marine and pro-delta conglomerates, sandstones
and heterolithic facies of the Nukhul and Lower Rudeis
Formation thickening and amalgamating into the hang-
ingwall of the fault, and pinching out away from the fault.

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I. R. Sharp et al.

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 Rotation of mesoscale normal faults

A conglomeratic interval within the Lower Rudeis
Formation in Fig. 7(B) shows this divergence particularly
well. These data show that syntectonic divergent wedge-
fills can be identified in the hangingwalls to both the
South Wadi Thal and the West Wadi Baba mesoscale
antithetic faults. In both cases the sediments were clearly
deposited contemporaneously or shortly after fault activity
as they fill the half-graben that faulting created. The faults
also strongly influenced sedimentary architecture, with
channellized bodies preferentially developed in the hang-
ingwall immediately adjacent to the fault.
Palaeocurrent data from the Abu Zenima, Nukhul and
Lower Rudeis formations at both the South Wadi Thal
and West Wadi Baba fault localities are orientated pre-
dominantly parallel to the adjacent or underlying fault
trace, indicating a significant structural control on sedi-
ment dispersal. The orientation of soft-sediment defor-
mation features (linear deformation ridges, elongate flame
structures, water escape features and small growth faults)
within tidal facies of the Nukhul Formation is comparable
to the orientation of fault arrays in the underlying and
adjacent prerift units (Figs 10 and 11). Furthermore, the
Nukhul Formation is locally highly convoluted, often
associated with spectacular dewatering features and sand
volcanoes. These convoluted intervals appear to occur
with a relatively regular spacing in vertical measured
sections in the Wadi Wasit, Wadi Thal and Wadi Nukhul
regions (Fig. 12). They are most prevalent in close
proximity to mesoscale faults (e.g. Wadi Wasit, Thal
Ridge, South Wadi Thal and Wadi Nukhul faults),
although they can also be identified adjacent to the block-
bounding EBFB (e.g. in the eastern part of Wadi
Nukhul). We interpret these features as evidence for
periodic coseismic deformation and fault propagation
during deposition of the earliest synrift sediments.
Indicators of the palaeohorizontal are abundant in all
studied pre- and synrift outcrops, including such features
as topsets to cross-beds, algal laminae within lacustrine
limestones, planar lamination and primary depositional
bedding (prerift and synrift). Palaeohorizontal surfaces
in the synrift units now dip at up to 25 towards the
east, being most obvious in the south Wadi Thal and
west Wadi Baba regions (Figs 79). Figure 6 illustrates
the dip of palaeohorizontal surfaces within synrift strata
from Wadi Wasit, south Wadi Thal and west Wadi Baba.
Data from all three areas indicate eastward rotation of
up to 25 about horizontal axes since deposition of the
Abu Zenima and Nukhul Formations. These data include
measurements of palaoehorizontal surfaces which overlie
and seal both the South Wadi Thal and the West Wadi
Baba faults, implying that rotation occurred after cess-
ation of activity on the antithetic faults.
Synthetic mesoscale faults
Synthetic mesoscale faults in the Hammam Faraun and
El Qaa fault blocks display similar length-displacement
profiles to the antithetic faults and define en echelon fault
arrays in map view. In vertical profiles (cross-section)
mesoscale synthetic faults dip towards the west (i.e.
synthetic to the main block-bounding CFB and EBFB)
and were consistently found to have shallower dips than
mesoscale antithetic faults (dips between 45 and 70
towards the west). The best exposed example of a
synthetic mesoscale fault and associated synrift half-
graben fill is the Wadi Nukhul fault and half-graben in
the southern part of the Hammam Faraun fault block
(Figs 2 and 3, section CC). The Wadi Nukhul fault is
segmented in map view and loses displacement from a
maximum in the south to a well defined tip point and
associated fault-tip fold in the north (Fig. 2, Moustafa &
Abdeen, 1992; Sharp et al., 1998). The synrift fill
comprises a thick (120 m) section of the Abu Zenima
and Nukhul formations. These formations diverge and
thicken in the hangingwall (towards the east) and thin
and onlap towards the west. Section divergence and
expansion is also evident towards the south, i.e. parallel
to increasing fault displacement, whilst intraformational
onlap and overstep is evident towards the north, i.e.
parallel to decreasing fault displacement (Moustafa &
Abdeen, 1992; Sharp et al., 1998). Folded strata evident
adjacent to the fault indicates an element of ductile
deformation during fault growth (fault propagation fold-
ing, Sharp et al., 2000). There are no synrift units
preserved in the footwall, so it is difficult to constrain
when the fault ceased to move.

