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THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

PUBLISHED BY ACC LIMITED
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THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL
Founded in 1927 August 2014, Volume 88, Number 8
Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

Teen Haath Naka, Thane (W) 400604.
The contents of this journal are contributions
of individual authors, and reflect their
independent opinions, findings, conclusions and
recommendations and do not necessarily imply
that they reflect the views of the Publisher, ACC
Limited. The Publishers are not liable for any TECHNICAL PAPERS
damage or inconvenience, caused to anyone who
may have acted on the information contained in Portland cement based new cements for self curing and corrosion
the publication.
10 resistance
N.P. Rajamane, R. Jeyalakshmi and Ganesh Kumar G.
The Indian Concrete Journal, ISSN 0019-4565
Copyright 2014 ACC Limited.
ACC Limited - Registered Office Cement House,
23
Activation of siliceous fly ash at very high levels of cement replacement
121, Maharshi Karve Road, Mumbai 400 020. G.V. P. Bhagath Singh and Kolluru V. L. Subramaniam
The copyright, database rights and similar rights
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Journal are owned by ACC Limited. None of
this material may be used for any commercial
Damage detection at multiple locations in reinforced concrete structures
or public use, other than for the purpose of fair
dealing, research or private study, or review of the 33 using algorithm based on transfer function estimate
P. Rathish Kumar, Toshiyuki Oshima, Shuichi Mikami and Yasunouri Miyamouri
contents of the journal, in part or in whole, and
may not be reproduced or stored in any media for
mass circulation without the prior written consent
47
of the publisher. Reviewing some properties of polymer concrete
Raman Bedi, Rakesh Chandra and S.P. Singh
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44 DISCUSSION FORUM
Editor: Ashish Patil

Editorial Team:
69
POINT OF VIEW: Finite element modeling of RC deep beams
Ulhas Fernandes strengthened in shear with CFRP strips
S.M. Abbas Mitali R. Patel and Tejendra Tank
Total number of pages including covers are 80
The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014
Contents Aug 2014.indd 3 7/25/2014 7:46:35 PM

EDITORIAL
From the Editors Desk...
I hope you found the Special issue on Future Cement In the paper co-authored by authors from Japan, deals
profoundly informative and for those who complimented with damage detection in RCC structure and how the
us, a big thank you! Truly, this is a reward for the authors! method of vibration based monitoring can be accurately
used to detect and assess the extent of damage and predict
As the response for contribution by authors was damage location in structures.
overwhelming, we continue on the same topic of Future
Cement bringing you the first two papers written by Over the past half a decade or more since Polymer concrete
renowned authors. ICJ would sincerely like to thank the is known, many research papers have been presented on
authors for their contributing these invaluable papers! I am this subject on how this can be made cost effective and
sure readers will find these informative and revealing! thus popularised as an alternative binder. The authors, very
comprehensively, recap and review some studies on the
Curing and corrosion are both vastly discussed and
research work done on Polymer concrete on the selection
researched topics for decades. Self-curing concrete is
of ingredients, processing parameters, curing conditions
available in the market and is positioned as a value added
and their influence on the mechanical properties.
product. Similarly, for corrosion resistance, coated steel is
also sold. However, cement that is self-curing and corrosion
In Point of View, we feature an analytical model using
resistant?
FEM software to determine the best shear strengthening
mechanism for strengthening of reinforced concrete deep
Two new blended cements are covered in the first
beams using eight different cases of beams with same
paper where the authors present Self-Curing Cement
configurations.
and Corrosion Resistant Portland Cement. Experiments
conducted on mortar using self-curing cement exhibited
Over all you will find that it is a mixed bag of very interesting
28 days strength almost similar to those of water-cured
and informative articles that will invigorate your reading
Portland cement based mortar specimens. Similarly, for
interest and connect you deeper into the subject of your
mortars made using Corrosion Resistant cement exposed
to 12 months of accelerated corrosion exposure conditions, interest.
results show that this cement was effective in creating a

protective environment for embedded steel. Over the last 87 years, ICJs zeal to excel and live up to
your expectations has increased every year! Your feedback
The second paper of special cement series is on the role is of utmost importance to us and would urge you to write
of lime activation on strength development at very high to me at editor@icjonline.com
fly-ash replacement of cement. The authors investigate
the influence of silica in fly-ash and the strength gain in Best Regards,
concrete to highlight the potential for strength enhancement
through activation of reactive components of fly-ash. Ashish Patil

NEWS & EVENTS
Quality Control and Quality Precast Concrete Technology

Assurance in Concrete Construction The Indian Concrete Institute is organising a one-day
including Extreme Weather national seminar on Precast Concrete Technology on
Concreting September 27, 2014 at Veer Savarkar Hall, Shivaji Park,
The National Council for Cement and Building Materials Dadar, Mumbai. The theme is Challenges, Methods and
(NCBs) Centre for Continuing Education Services (CCE) Practices.
is organising a five-day training programme on Quality
Control and Quality Assurance in Concrete Construction
including Extreme Weather Concreting at their Ballabgarh
Unit, during 15-19 September 2014.
The course aims at imparting updated knowledge on quality

aspects of concrete making materials, mix design, quality
and durability of concrete, evaluation techniques etc. It is
designed for civil engineers, site engineers, supervisors,
concrete laboratory engineers, RMC plant engineers.
Contact
National Council for Cement and Building Materials
e: cceb@ncbindia.com
w: www.ncbindia.com
Contact:
AKCs august 2014 Programs Indian Concrete Institute Mumbai Centre
e: icimumbai@yahoo.com
The August 2014 programs of Ambuja Knowledge Centre
w: www.indianconcreteinstitute.org
include the following:
AKC (Andheri)
August 7, 2014: Structural Audit, Condition AICCE19
Assessment & Repair/ Rehabilitation of Concrete
Structures; (Speaker: Dr. Dilip P. Mase, MD, Dilip The Nineteenth Arab International Cement Conference
Mase & Associates (Nagpur)) and Exhibition (AICCE19) will be held during 11-13th
August 13-14, 2014: Workshop on Advance November 2014 at Morocco.
Concrete Mix Design
August 27-28, 2014: Workshop on Durability
Aspects of Concrete
AKC (Belapur)
August 7, 2014: Structural Audit, Condition
Assessment & Repair/ Rehabilitation of Concrete
Structures; (Speaker: Dr. Dilip P. Mase, MD, Dilip
Mase & Associates (Nagpur))
August 21-22, 2014: Workshop on Concrete Mix
Design
AKC (Nalasopara)
August 20, 2014: Good construction Practices;
(Speaker: Er. Hitesh Barot, Zonal Incharge CSG
Mumbai, Ambuja Cements Ltd.)
Contact Contact:
Ambuja Knowledge Centre, Mumbai AICCE19
e: foundations.mumbai@ambujacement.com e: aicce19@gmail.com
w: www.foundationsakc.com w: www.aucbm.org

