Option E.

4 Neurotransmitters and Synapses

Action potentials are passed between neurons across the synapse using chemical
transmission in the form of neurotransmitters. These are stored at the end of the axon.

When the action potential arrives, the ion channels open to allow Ca2+ to enter, activating
the enzymes that act on presynaptic proteins. These proteins cause the release of the
neurotransmitters from the vesicles and across the membrane of the nerve ending.
Neurotransmitters are constantly recycled.

It then diffuses across the synaptic cleft and interacts with the receptors of the next neuron.
Glial cells around the synaptic cleft contain transporters to remove any remaining
neurotransmitters.

E.4.1 - State that some presynaptic neurons excite postsynaptic transmission and others
inhibit postsynaptic transmission

Each neurotransmitter must bind to its matching receptor, which then stimulates the
opening of the ion channels, exciting the neuron. If it reaches the threshold, an action
potential will form and be passed along the post-synaptic neuron. When the process occurs
this way, it is called an excitatory synapse.

On the other hand, there are also inhibitory synapses. Instead of triggering the release of
Ca2+, the neurotransmitters cause the ion channels to open to allow the entry of Cl- ion or
the exit of K+. The gradient changes in the opposite direction, making the overall charge of
the neuron more negative, or hyperpolarised. An action potential cannot be initiated.

An action potential may be formed from a number of impulses reaching the synapse in quick
succession, or from the combined effected of impulses from different axons.

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Presynaptic Potential

E.4.2 - Explain how decision-making in the CNS can result from the interaction between
the activities of excitatory and inhibitory presynaptic neurons at synapses

The brain coordinates and controls our bodys functions, as well as storing memories. It can
also initiate activity, and allows us to perform abstract reasoning.

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Each area of the brain performs a different function, and they are all connected. Using fMRI,
these areas can be identified.

Integration is the process of data being taken into the centres and compiled with the
existing data, or memories. This is then used in decision making. Each neuron has many
synaptic knobs, forming different types of connections.

Decision making is also dependent on the interaction between excitatory and inhibitory
synapses and the different connection pathways between neurons to produce a different
result.

Divergent connections are when information from one pathway branches

out and is passed to a number of others, forming the basis of a variety of
responses.

Convergent connections are when information from multiple pathways

focuses onto fewer pathways. This leads to stronger excitation or inhibition,
and can trigger a response to multiple stimuli.

Circular or Reverbatory connections are when the

information returns to its source to reinforce a
message or make it last longer

Parallel or After-Discharge connections are when the post-

synaptic neuron sends out a number of impulses without any
feedback, resulting in a precise, strong response.

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E.4.3 - Explain how psychoactive drugs affect the brain and personality by either
increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission

Psychoactive drugs affect the mind by

altering the performance of synapses. Some
drugs amplify their processes to increase
post-synaptic transmission, such as nicotine
and atropine. Some inhibit the process of
synaptic transmission to decrease
transmission, such as amphetamines and
beta blocker drugs.

Synaptic transmission is significant in brain function. The brain in integral for the
coordination of body functions, storing information, maintaining our memory bank,
imagination, create, plan, calculate, predict and for abstract reasoning, but excluding
reflexes.

Psychoactive drugs affect behaviour and possibly personality. Many of these drugs are used
in medicine as tranquilisers and painkillers to make the brain neurons resistant to excitation.
They are also used in horticulture as insecticides, to inhibit enzymic breakdown of
transmitter substances after attachment to the post-synaptic membrane. It disrupts the
nervous system to the point of death. Nerve gases can be used as weapons.

These are also used in a social and recreational context, but often have dangerous or tragic
consequences.

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E.4.4 - List three examples of excitatory and three examples of inhibitory psychoactive
drugs
Excitatory Drugs
Nicotine similar structure to acetylcholine
Fit to the receptor on the post-synaptic
membranes
Not broken down by the enzymes that
deactivates acetylcholine
Prolongs the effect by remaining on the
receptors
Activates natural alerting systems in the
brain
Amphetamines increase the release of the
synapse transmitter noradrenaline
Leads to enhanced activation of post-
synaptic neurons in the brain
Results in a high state of mental arousal
Causes the release of dopamine and
serotonin
Dopamine leads to pleasure and arousal
Serotonin leads to a sense of well-being,
dream-like state and hallucinations
Found in Speed and Ecstasy
Cocaine Prevents the removal of
noradrenaline from receptors on the post-
synaptic membrane
Results in the continuous transmission of
action potentials in the post-synaptic neuron
Causes intensely pleasurable sensations and
is a powerful psychostimulant
Releases more dopamine and serotonin in
the brain
People often become aggressive and violent
Inhibitory Drugs
Benzodiazepines enhanced effects of
GABA, a brain synapse transmitter
Combines with and slows down GABA
receptors in post-synaptic membrane
GABA slows brain action
Benzodiazepines have an additional
inhibitory effect
Ethanol [Alcohol] Acts as a stimulant at
first, then a sedative effect as blood alcohol
level rises
Slows the activity of neurons
Acts like an anaesthetic on the brain
Harmful to the liver, pancreas and heart
function
Dampens excitatory messages and inhibits
neural activity
THC [Cannabis] crosses the blood-brain
barrier and binds to the cannabinoid
receptors
These are located in the cerebellum and
parts of the cerebral cortex
Slows or prevents movement and impairs
reasoning
Can be pleasurable and relaxing, causing a
dream-like state
Alters perception of colour, sound and time
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E.4.5 - Explain the effects of THC and cocaine in terms of their action at synapses in the
brain