Fig. 7. (A) West Wadi Baba mesoscale antithetic fault. Field photograph looking north from the entrance to Wadi Baba. In the
foreground the fault juxtaposes massive limestones of the prerift Eocene Thebes Formation in the footwall (light coloured rocks
on left) against early synrift clastics of the Nukhul Formation in the hangingwall. The prerift Darat Formation is also locally
exposed in the hangingwall, unconformably onlapped by the Nukhul Formation. The trace of the West Wadi Baba fault is clearly
visible in the background within sediments of the Rudeis Formation. Note the regional easterly dip (towards the right) due to
rotational faulting on the CFB (Nezzazat fault) and EBFB (Baba-Sidri fault). The Thebes Formation is also folded into a broad
anticline in the footwall to the CFB. The photograph approximately corresponds to section DD, Figs 2 and 3. (B) Field
photograph of the West Wadi Baba antithetic fault exposed approximately 2 km north of Wadi Baba and Fig. 7(A). View is
towards north. Prerift limestones of the Thebes Formation and synrift Nukhul Formation (foreground, left of photograph) are
juxtaposed against synrift Nukhul Formation and prodelta facies of the Lower Rudeis Formation (right of photograph). Offset is
of the order of 5060 m at wadi level. Note how the channellized conglomerate (Lower Rudeis Formation, right of fault, centre
of photograph) diverges towards the fault, and has been subsequently rotated towards the right/east. Also note that the fault
loses displacement up-section, with offset of the thick sandstone package on the skyline being 10 m, and reducing to 0 m just
beyond the skyline. This thick cliff-forming sandstone is also visible in Fig. 7(A).

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 I. R. Sharp et al.
Fig. 8. (A) Field panorama and sketch of the South Wadi Thal mesoscale antithetic fault and half-graben. Note regional dip of both footwall and hangingwall units towards the right (NE). The
synrift Abu Zenima and Nukhul Formations form a divergent wedge fill into the hangingwall of the South Wadi Thal fault. Note thickening and downcutting of individual units towards the
left, and thinning, pinching out, onlap and overstep towards the right. Logs AF are presented on Fig. 9 with a detailed interpretation. See Fig. 2 for location. (B) Simplified restoration of the
South Wadi Thal fault and half-graben using palaeohorizontal surfaces defined in Figs 8(A) and 9. Restoration of these surfaces to horizontal implies up to 25 of eastward rotation about
horizontal axes.
 Rotation of mesoscale normal faults

Fig. 9. Sedimentological interpretation of the South Wadi Thal half-graben. Note that the Abu Zenima Formation is only
present in the hangingwall, and thins out dramatically to the NE. In contrast, the Nukhul Formation is present in both the
footwall and the hangingwall. Thinning to the NE is associated with onlap and overstep (sensu Schlische & Anders, 1996) of
successively younger synrift units. Divergence and section expansion towards the SW is associated with preferential stacking of
fluvial and tidal channels. These channels are orientated parallel to the fault trace. Note also broad NW trend of palaeocurrent
data within the Nukhul Formation from the logged sections. Location of sedimentological logs is shown in Fig. 8.

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I. R. Sharp et al.

Fig. 10. Trend/strike of soft sediment deformation features (linear deformation ridges, elongate flame structures and small
growth faults) within tidal facies of the Nukhul Formation in the Hammam Faraun block. All data come from tidal flat and
estuarine channel facies in the middle part of the Nukhul Formation. These units can be regarded as approximately age
equivalent in the Hammam Faraun fault block. Note that the trends are comparable to fault trends in the underlying and
adjacent prerift units (Fig. 6). The swing to NESW trends in the southern part of the Hammam Faraun block (Wadi Nukhul
region) is attributable to activity on the Baba-Markha transfer fault. These data are interpreted as evidence for periodic coseismic
deformation and fault growth during deposition of the earliest synrift sediments.