NEWS & EVENTS

NEWS & EVENTS
ICWRCOE15
The Department of Applied Mechanics and Hydraulics,
NITK, Surathkal, is organising an international conference
on Water Resources, Coastal and Ocean Engineering
(ICWRCOE15) during 12th14th March, 2015.
Ferrocement is a material of millennium and an avenue

towards green technology. This is the third convention
on this subject organised by Ferrocement Society that
is providing a forum for architects, civil engineers and
working professionals across India to present and discuss
the projects, research and developments in a broad
spectrum regarding applications of ferrocement technology
in Infrastructure development and Engineered housing.
This event is organised to provide a platform for researchers, Contact

engineers, scientists and academicians as well as industrial Ferrocement Society
e: ferrocement@gmail.com
professionals from all over the globe to present their
w: ferrocementindia.com
research results and developmental activities in water
resources, coastal and ocean engineering. This conference
will be unique in itself due to the conglomeration of water ACCE(I) AWARDS 2014
resources engineering with ocean and coastal engineering,
which helps scientific community to grow together, and The Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India) has
aims to offer an exciting platform to deliberate on various been conferring yearly awards for outstanding work of
conference themes. Selected papers presented in the persons / organisation / firms, for excellent / innovative
conference will be published in ELSEVIER Aquatic Procedia, design, excellence in the field of construction, significant
which also include the journal as part of the Science contributions to civil engineering consultancy, best
Direct electronic service. software package in civil engineering, best publication in
civil engineering, etc.
Contact
ICWRCOE 2015 Nominations are invited from consulting engineers,
e: icwrcoe@gmail.com designers, planners, construction agencies, computer
w: icwrcoe.nitk.ac.in
software developers and authors.
Contact
FS-2015 Association of Consulting Civil Engineers (India)
The Ferrocement Society Pune is organising the third e: admin@accehq.net
w: www.accehq.net
national convention on ferrocement during May 22-23,
2015 at Pune.

NEWS & EVENTS
BIS Construction Project
Management: Project Formulation
and Appraisal
As part of the ambitious project of development of Indian
Standards in the field of Construction Project Management,
the following draft of Indian Standard has been prepared
and is hereby issued in wide circulation for eliciting public
comments:
CED 29 (7962): Draft Indian Standard Guidelines

for Construction Project Management: Project
Formulation and Appraisal
BAU targets all those involved in planning, designing and

building: engineers, architects and project developers
and also the building trades, building materials retailers,
building firms and representatives of the housing industry.
The draft has also been uploaded on the BIS website and
is available at www.bis.org.in/sf/wcdraft.asp It will be Contact
available on the website up to the last date of comments, BAU 2015
that is, 15 September 2014. e : info@bau-muenchen.com
w : www.bau-muenchen.com
Contact
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
e: info@bis.org.in CUEE2014
w: www.bis.org.in
The 2014 International Conference on Civil, Urban and
Environmental Engineering (CUEE2014) which will be held
on August 19-20, 2014 Beijing, China.
BAU 2015
BAU The Worlds Leading Trade Fair for Architecture, CUEE2014 aims to share the most advanced knowledge
Materials, Systems will be taking place from 19 24 from both academic and industrial world, communicating
January 2015 at Messe Mnchen, Munichs Trade Fair to each other about their experiences and the most up-
Centre, Germany. to-date research achievements, discussing forward issues
and future prospects in this field. All accepted papers will
BAU showcases architecture, materials and systems for be published by WIT Transactions on the Built Environment
industrial, commercial and residential construction and for (ISSN:1743-3509), which will be indexed by EI Compendex
interior work. The range is divided according to building and ISTP. Excellent papers will be selected and published
material, product and theme areas key themes for the on SCI and EI journals
future such as sustainable building play an important role
in all sections of the exhibition. With over 2,000 exhibitors Contact
from 46 countries BAU occupies the entire exhibition site CUEE2014
of Messe Mnchen, filling all 17 halls and 4 entrance areas e: cuee2014@163.com
w: www.cuee2014.org
in total 180,000 m of gross exhibition space and over
235,000 trade visitors.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Portland cement based new cements for

self curing and corrosion resistance
N.P. Rajamane, R. Jeyalakshmi and Ganesh Kumar G.
This paper presents studies on two new blended cements Self Curing Portland Cement (SC-PC) and Corrosion Resis-
tant Portland Cement (CR-PC). The SC-PC was used to prepare mortar specimens which on just being exposed directly to
ambient conditions, exhibited 28 day strength almost similar to those of water-cured PC mortar specimens. The CR-PC
was used to prepare mortar specimens with centrally placed steel bar which were (after 28 days of curing) exposed to
12 months of two accelerated corrosion exposure conditions (i) Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) cycling; each cycle
consists of soaking the specimens in 5% sodium chloride solution for 16 hours, followed by drying in hot air oven for
8 hours at 60 C, and (ii) Continuous immersion in 5% NaCl solution. Both of these tests showed that CR-PC was very
effective in creating protective environment for the embedded steel.
Keywords: Self curing; Portland cement; blast furnace slag; corrosion inhibitor; compressive strength; water absorption; permeability,
corrosion.
INTRODUCTION with calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) of lower Ca content