Cannabis

This is also called marijuana, pot, grass or weed and is usually smoked. The chief mind-
altering chemical in it is THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), which is typically present in
concentration of 1-4%.
Mood

It is a mild hallucinogen, showing similar disinhibiting properties to ethanol. It induces

a sense of well-being and a dreamy state of relaxation. Also:

Encourages fantasies
User becomes suggestible and vulnerable
Possible paranoia

Emotions peak after 10-30 minutes, and wear off after 2-3 hours.

Behaviour

Affects ability to absorb and retain information, maturity, leads to inappropriate

lifestyle choices, gateway to cocaine. Also increases risk of car crashes, STIs and
unwanted pregnancy.

Cocaine

It is a highly addictive stimulant, and is usually ingested, snorted or injected. Crack cocaine
is heated to evaporate the water and inhaled from a heated pipe for faster absorption. it
affects neurons containing dopamine, which affects pleasure. It has euphoric effects,
interfering the reabsorption of dopamine and prolonging stimulation for extended pleasure
response.

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 Mood

It induces euphoria and hyperstimulation, reducing fatigue and increasing mental

clarity. It causes intense pleasure beyond the normal range of human experience.
Faster absorption leads to more intense sensations.

Use of cocaine is then followed by a crash, where the user become restless, irritable
and anxious. Some people will binge, and suffer auditory hallucinations, paranoid
psychosis and lose contact with reality

Behaviour

Users can quickly become addicted, and the cravings lead to repetitive and compulsive
behaviours. It gives sensations of insects crawling under skin, severe depression,
agitated delirium and paranoid psychosis. It has destructive social consequences,
causing the users family to become alienated, with the user becoming isolated and
suspicious. They will spend all their time and money obtaining more.

o Spend time and money obtaining more

o Often resort to crime
o Put aside loved ones

E.4.6 - Discuss the causes of addiction, including genetic predisposition, social factors and
dopamine secretion

Addiction - State of taking a mood-altering drug habitually, and being unable to give it up
without experience unpleasant side-effects. The user is unable to control or abandon their
drug use.

Drug addiction is characterised by a pathological desire for drugs. It occupies their thoughts
and they can only think of obtaining more. They will spend time seeking drugs, with use

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occurring at the expense of other activities such as study, work and social activity. They
cannot control the frequency of use or stop altogether, even if they want to.

The initial motivation for taking the drug affects the likelihood of addiction. If it is taken for
medical purposes, then it rarely leads to addiction. However, if it is taken for pleasure, then
they are more likely to get addicted.

Genetic Predisposition

Some people are predisposed to addiction because their brain is changed in complex ways.
This specifically happens in the regions including the reward system and areas involved in
executive functions and judgement. Their decision-making ability is also affected.

Other personality types are more likely to become addicted, including those who are
inclined to risk-taking or hedonistic.

They might also have a metabolic state that makes drugs more effective, such as the
absence of an enzyme to dispose of the drug. These conditions may be inherited.

Social Factors

Environmental factors, such as stress, affect people's response to the drug. Poor diet, high
unemployment and limited access to education and training are also contributing factors to
susceptibility. Little opportunity for personal fulfilment leads to a sense of hopelessness, so
that the drugs become an escape.

Dopamine Secretion

Drug abuse can eventually alter the structure and chemical makeup of the brain. Since they
affect the reward system, they can produce please, or remove stress and pain. This area is
involved in learning, natural rewards, and causes the body to expect more or repeat the
action.

Some drugs mimic dopamine, causing them to want to repeat use. However, they will
eventually become less sensitive to or more tolerant of it, and they will need higher doses to

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get the same effect. Eventually, they may become dependent and feel like they cant
function without it. If they try to stop use, they will suffer from withdrawal symptoms.

Drugs interfere with the dopamine metabolism to produce a state of dependence. This
often starts with gateway drugs, then later experimentation with more harmful ones, as
more is required to produce the same effect. This drug use is habit-forming and users feel
that they cannot live without it.

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