In south Wadi Baba a number of small displacement
synthetic faults are well exposed within sandstones of the
Nukhul Formation (Fig. 13). The synthetic faults are
located approximately 1.5 km east of the block-bounding
CFB (Nezzazat fault), and less than 30 m east of the
West Wadi Baba antithetic fault. The West Wadi Baba
fault at this locality dips very steeply (up to 80) towards
the east (Figs 6 and 13).
The synthetic faults offset the prerift/synrift contact
between 5 and 10 m, have a dip- to slightly oblique-slip,
down-to-the-west sense of displacement and form a small
en echelon array of relatively local extent (traceable along
strike for up to 300 m). The faults are planar (vertical
profile/cross-section) and throughgoing structures at the
scale of the outcrop. The Nukhul Formation also shows
small divergent wedge fills adjacent to the synthetic
faults, indicating that the faults were active slightly before
or during Nukhul Formation deposition.
Present dip attitude of the fault surfaces are very
shallow (2022) towards the west, whilst primary depos-
itional bedding in prerift limestones and unconformably
overlying Nukhul Formation sandstones dips steeply
towards the east (between 45 and 70 in the prerift and
32 and 37 in the synrift). Angular discordance between
the prerift and synrift strata is on average between 12
and 15, but can be as much as 33. Examination of

296 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305


Fig. 11. Bedding plane photograph of an elongate flame
structure/linear deformation ridge within tidal sandstones of
the Nukhul Formation, Wadi Nukhul. These features are
interpreted to have resulted from seismic shock, and their
orientations are often directly comparable to faults within both
prerift and synrift strata (Figs 6 and 10). The ridge is 5 m long
(extent of outcrop). Note book for scale.
palaeohorizontal sedimentary structures and bedding in
the synrift strata indicates that onlap onto the prerift/
synrift unconformity was originally very low angle
(510; cf. Gawthorpe et al., 1997; Sharp et al., 1998,
2000). These data thus indicate that the originally low-
angle depositional dip at the time of deposition of the
Nukhul Formation has subsequently been passively
rotated, such that bedding now dips steeply towards the
east. If the Nukhul Formation is restored to its approxi-
mate original dip the synthetic faults can be calculated
to have had a dip of between 45 and 60 towards the
west at the time of deposition of the Nukhul Formation.
DI S CU S S I O N
Passive rotation of early formed faults
By utilizing palaeohorizontal data from the pre- and
synrift strata it is clear that mesoscale antithetic and
synthetic faults and pre- and synrift strata have been
rotated towards the east about horizontal axes by up to
2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305
Rotation of mesoscale normal faults
Fig. 12. Simplified sedimentological log of the rift initiation
Abu Zenima and Nukhul formations 3 km north of Wadi Thal,
Hammam Faraun fault block. The vertical facies transitions
indicate a back-stepping transgressive sequence from
nonmarine to open-marine environments. The contact to the
rift climax Rudeis Formation is associated with transgressive
ravinement and significant section condensation. Note the
regular occurrence of soft sediment deformed horizons within
the Nukhul Formation. These features often show a
preferential orientation (Figs 10 and 11). T00 to T10 refer to
nomenclature of Krebs et al. (1997).
25 since development and deposition. We interpret this
passive eastward rotation to have occurred due to a
combination of two factors:
1 Long-lived (ongoing) activity and eastwards rotation
about horizontal axes on the down-to-the-west, large-
displacement CBF and EBFB which bound the Hammam
Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks (Fig. 14).
2 Footwall flexing and flexural domino faulting local to
the CFB (cf. Anders et al., 1993).
297
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I. R. Sharp et al.
2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305