and possible consumption of calcium hydroxide and
A number of protection measures have been suggested
potentially more aluminous and ferrous phases [H. F.W.
to delay, slow, or stop the corrosion process, thereby
Taylor, 1997]. Chloride ion penetration generally is slow
enhancing the service life of concrete structures.
in SCM blended cement composites, either due to the
Many varieties of mineral admixtures in the form of
more refined pore network or due to the higher content
Supplementary Cementing Materials (SCMs) are used
of AFm phases; or having the ability to bind chloride
in practice to reduce the corrosion activity, including,
[Neville, 1996]. Corrosion Inhibitors (such as Calcium
silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast-
Nitrite) have been also used as admixtures to concrete
furnace slag (GGBS) [Malhotra, 1993]. The beneficial
and they generally oxidise the steel so that passive oxide
effects of incorporating these materials in concrete are
film on steel bar gets stabilised [Ramachandran, 1995].
widely discussed in the literature [Mehta, 2005]. Use of
But, in many cases they are not very effective, when (i)
pozzolanic materials in concrete introduces important
chloride content is very high, (ii) Corrosion Inhibitors
changes in nature and quantity of cement hydration
concentration gets reduced due to leaching or other
reaction solids, pore network, pore solution of hydrated
reasons, (iii) Corrosion Inhibitors distribution within
cement, the different nature of the hydrated products
the matrix is not uniform [Berke, 1990]. As the passive
oxide film can be destabilised by chlorides, conventional
The Indian Concrete Journal, August 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 8, pp. 10-22.
Corrosion Inhibitors are not very effective in highly
10 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 1. Characteristics of materials
Notations / Abbreviations
Cements
AWD = Alternate Wetting and Drying
CACR = Specially formulated Migrating Corrosion Inhibitor Property OPC CRPC
for Corrosion Resistance
Fineness Index
CASC = Chemical Admixture for Self Curing 90 m sieve, % 4.0 1.0
CM=Cement Mortar Fineness Blaine, m2/kg 315 410
COA= Coefficient of Absorptivity
Specific Gravity 3.03 2.95
COASC = Coefficient of Absorptivity for self or air cured
mortar Normal Consistency, % 31 33
COAW = Coefficient of Absorptivity for self or air cured
mortar Setting time, minutes
Initial 45 75
CR-PC = Corrosion Resistant Portland Cement Final 290 296
FA = fly ash
Soundness
fc28SC =28 day compressive after air or self curing Le Chatelier, mm 3 2
fc28W =28 day compressive after water curing Autoclave, % 0.2 0.3
GGBS = Ground granulated blast-furnace slag Loss on Ignition, % 2.1 1.3
OPC = Ordinary Portland Cement
Compressive strength, MPa
PC = Portland Cement 3 day 21 17
RCPT = Rapid Chloride Permeability Test as per ASTM C 7 day 38 33
1202 28 day 54 49
SCM = Supplementary Cementing Materials Chemical composition (%)
SC-PC = Self Curing Portland Cement
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 19.2 33.5
SC-PCM-1 = Cement Mortar with 1% CASC
SC-PCM-2 = Cement Mortar with 2% CASC Aluminium oxide(Al2O3) 4.4 15.8
SEM = Scanning Electron Microscope Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 2.8 0.6
SF = Silica fume
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60.4 38.8
WA24hrSC = Water absorption for 24 hours of soaking for
self or air cured mortar. Magnesium oxide (MgO) 1.1 5.7
WA24hrW = Water absorption for 24 hours of soaking for Sulphuric unhydride (SO3) 3.4 1.9
water cured mortar
Na2O content 1.3 1.2
Aggregates
Fine Coarse
chloride rich environments. Epoxy coating of rebars is a Fineness Modulus 2.5 7.2
very effective technique since both oxygen and moisture Specific Gravity 2.5 2.6
are not allowed to reach metallic surface of embedded steel Bulk density, kg/m 3
1610 1600
bar [Swamy, 1988; Page, 1990]. This method of reduction
Crushed
of damage due to corrosion bars is found to be ineffective, Type
River
granite
sand
especially due to the fact that the epoxy coated bars tend stone
to undergo local pitting corrosion which can trigger off MSA, mm 3.5 12
sudden failures of structural members [ACI Committee
Superplasticiser Carbolic acid ester (CAE)
222, 1996].
Density, kg/m3 1108
To avoid above mentioned corrosion related problems in

Recommended dosage (% of Portland
RCC structures, this paper presents studies on Corrosion 0.1 1.0
cement)
Resistant-Portland Cement (CR-PC) which is made by
Solid content (%) 40
blending P-C with specially formulated migrating type of
Chloride Content Nil
organic based chemical inhibitor. Another practical issue
faced by construction industry is that many structures pH 8.1
lose their long term durability characteristics due to
The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 11

TECHNICAL PAPER
inadequate curing of P-C based concretes/mortars. The (2) Dry CR-PC powder for Bell Jar experiment
lack of curing leads to porous and highly permeable for Adsorption/diffusion study
matrix resulting in obvious weak RCC structures which
The mechanism of protection provided by CR-PC is
are vulnerable to premature failure before desired service
expected to be through development of protective
life. This problem of RCC can be solved if P-C composites
coating on metal due to its polar characteristic nature. To
become self curing without any need for external curing
observe this, a Bell Jar experiment was designed. Glass
operations after the demoulding operations. In the
containers (wide mouthed) of 1 liter were taken. Dry
present study, glycol based chemical admixtures were
cement weighing about 100 gram was placed in a plastic
formulated in powder form and mixed with P-C by using
cup which was then inserted into the jar. Salt water was
blending techniques. Such P-C containing Chemical
poured around the cup to almost full height of the cup. A
Admixture for Self Curing (CASC) is called as Self Curing
16 mm long mild steel, cleaned rod with a drilled central
P-C (SC-PC) in this paper. The test data in this paper
hole 10 mm dia x 14 mm high was taken as the specimen
showed that mortar made with SC-PC had developed 28
and kept in between the two rubber pieces. Mouth of
day compressive strength almost similar to that of water
glass jar was sealed by rubber corks (Figure 1a). Ice was
cured P-C mortars; however, both the matrices seemed to
placed over the hollow Aluminium pipe which was kept
possess similar microstructure as observed by measuring
over the rubber cork for 3 hrs.
absorption and rate of penetration of water.
Metal exposed to dry cement powder faced severe