Fig. 13. Field sketch and section in south Wadi Baba of the West Wadi Baba antithetic fault and associated small displacement synthetic faults. Note the steep-dipping attitude of the West Wadi
Baba fault, and the very shallow-dipping attitude of small-displacement synthetic faults. Note also the regional dip towards the east, related to activity on the block-bounding CFB and EBFB.
Offset on the synthetic faults (510 m) is constrained by marker horizons A and B in the Nukhul Formation. See Fig. 2 for location and text for more details.
 Rotation of mesoscale normal faults

Fig. 14. Cartoon to explain the passive tilting of early formed half-graben and faults in the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa blocks:
(A) addresses antithetic mesoscale faults only and is based on exposures in the south Wadi Thal region, whilst (B) addresses both
antithetic and synthetic mesoscale faults. Stage i: rift initiation phase (Abu ZenimaNukhul Formation). The early rift structure
is characterized by closely spaced intrafault block mesoscale faults which are filled by sediments of the Abu Zenima and Nukhul
Formation. Facies distribution is controlled by local structure. Block-bounding faults are relatively small-displacement structures.
Stage ii: rift climax phase (Rudeis Formation). Fault linkage and concentration of extension on major block-bounding faults.
Facies distribution reflects macroscale fault blocks (Hammam Faraun & El Qaa). During this stage passive burial and overstep of
early formed half-graben by sediments of the Lower Rudeis Formation occurs, indicating that the faults ceased to be active.
Furthermore, large-scale fault block rotation and footwall flexing is interpreted to have resulted in passive rotation of the
mesoscale faults, with antithetic faults rotated to steeper angles and synthetic faults to shallower angles.

In very rare and extreme cases (e.g. Wadi Wasit region)
rotation and footwall flexing is interpreted to have
resulted in overturning of originally steep-dipping anti-
thetic faults so that at outcrop they have an apparent
high-angle reverse character. Our limited observations of
synthetic (i.e. down-to-the-west) intrablock mesoscale
faults indicate that they are noticeably shallower dipping
than the intrablock antithetic mesoscale faults. As yet,
we have not documented steep or overturned synthetic
faults.
These observations indicate that regional eastwards
rotation of macroscale fault blocks resulted in the pro-
gressive rotation to shallower angles of intrafault block
west-dipping synthetic faults and steepening and local
overturning of east-dipping antithetic faults (Fig. 14).
The majority of rotated mesoscale faults occur within
the footwall of the CFB, typically between 1 and 4 km
from the CFB. Broad folds are also evident in this area
(e.g. open anticline in west Wadi Baba, Fig. 7A), often
associated with areas of steeper dips. Moving further east

2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305 299

I. R. Sharp et al.

Fig. 15. Simplified correlation panel of the rift initiation Abu Zenima and Nukhul formations and rift climax Rudeis
Formation based on detailed logging of synrift strata which approximately parallel the Thal Ridge fault in the Hammam Faraun
block. Correlation is towards the northern tip of the Thal Ridge fault (see Figs 2 and 5 for section location). The vertical facies
transitions indicate a back-stepping transgressive sequence from nonmarine to open-marine environments (cf. Fig. 12). The
lateral facies transitions also indicate a SENW onlapping and overstepping transgressive relationship towards the northern tip of
the Thal Ridge fault (i.e. parallel to decreasing fault displacement, Fig. 5). Note erosive based, attached shoreface sandstones at
the northern end of the section. The panel is hung on the composite flooding event at the NukhulRudeis boundary (T10).
Palaeocurrent and soft sediment deformation structures in this section (Fig. 10, Mid and North Wadi Thal data) are broadly
NWSE, i.e. parallel to the dominant fault trends.

away from the CFB footwall, highly rotated mesoscale

faults were not encountered. An alternative mechanism
to explain rotated faults local to the CFB footwall is thus
the flexural domino model of Anders et al. (1993),
which predicts steeper dips local to, and in the footwall
of, major block-bounding faults.
The correct identification of steep dipping mesoscale
faults as rotated normal faults and not originally steep-
dipping normal faults, inversion-related reverse faults, or
low-angle extensional faults, is of clear importance when
trying to reconstruct basin evolution and palaeostress
analysis.
Progressive abandonment of mesoscale
faults
At two of the studied localities (south Wadi Thal and
west Wadi Baba) it can be demonstrated that the meso-
scale faults are passively overlain and sealed by progress-
ively younger synrift strata (typically the Rudeis
Formation), and that the faults show progressive loss of
displacement up stratigraphic section. These data can be
interpreted in a number of ways. The most obvious is
that the faults were most active during the early synrift
period (Abu Zenima and Nukhul formations) and became

Fig. 16. Summary palaeocurrent data from the extreme northern part of the El Qaa fault block (Wadi Baba). See Fig. 2 for
location. Data from the rift initiation Nukhul Formation is shown in (A) and from the rift climax Lower Rudeis Formation in
(B). Synrift units are shaded. Darker shaded unit in (B) represents Lower Rudeis proximal fan deltas and shoreface sediments.
Note dominance of flow towards the NW within the Nukhul Formation, essentially parallel to the main structures. These data
are interpreted to reflect deposition of the Nukhul Formation in a NWSE orientated elongate tidally dominated marine
embayment. The dominance of flow towards the NW is related to dominant flood tidal currents. This situation contrasts
markedly to palaeocurrent data from the Lower Rudeis Formation, where a clear input from the NE and flow towards the
S/SSW is evident. This is associated with the development of a 1-km-thick suite of proximal stacked aggrading fan deltas in
the immediate hangingwall to the Baba-Sidri fault (NE Wadi Baba) which pass in to distal prodelta mudstones facies in west
and south Wadi Baba. These data are interpreted to reflect establishment of the Baba-Sidri fault (EBFB) as the main basin-
bounding element during Rudeis times, and to a major change in basin physiography.

300 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305

 Rotation of mesoscale normal faults

2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305 301

I. R. Sharp et al.

Fig. 17. Cartoon outlining the differing structural and depositional styles during rift initiation (Abu Zenima and Nukhul
formations) and rift climax (Rudeis Formation). The rift initiation period is interpreted to be associated with numerous closely
spaced mesoscale faults and a dominance of axial palaeoflow within semi-isolated lacustrine, tidal and marine embayments. The
rift climax is associated with the establishment of regional-scale rotated fault blocks and facies distribution characterized by thick
aggrading hangingwall fans, a central mudstone dominated basin and fringing hangingwall shorelines.

inactive during deposition of the Rudeis Formation as
sediments of this age passively overlie the faults and
show no thickness variation or offset over the faults. If
this interpretation is correct then the main period of
propagation and growth on both the South Wadi Thal
and West Wadi Baba faults can be constrained to between
25 and 19.5 Ma (based on age data discussed in Patton
et al., 1994), i.e. they were most active during the rift
initiation period.
This interpretation is too simplistic, however, and
makes a number of assumptions. For example, the pos-
sibility of several fault propagation events separated by
depositional episodes should be addressed. This scenario
would result in greater offset of older synrift stratigraphic
units and minimal offset of younger stratigraphic units.
Thus the loss of fault displacement up stratigraphic
section does not necessarily reflect decreasing fault
activity, but rather that the uppermost stratigraphic units
have only been offset by the last earthquake event.
Furthermore, during a single propagation event a fault
would lose displacement radially towards the fault tips
from the fault segment centre (e.g. Walsh & Waterson,
1987; Dawers & Anders, 1995). In the latter case the
centre of the fault segment would have to be identified
to accurately constrain its propagation history in relation
to the synrift strata. Variations in the rate of sedimentation
can also profoundly influence thickness and preservation
of stratigraphic section. These considerations thus limit
the degree to which the field observations can be utilized
in establishing a detailed propagation history. However,
the fundamental observation that the mesoscale fault tips
(vertical section) are passively overlain by synrift sedi-
ments allows identification of the last offset/faulting
event. This, coupled with the rotated attitude of the
mesoscale faults and synrift strata which passively overlie
or seal them, clearly indicates that the faults were early
formed features which were subsequently abandoned
and rotated.
IMP LICAT IO NS FOR S ED IMENT
D I SP E RS A L A N D S T R AT I G RA P H IC
AR CH ITEC TURE
Several authors (Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Patton et al.,
1994, and references therein) have noted marked spatial
variations in facies and thickness between sediments of
the rift initiation Abu Zenima and Nukhul formations,
and the rift climax Rudeis Formation in the Suez Rift.
These variations have been related to slow subsidence
during the rift initiation period resulting in the depos-
ition of non- and shallow-marine sediments, followed by
rapid subsidence during the rift climax period resulting