CORROSION RESISTANTPORTLAND
corrosive environment since it was exposed to ice, salt
CEMENT (CR-PC)
water and humid conditions. Electrochemical cell was set
(1) Preparation of CR-PC up due to variation in moisture/oxygen content between
inside and outside the container resulting in faster rate of
Corrosion Resistant Portland Cement (CR-PC) was
corrosion. Visual examination of metal surface after 21
prepared by dry blending of a specially formulated
Migrating Corrosion Inhibitor based CACR into Portland
cement already pre-admixed with 50% of GGBS (Table 1).
This specially blended cement is called as CR-PC in this
paper.
Figure 1a. Bell jar assembly experimental setup
(i) Corrosion sport on (ii) No corrosion on

exposure to OPC exposure to CR-PC
Figure 1a. Bell jar assembly experimental setup Figure 1b. Observations in bell jar experiment

exposure to CR-PC
exposure to OPC
TECHNICAL PAPER
hrs of test period showed that corrosion spots occurred product on the surfaces consequently, the corrosion of
on the metal surface kept over dry OPC and none in case steel bar.
of CR-PC (Figures 1b).
In case of CR-PC, visible corrosion product was not
The SEM picture analysis (Figure 1c) revealed severe observed and under microscopic analysis (Figure 1d),
localized corrosion and disruptions of reaction product less detrimental corrosion products were observed. This
layers on the steel surface exposed to OPC. The corrosion was presumably due to corrosion inhibitor, present in
product was dense, relatively flat, high valent oxide CR-PC and being
(i) Corrosion migratory in(ii)nature,
sport on travels
No corrosion on to the
exposure to CR-PC
adhered on the surface and was found to be less orderly metal exposure
surface to
toOPC
get adsorbed thereby forming a special
structure expectedly. The higher distribution of oxygen protective passive layer.
in the observations of EDS analysis indicate corrosion Figure 1b. Observations in bell jar experiment
exposure to OPC exposure to CR-PC
Figure 1b. Observations in bell jar experiment
cps/eV
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2 cps/eV
O x 0.001cps/eV
1.0 C Fe Fe
Fc 500
2.2
0.8
2.0
0.6
1.8
0.4 400
1.6
0.2
1.4
0.0
1.2 300 x Ca
0.001cps/eV
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fe 7 8 9
1.0 C Fe Fc 500 o Na
C Fc Ca Fe
0.8 keV 200
0.6
0.4 400
0.2 Element K series Atomic wt % 100
0.0 Fe 21.72 300 Ca
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 o Na
O 71.16
keV 200
C Fc 1 2 3 Ca 4 5 6Fe 7 8 9
C 6.11
keV
Element K series Atomic wt % 100 Element K series Atomic wt %
Fe 21.72
Figure 1c. SEM with EDAX of rebar from the jar experiment with 0 Fe 21.72
O 71.16
OPC 1 2 O3 4 5 6 71.167 8 9
C 6.11
C keV 6.11
Element K series Atomic wt %

Figure 1c. SEM with EDAX of rebar from the jar experiment with Figure 1d. SEM with Fe 21.72
EDAX of rebar from the jar experiment with
OPC CRPC O 71.16
C 6.11

Figure 1d. SEM with EDAX of rebar from the jar experiment with
TECHNICAL PAPER
(3) CR-PC Mortar for Accelerated Corrosion by 4. Fair behaviour (D) indicates corrosion rates
Exposure to 5% NaCl Solution between 30% and 50% that of the control.
Pan mixer was used to mix the ingredients of the mortar

5. Marginal behaviour (E) indicates corrosion rates
mixes with mix proportions by weight in the ratio of
between 50% and 90% that of the control.
cement: sand: water = 1:2:0.4. The cylinder specimens of
size - 50 mm dia * 20 mm high were cast with centrally
6. Poor behaviour (F) indicates corrosion rates
placed steel rod of 16 mm dia x 15 mm height (Fig 2a) and
exceeding 90% of the control
water cured for 28 days. Then, specimens were subjected
to accelerated corrosion by Accelerated Corrosion by
Note :100% corrosion activity relates to occurrence of
Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) cycles. Each cycle
corrosion spread over the entire surface of the specimens.
consisted of soaking the specimens in 5% NaCl solution
The control specimen means the original rebar without
for 16 hours, followed by drying in hot air oven for 8
any corrosion just before using it in mortar specimen.
hours at 60 C. Another set of specimens were cast for
exposing them to 5% NaCl Solution continuously.
In AWD cycles test, the rebar in CR-PC mortar had no
corrosion after 90 days (Rating A) indicating excellent
After desired exposure period, the mortar samples were
performance; the rebar in OPC mortar had severe
taken out and broken in a split tensile test arrangement
corrosion (Rating E). After 12 months, the rebar from
to get the embedded rebars for visual examination;
CR-PC mortar had still only Rating of B indicating very
extent of corrosion was assessed based on rating of A to
good performance, whereas the rebar from OPC had
F, considering mass loss and area of corroded spots as
reached rating of F indicating poor performance.
given below (Table2):
In case of 5% NaCl Exposure test, after 90 days, the rebar

1. Excellent rating of A indicates corrosion rate of
in CR-PC mortar had Rating of A and the rebar in OPC
less than 10% of that of the control.
mortar had severe corrosion (Rating C). However,
after 12 months, the rebar from CR-PC mortar still had
2. Very Good behaviour (B) indicates corrosion
rates between 10%-20% of that of the control.
3. Good behaviour (C) indicates corrosion rates

Table 2 . Ratings of rebar after AWD cycles & continuous
between 20-30 % . immersion in NaCl solution
Exposure condition Exposure time Visual ratings of
(months) specimens
OPC CR-PC
Alternate wet and 3 E A

drying cycles 12 F B
Continuous immersion 3 C A
in 5% NaCl 12 D A
A = Excellent = Corrosion rate of less than 10% of that of the control.

B = Very Good= Corrosion rates between 10%-20% of that of the
control.
C = Good = Corrosion rates between 20-30 % of that of the control.
D = Fair behaviour = Corrosion rates between 30% and 50% that of the
control.
E = Marginal = Corrosion rates between 50% and 90% that of the
control.
F = Poor = Corrosion rates exceeding 90% of the control
Note: 100% corrosion activity = occurrence of corrosion spread over
the entire surface of the specimens.
Figure 2a. Embedment of steel during casting of mortar specimens Control = Original rebar without any corrosion just before using it in
mortar specimen

TECHNICAL PAPER
Rating of B only indicating very good performance,
but, the rebar in OPC mortar had more corrosion with 6.0 OPC specimen
less desirable Rating of D (Figure 2b). 5.0

CR-PC
4.0 Specimen
Curent (mA)
(4) CR-PC Concrete for Accelerated Corrosion
3.0
by Impressed Voltage
2.0
To assess the corrosion protection efficiency under
1.0
accelerated test conditions, concrete cylinders of size 75
mm diameter and 150 mm length, with centrally placed 0.0
0 200 600 1000 1400
steel rod of 16 mm diameter were adopted. The embedded
Time, hrs
length was 140 mm with a surface area of 70.4 cm2. The
steel rod was placed in such a way that a constant cover
Figure 3a. Corrosion currents in impressed voltage method.
is maintained all round (i.e.29.5 mm).
The nominal contents of ingredients of concrete mixes

made of OPC and CR-PC, viz, cement, sand, coarse terminals of the power pack. Stainless steel plate kept
aggregate, and water were 445, 805, 912 and 178 kg/m3 around the cylindrical specimen was connected to the
respectively (weight proportions = 1:1.81:2.05:0.40). Pan negative terminal of the power pack to act as cathode to
mixer was used to mix the ingredients of the concrete gather ions diffusing from embedded steel (anodic area).
mixes. Table vibrator to compact the mix in the mould Thus, a galvanostat cell was created in tank. With increase
was sufficient for the observed Slumps of 100 to 150 mm. in the corrosion activity, resistance of the specimen
After 24 hours of casting, the specimens were demoulded decreased and the current increased (Figure3a).
and subjected to water curing.
(i) Severly damaged (ii) Conparatively no
It was noticed that the corrosion current
in OPC was
damag in much high
CR-PC
Cylindrical specimens with centrally located rebar were in OPC despite lower voltage applied and severe cracking
kept in 5% NaCl solution in a plastic container. A constant and deterioration occurred within 600 hrs. In case of CR-
Figure 3b. Specimens after impress voltage method test
voltage (2.5 V for OPC specimens and 5 Volt for CR-PC PC, the corrosion current was very much low despite
specimens) was supplied from a DC power pack. The higher voltage applied and there were no external
reinforcement in specimens
Figure 2a. Embedment wascasting
of steel during connected
of mortartospecimens
positive signs of corrosion cracking even after 1000 hrs of test
period (Figure 3b). Usefulness of accelerated laboratory
method for corrosion testing of reinforced concrete using
Figure 2b. Rebar from OPC mortar after 1 year of continuous

immersion in 5% NaCl solution

TECHNICAL PAPER
Impressed Current/Voltage has been discussed in the
literature [FM 5-522, 2000; Maaddawy, 2003].
(5) CR-PC Concrete for Resistivity and Rating

of ASTM C 1202
The surface resistivity is useful to identify concrete zones
with high corrosion risk (low electrical resistance) in field
and to evaluate relatively the concretes in laboratory.
The relation between Surface Resistivity with the Charge
passed (Coulombs) in RCP test of ASTM C 1202 [ASTM,
1997] was mentioned by Chini [2003] (Table 3a). Surface
Resistivity test was established by Kesslers [2008] as an
indicator of chloride penetration resistance and chloride
diffusion. This test was suggested as an alternative to
RCPT by Rupnow [2011]. In this regard, the data of the
present study (Figures 4a to 4c) on concretes given in
Table 3b indicate that rate of corrosion would be high
in OPC as reflected in the lower Resistivity and higher A V
RCPT values. The CR-PC concrete had very much higher
Resistivity and lower RCPT values (at both 28 days and
1 year), as compared to OPC, indicating that CR-PC had
very much lower risk of corrosion. a a a
SELF CURINGPORTLAND CEMENT (SC-PC)

The data related to Self Curing Portland Cement (SC-PC) V1 V2
are given in Table 4 and Figure 5.
(1) Preparation of SC-PC and Test Specimens

V
p=2 I
SC-PC was prepared by dry blending of a specially
formulated glycol based Chemical Admixture for Self
Curing (CASC) into Ordinary Portland cement. This Figu
Figure 4a. Four probe test setup for electrical resistivity of concrete
specially blended cement is called as SC-PC in this conc
paper.
Table 3a. Relationship between chloride permeability rating of ASTM C1202 and surface resistivity of concretes
Rating of ASTM C1202 RCPT (Coulombs) Surface resistivity, kcm Typical concrete
High >4,000 <5 High, W/C > 0.60, Conventional Concrete
Moderate 2000-4000 12-21 Moderate, W/C = 0.40.5 Conventional Concrete
Low 1000-2000 21-37 Low, W/C < 0.40, Conventional Concrete
Very Low 100-1000 37-254 Latex-modified concrete or internally-sealed concrete
Negligible <100 > 254 Polymer-impregnated concrete, Polymer concrete

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 3b. Surface resistivity (4 probe method) and rapid chloride permeability test
Cement Type w/c 0.40 Surface resistivity in kcm RCP Test Charge passed (Coulombs) Resistivity, kcm (RCP Rating of ASTM C
Test) 1202
28 days 1 year 28 Days 1 year 28 days
OPC 12.5 14.4 1830 2016 11.1 Moderate
CR-PC 35 52 553 637 35 Low
Note : Test specimens: concrete cylinders of size - 75 mm dia * 150 mm high.
The mechanism of protection provided by SC-PC is directly to ambient conditions with no external source of
expected to be by the continuation of hydration reactions moisture/water during this type of open air curing.
due to maintenance of desired level of humidity inside

Test specimens of size 75 mm dia * 150 mm high were
the matrix even when the cement matrix is exposed
prepared from mortar having mix proportions of Cement
: Sand : water = 1: 2: 0.40 (by weight). The ingredients of
mortar were taken by weight using digital balances and
were mixed in a mechanically operated mortar mixer.
The table vibrator was used to compact the mortar in
disposable plastic moulds and demoulding could be
easily carried out next day after casting.
The three mixes prepared were CM, SC-PCM-1, and SC-

PCM-2 which had 0, 1%, and 2% of Chemical Admixture
for Self Curing (CASC) pre-blended with OPC. There
was no much difference between workability and setting
nature of these mixes.
rete Figure 4b. Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) setup for
concrete