302 2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305


in the deposition of the deep-marine Rudeis Formation
(Evans, 1988; Richardson & Arthur, 1988; Steckler et al.,
1988; Patton et al., 1994; Gupta et al., 1998).
Field mapping and logging of synrift sediments
throughout the Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks
confirmed marked facies and thickness variations between
the Abu Zenima/Nukhul formations and Rudeis
Formation. The rift initiation Abu Zenima and Nukhul
formations are often thickest in the central part of the
Hammam Faraun and El Qaa fault blocks. The thick
sections typically occur in the hangingwall of mesoscale
synthetic and antithetic faults (e.g. Wadi Wasit, South
Wadi Thal, Wadi Nukhul and West Wadi Baba faults,
Gawthorpe et al., 1997; Sharp et al., 1998, 2000). Both
westward (South Wadi Thal, West Wadi Baba faults) and
eastward (Wadi Nukhul fault) thickening and diverging
fills into half-graben are present. Away from these local
depocentres the Abu Zenima and Nukhul formations
show clear depositional thinning and onlapping relation-
ships, both towards the EBFB and towards the CFB
(Sharp et al., 2000).
Vertical stratigraphic sections (Figs 9 and 12) indicate
that hangingwall basins associated with mesoscale faults
were initially dominated by fluvio-lacustrine deposition
(Abu Zenima Formation), and pass upwards into tidal
estuarine (Nukhul Formation) and ultimately fully marine
deposits (top Nukhul to Rudeis Formation). Local thick-
ness and facies variations are marked, and show a clear
relationship to mesoscale fault-related physiography, in
particular to variations in fault displacement along strike.
This situation is apparent when facies tracts are walked
out below regionally correlatable flooding surfaces (e.g.
Thal Ridge area, Fig. 15). In this example lateral facies
transitions from fluvial to tidal to open marine facies are
developed parallel to the fault, with marine influence
increasing to the south-east. Increasing section thickness
and marine influence appears to correlate with increasing
displacement on the Thal Ridge fault toward the south-
east. A similar situation is developed in hangingwall
sections parallel to the Wadi Nukhul and West Wadi
Baba mesoscale faults (Sharp et al., 1998). In all three
areas synrift strata onlap and overstep (sensu Schlische &
Anders, 1996) towards the fault tips, and diverge and
expand toward fault segment centres. Analysis of palaeo-
current data in these hangingwall basins indicates a
predominance of axial palaeoflow (NWSE), i.e. parallel
to the structural grain (Figs 12 and 16A).
In marked contrast to the Abu Zenima and Nukhul
formations, the rift climax Rudeis Formation has its
thickest development (up to 1.5 km) in the hangingwall
of the EBFB, and thins and onlaps towards the footwall
highs of the CFB (Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Patton
et al., 1994). Rudeis Formation and younger depositional
systems in the hangingwall of the EBFB are characterized
by stacked aggrading footwall-derived fan deltas and
prodelta muds and turbidites (Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977;
Gawthorpe et al., 1990; Patton et al., 1994; Moustafa,
1996; Gupta et al., 1999; Sharp et al., 1998, 2000). These
2000 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 12, 285305
Rotation of mesoscale normal faults
facies pass into a central basin fill of deeper-water (water
depths <50 m) mudstones and sandstones, which thin,
onlap and amalgamate westwards up the hangingwall
dipslope towards the footwall crests of the CFB. Low-
angle hangingwall dipslope depositional systems are
characterized by offlapping linear fringing shorefaces
developed slightly down flank eastwards of the Hammam
Faraun and Nezzazat footwall crests (e.g. Asl Formation
of the El Qaa fault block Patton et al., 1994). Sediment
dispersal was both axial and at high angles to the strike
of the rift structures (Fig. 16B). Volumetrically significant
fan delta complexes are also evident at low-relief transfer
zones along the EBFB (Gawthorpe et al., 1990; Moustafa,
1996; Gupta et al., 1999; Young et al., 2000; Sharp et al.,
1998, 2000). Thickness and facies relationships during