TECHNICAL PAPER
(2) Curing conventional mortar and this gain is quite significant.
This improvement can be again attributed to the fact that
One set of the specimens from mix CM were water cured
hydration reactions were not very adversely affected due
conventionally; another set was not subjected to any
to presence of 2% of CASC which held the mixing water
curing to understand the adverse effects of lack of water
within the matrix and maintained sufficient humidity
curing in conventional cement.
for continued hydration reactions despite exposing the
specimens to open air after demoulding.
The test results on the mix CM were considered as
control data and they were compared with test results
The above discussion shows that increased content of
from the mixes, SC-PCM-1 and SC-PCM-2 to evaluate the
CASC had contributed to more improved performance
effectiveness of presence of CASC in the OPC.
of the SC-PC. However, there is need to find the limit
of CASC content in the blended cement of SC-PC. Since,
The specimens from the mixes, SC-PCM-1 and SC-PCM-2
2% CASC had enabled the self cured matrix to gain
were not water cured, but cured by simply storing them
more strength in water cured control matrix, this can be
openly at ambient conditions of laboratory. Thus, these
adopted for further studies on the composites made from
specimens were basically air-cured or self-cured since no
SC-PC, from economics point of view as CASC are costly
external source of moisture or water was made available
in nature.
to the matrix.
(4) Water Absorption (Porosity of Matrix)

(3) Compressive Strength (Figure 5a)
(Figures 5b and 5c)
The control mix, CM had a 28 day compressive strength
The test specimens were hot air oven dried at 105 C for
(fc28W) of 22.4 MPa after water curing and this strength
48 hrs and cooled to room temperature. Then, they were
got reduced to 13.7 MPa when the CM specimens were
soaked in water for 24 hours and weight gain of specimen
just air cured. Thus, there was strength loss of about 39%
on soaking was computed as water absorption in order to
which is significant. This is obvious expectedly since
know the level of porosity of the matrix.
hydration reactions were adversely affected due to loss of
moisture from the specimens.
The control mix, CM had a water absorption (WA24hrW)
of 3.7% after water curing and this increases to 7.4%
The mix, SC-PCM-1 had a 28 day compressive strength
when the CM specimens were just air cured. Thus, there
(fc28SC) of 21.1 MPa after self curing and this strength is
was almost 100% increase which is quite significant. This
less by only about 6% when compared to 28 day strength
is expected since hydration reactions were adversely
of water cured conventional CM specimens. There was
affected due to loss of moisture from the specimens and
a strength gain of about 54% over the self or air cured
more porous matrix was generated.
conventional mortar and this gain is quite significant.
This improvement can be attributed to the fact that
The mix, SC-PCM-1 had a water absorption (WA24hrSC)
hydration reactions were not very adversely affected due
of 6% after self curing and this water absorption is more
to presence of 1% of CASC which held the mixing water
by about 62% when compared to water absorption of
within the matrix and maintained sufficient humidity
water cured conventional CM specimens. There was a
for continued hydration reactions after demoulding and
decrease in water absorption by about 19% over the self
exposing the specimens to open air.
cured conventional mortar and this decrease is noticeable.
This improvement in matrix (i.e., reduction in porosity)
The mix, SC-PCM-2 had a 28 day compressive strength
can be attributed to the fact that hydration reactions had
(fc28SC) of 22.1 MPa after self curing and this strength
improved due to presence of 1% of CASC which held the
is less very marginally as compared to 28 day strength
mixing water within the matrix and maintained humidity
of water cured conventional CM specimens. There
for continued hydration reactions after demoulding and
was a strength gain of about 61% over the self cured
exposing the specimens to open air.

TECHNICAL PAPER
The mix, SC-PCM-2 had a water absorption (WA24hrSC) hydration reactions after operations of demoulding and
of 5.6% after self curing and this water absorption is more exposing the specimens to open air.
by 51% when compared to water absorption of water
cured conventional CM specimens. There was a decrease The above discussion shows that the presence of 2% CASC
of about 24% in water absorption over the self cured in SC-PC helps to promote more hydration reactions as
conventional mortar and this decrease is significant. compared to 1% CASC.
This improvement in matrix can be attributed to the fact
that improved hydration reactions had occurred due to The test data on water absorption indicate that increased
presence of 2% of CASC which held the mixing water content of CASC contributes to more improved
within the matrix and maintained humidity for continued

TECHNICAL PAPER
performance of the SC-PC. However, there is need to find The above discussion shows that the presence of 2% CASC
the limit of CASC content in the blended cement of SC- in SC-PC helps to promote more hydration reactions
PC. as compared to 1% CASC. COA is more by about 14%
COA when compared to water cured conventional CM
(5) Coefficient of Absorptivity of Water (Per- specimen. The discussion also shows that increased
meability) (Figures 5d and 5e) content of CASC had contributed to more improved
performance of the SC-PC (Figure. 5f). However, there is
The test specimens were hot air oven dried at 105 C
a need to find the limit of CASC content in the blended
for 48 hrs and then cooled to room temperature. Then,
cement of SC-PC. Since, 2% CASC had enabled the self
they were soaked in water for 1 hour and weight gain of
cured matrix to gain strength of water cured control
specimens on soaking was used to compute Coefficient of
matrix, this can be adopted for further studies on the
Absorptivity (COA) of Water as measure of permeability
of the matrix, using T C Powers formula (Table 4)
[Powers, 1968].
Table 4. Test data on self curing mortars made from SC-PC
containing admixture called CASC
The control mix of CM had a Coefficient of Absorptivity
Cement type CM SC-PCM-1SCM-PC-2
(COAW) of 3.79*10-9 cm2/sec after water curing and this %CASC in cement 0 1 2
increased to 8.88*10-9 cm2/sec when the CM specimens Compressive strength
were just air cured. Thus, there was 134% increase in fc28W (Water cured), MPa 22.4
COA which is quite significant. This was expected since fc28SC (Air or self cured), MPa 13.7 21.1 22.1
hydration reactions were adversely affected due to loss % Change relative to water cured control -39 -6 -1
% Change relative to self cured control 54 61
of moisture from the specimens and more porous matrix
Water Absorption (Porosity)
was generated.
WA24hrW (Water cured), % 3.7
WA24hrSC (Air or self cured), % 7.4 6 5.6
The mix, SC-PCM-1 had a COA (COASC) of 5.48*10-9 % Change relative to water cured control 100 62 51
cm2/sec after self curing and this COA is more by about % Change relative to self cured control -19 -24
45% when compared to water cured conventional CM Coefficient of Absorptivity (Permeability)
specimens. There was a decrease in COA by 38% over COAW (Water cured), cm2/s 3.79E-09
COASC (Air or self cured), cm2/s 8.88E-09 5.48E-09 4.31E-09
the self cured conventional mortar and this decrease is
% Change relative to water cured control 134 45 14
noticeable. This improvement can be attributed to the fact
% Change relative to self cured control -38 -51
that hydration reactions were improved due to presence
Chemical Admixture for Self Curing (CASC)
of 1% of CASC which held the mixing water within the Mix proportions, Cement : Sand : water = 1: 2: 0.40
matrix and maintained humidity for continued hydration fc28W = 28 day compressive strength of water cured mortar specimens
made with OPC (control)
reactions after demoulding and exposing the specimens fc28SC = 28 day compressive strength of Self Cured (i.e., Air Cured)
mortar specimens made with SC-PC
to open air. WA24hrW = 24 hr Water Absorption of water cured mortar specimens
made with OPC(control)
WA24hrSC = 24 hr Water Absorption of Self Cured (i.e., Air Cured)
The mix, SC-PCM-2 had a COA (COASC) of 4.31*10-9 mortar specimens made with SC-PC
COAW = Coefficient of Absorptivity of water cured mortar specimens
cm2/sec after self curing and this COA is more by about made with OPC(control)
14% when compared to water cured conventional CM COASC = Coefficient of Absorptivity of Self Cured (i.e., Air Cured)
mortar specimens made with SC-PC
specimens. There was a decrease in COA by 51% over COA = (Q/A)2 /T
where, T= Time period of soaking of specimen in water in seconds
the self cured conventional mortar and this decrease is (T=3600 seconds in the present case), Q=Water absorbed in 60 minutes
noticeable. This improvement can be attributed to the fact by oven dry specimen (cm3 or ml ), A=Total surface of specimen through
which water is absorbed (cm2 ), T=Water absorbed in 60 minutes
that hydration reactions were improved due to presence For effect of curing type, % Change relative to water cured
control=100*(TSC-CMW)/CMW
of 2% of CASC which held the mixing water within the For effect of CASC content, % Change relative to self cured
matrix and maintained humidity for continued hydration control=100*(TSC-TSC0)/TSC0
TSC = Test value for self or air curing
reactions after demoulding and exposing the specimens TSC0 = Test value for self or air curing for CASC=0%
to open air. CMW = Test value for water cured cement mortar without CASC.

TECHNICAL PAPER
composites made from SC-PC keeping in view that from corrosion, but, the presence of chloride ions in quantity
economics point of view, CASC is costly in nature. beyond a certain threshold value, destroys the protective
passive oxide film present on the steel surface thereby
(6) General Observations on SC-PC exposing the base bare metal surface to surrounding
moisture and oxygen resulting in occurrence of severe
Though 1% CASC in SC-PC contributed to matrix
corrosion. This problem is addressed in the present study
improvement as compared to matrix of air cured PC, the
by identifying specially formulated corrosion inhibiting
higher content of CASC at 2% in SC-PC had enabled
admixture (of migratory nature) which is preblended with
the self cured matrix to gain almost same strength as
Portland cement to produce CR-PC (Corrosion Resistant
that of water cured control PC matrix. Therefore, SC-
Portland Cement). The data on this cement on corrosion
PC with 2% CASC can be adopted for further studies
presented in this paper indicate that the CR-PC is a very
on the composites made from SC-PC. From economics
effective corrosion resistant cement.
point of view, as CASC is costly in nature, its usage must
correspond to its contribution to the improvements in
The topics of SC-PC and CR-PC introduced in this paper
matrix. However it was noted that SC-PCM matrix on self
need further detailed study, particularly with regards to
curing still was more porous and more permeable than
their long term performance.
the water cured PC matrix having no CASC. Therefore,
there is a need to study the effect of this minor adverse
Acknowledgements
effect on porosity and permeability on the durability of
the composites made from SC-PC. Towards this, addition The authors wish to thank the staff and many student
of pozzolanic mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica trainees of CACR and other laboratories of SRM
fume, Metakaolin, rice husk, etc. to SC-PC is likely to be University, Kattankulathur, for their technical/scientific
beneficial as these are known to cause efficient refinement cooperation and contribution at various stages of data
of microstructure of cement matrices. generation required in this paper.
CONCLUDING REMARKS References

1. Chini, A. Determination of Acceptance Permeability Characteristics for
The Portland cement has been highly useful and very
performance-Related Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete, BC
widely used successful binder in the world to produce 354-41, School of Building Construction, University of Florida, 2003
mortars and concretes in the construction field. However, 2. Kessler, R.J., Powers, R.G., Vivas, E., Paredes, M.A., and Virmani, Y.P.
the performance of this cement depends upon the curing Surface Resistivity as an Indicator of Concrete Chloride Penetration
Resistance. 2008 Concrete Bridge Conference, St. Louis, MO, May
which should be in form of exposing the cast concrete to 4-7, 2008
external water or moisture so that hydration reactions of
3. Rupnow, T. and Icenogle, P. Evaluation of Surface Resistivity
cement continue within the matrix. Often this curing step Measurements as an Alternative to the Rapid Chloride Permeability
is not properly attended in many field situations thereby Test for Quality Assurance and Acceptance. Final Report, Report No.
FHWA/LA.11/479, July, 2011.
creating poor microstructure of cement composites
leading to durability related problems very often. This is 4. Neville, A. M., (1996), Properties of Concrete, 4th Edition, Addison
Wesley Longman Ltd, UK.
addressed in the present work by suggesting a cement
5. Malhotra V.M., (1993), Fly ash, slag, silica fume, and rice husk in
pre-blended with a specifically formulated glycol based concrete: a review,ACI Concr Int, Vol15, No4, pp. 2328
chemical called in this paper as CASC Chemical
6. Ramachandran, V.S., (1995), Concrete Admixtures Handbook
admixture for Self Curing. The data presented in this Properties, Science, and Technology, 2nd Edition, William Andrew
paper shows that CASC produces compressive strength, Publishing, ISBN 0-8155-1373-9
on air curing or self curing, in the cement mortar is almost 7. Mehta, P.K. and Monteiro, P.J.M., (2005), Concrete: Microstructure,
equal to that of water cured specimens. Properties and Materials. Third Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill
8. FM 5-522 (2000), Florida Method of Test for An Accelerated Laboratory

Method for Corrosion Testing of Reinforced Concrete Using Impressed
The Portland cement, though on curing produces alkaline Current, Dept of Trnasportation, Florida, USA, (www.dot.state.fl.us/
environment for the protection of embedded steel from statematerialsoffice/ .../resources/.../fm5-522.pdf)