deposition of the Rudeis Formation are thus more typi-
cal for a rift basin comprising large (25 km wide, 40 km
long) tilted fault blocks (e.g. Leeder & Gawthorpe, 1987;
Leeder & Jackson, 1993; Gawthorpe et al., 1994;
Gawthorpe & Leeder, 2000). Thickness and facies vari-
ations around mesoscale intrablock faults are less pro-
nounced during this period.
We interpret these markedly different thickness and
stacking patterns to reflect two distinct stages during rift
basin evolution (Fig. 17). The rift initiation period of
extension was typified by the development of a complex
array of closely spaced mesoscale (50350 m displace-
ment) synthetic and antithetic faults which exerted a
strong control over facies and thickness distribution of
the Abu Zenima and Nukhul formations. Block-bounding
faults were small-displacement or blind upward propa-
gating features at this time (Evans, 1988; Patton et al.,
1994; Gawthorpe et al., 1997; Gupta et al., 1999; Sharp
et al., 2000). This situation differs from the dramatic
expansion of the rift-climax Rudeis and younger
Formations into the immediate hangingwall of both the
CFB and the EBFB block-bounding faults. This marked
expansion of hangingwall sequences is accompanied by
more regional, fault block-wide facies relationships typical
of mature rift basins (Leeder & Gawthorpe, 1987;
Gawthorpe & Leeder, 2000), and is interpreted as evi-
dence that the block-bounding faults had now become
the active, large-displacement, faults defining a regional
palaeogeography of macroscale (25 km wide, 40 km long)
rotated fault blocks.
Gupta et al. (1998), using numerical modelling and
subsidence data from the Suez and North Sea rifts,
argued that the initial stages of continental rifting and
extension are characterized by numerous closely spaced
faults and isolated depocentres. With ongoing crustal
extension originally isolated fault strands begin to propa-
gate towards each other and link to form larger displace-
ment block-bounding fault segments which accommodate
the majority of ongoing extension. They argued that this
switch of activity appears to correspond with the Nukhul
Rudeis transition in the Suez rift. Data presented in this
paper are in broad agreement with this model, with
studied mesoscale intrafault-block faults becoming inac-
303
I. R. Sharp et al.
tive or progressively losing displacement at the transition
from the Nukhul to Rudeis formations. Further data
from other mesoscale faults in the study area are needed
to conclusively prove this hypothesis.
CONC LUS I ON S
Field data from the eastern side of the Oligo-Miocene
Suez Rift document the passive rotation and abandon-
ment of early formed intrablock mesoscale (50350 m
displacement) faults due to prolonged activity on block-
bounding macroscale (25 km displacement) faults. This
passive rotation results in progressive steepening of anti-
thetic faults and progressive shallowing of synthetic
faults. Steepening developed due to a combination of
long-lived activity and eastwards rotation about horizontal
axes on the large-displacement CBF and EBFB, and
footwall flexing local to the CFB.
Progressive transfer of extension from numerous
closely spaced mesoscale faults to few block-bounding
macroscale faults is also postulated, and in the Suez
example documented here resulted in a marked switch
in sedimentary facies and stacking patterns. Recognition
of this change is extremely important for predicting
sediment dispersal patterns and for correctly recon-
structing the early phases of rift basin evolution.
ACKNOWLE DGMENT S
This research was carried out with the financial support
of NERC (Realizing Our Potential Awards Scheme, grant
GR3/R9527), Norsk Hydro and Amoco. The manuscript
was significantly improved due to the review comments
of Andrew Meigs, Tom Patton and Patience Cowie. We
would like to thank Sayed and Gamal Gooda, Dave
Hunt, Roald Frseth, Paul Gillespie, Sanjeev Gupta, Ian
Carr, Mike Young, Chris Jackson, Patience Cowie, John
Dolson and the staff at GUPCO for logistical help and
discussion. This work would also not have been possible
without the excellent structural framework established
for the Sinai margin of the Suez Rift by Adel Moustafa.
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