TECHNICAL PAPER
9. Maaddawy T E and Soudki, K.A., (2003), Effectiveness of Impressed 14. ACI Committee 222, (1996), Corrosion of Metals in Concrete. In
Current Technique to Simulate Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement in ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. Part I. Detroit: American Concrete
Concrete, J. Mat. in Civ. Engg., January/February, Volume 15, Issue Institute, 5 Vols.
1, pp. 41-47
15. Swamy, R.N., S. Koyama, T. Arai, and N. Mikami, (1988), Durability
10. ASTM , (1997), ASTM C -1202 Standard test method for electrical of Steel Reinforcement in Marine Environment. Concrete in Marine
indication of concretes ability to resist chloride ion penetration Environment. Ed. V.M. Malhotra. American Concrete Institute.
Proceedings, 2nd International Conference, St. Andrews by-the-Sea,
11. Powers T.C., (1968), The Properties of Fresh Concrete. John Wiley Canada. ACI SP-109. Detroit: ACI, pp 147161
12. H.F.W. Taylor, (1997),Cement Chemistry, 2nd Ed, Thomas Telford, 16. Page C. L., K. W. J. Treadway, and P. B. Bamforth Ed., (1990), Corrosion
London. of Reinforcementin Concrete, Society of Chemical Industry, London
13. Berke Neal S., Vtctor Chaker, and David Whiting, (Editors), (1990),
STP 1065.CorrosionRates of Steel in Concrete,ASTM, Philadelphia,
PA 19103
Dr. N.P. Rajamane, B.E. (BVB, KU), M. Tech. (IITM), PhD (VTU), is the Head of Centre for Advanced
Concrete Research, SRM University, Kattankulathur, Tamil Nadu. He is former Head, Advanced Materials
Lab, CSIR, SERC, Chennai. He is the recipient of Outstanding Concrete Technologist for 2008 by Indian
Concrete Institute. He has patents on building blocks from lateritic soil and natural rubber latex modified
cement concrete. He has more than 380 technical publications related to his research interests of high
performance concrete, geopolymer concrete, lightweight concrete, concrete chemicals, repair materials,
nanotechnology and mineral admixtures, NDT, corrosion, etc.
Dr. R. Jeyalakshmi is a Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Head, E&T, SRM University. She is
the author of the book, Principles of Environmental Science. Her fields of interest include material
technology, reaction engineering, new binder systems, nanotechnology, concrete admixtures, corrosion,
waste management, bio-energy, and environmental chemistry.
Ganesh Kumar G. is a General Manager in Verve Cement Additives Private Limited, Pune. He has over three
decades experience in industries at various capacities including application oriented techno-marketing. He
is specially interested in concrete corrosion, rebar corrosion and their mitigation. Presently, he is working
on mechanical activation of fly ash by grinding it to extreme fineness.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Activation of siliceous fly ash at very high levels of

cement replacement
G.V. P. Bhagath Singh and Kolluru V. L. Subramaniam
The role of lime activation on the strength development in concrete with very high fly ash replacement of cement is
explored. Quicklime is shown to be very effective in providing increased quantity of lime in the mix, which provides
significant enhancement in strength particularly at later ages. Concrete strengths of 30MPa and higher were achieved
with a cement content of 100kg/m3. The efficacy of quicklime increases with increasing temperature. At 40oC, the
rate of strength gain is significantly increased and 30MPa is achieved within 15 days. It is known that strength gain in
concrete is related to the depletion of lime in the system, which is directly influenced by silica provided by fly ash. An
investigation of the underlying reactions reveals the potential for further strength enhancement through activation of
all the reactive components of fly ash.
Keywords: Fly ash; activation; lime; quicklime; XRD; TGA.
Introduction water, the continuous production of concrete is required

to ensure the development of infrastructure to support
The focus on sustainable construction has led towards
growth. This has therefore generated significant interest
identification of alternatives to energy and carbon
in ensuring the continued production of concrete with
intensive materials and processes. As sustainability
less quantum usage of cement.
moves to the forefront as a major initiative for the
construction industry, emphasis on producing concrete
Use of mineral admixtures or supplementary cementitious
with alternate cement or with increased volume fractions
materials (SCM) at low levels of cement substitution has
of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) and
shown to improve specific aspects of concrete performance
industrial by products such as fly ash, has grown rapidly.
[1]. Blended cements, which are essentially binary blends
This interest in reducing cement consumption is driven
of cement and SCMs, are available commercially. The
by the consideration that cement production is associated
use of fly ash in concrete is particularly attractive for
with a significant volume of carbon dioxide and is the
use as cement replacement since it allows for beneficial
one of the largest sources of anthropogenic carbon in the
utilization of waste material which is generated in large
atmosphere. However, as concrete is the second largest
quantities. Fly ash used in moderate quantities as cement
material consumed by human beings in the world next to
replacement can significantly enhance the properties of
concrete. There is increasing interest among researchers
The Indian Concrete Journal, August 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 8, pp. 23-32

TECHNICAL PAPER
to replace higher amounts of Portland cement with fly days are presented. At lower temperature, strength of
ash. 30 MPa is achieved after longer curing. Starting with
a mix designed for a characteristic strength of 35 MPa,
The current annual worldwide production of fly ash the target strengths are achieved at very high levels of
in India is approximately 110 million tonnes, but only cement replacement with fly ash which is activated
approximately 38% is being used by the cement and using lime. The study demonstrates that concrete with
concrete industry [2]. Since the demand and consumption acceptable strength can be formulated to meet the original
of Portland cement is increasing, it is becoming imperative project specifications at 65% replacement of cement with
for the cement and concrete industry to start utilizing fly ash. An investigation of the underlying reactions
more fly ash to meet these demands rather than increase reveals the potential for further strength enhancement
Portland cement production [3]. Concrete made with fly through activation by effectively engaging all the reactive
ash substitution of cement often displays slow hydration components of fly ash.
that is accompanied by slow setting and low early age
strength. This effect is more pronounced as the level of Background
fly ash replacement is increased. The low reactivity of fly
Fly ash as a cement replacement in concrete is very
ash is a major hindrance to the development of concrete
common and attractive because of its large availability,
consisting of large volumes of fly ash. In concrete
widespread familiarity with use in construction and the
containing fly ash a significant proportion of fly ash remain
potential for high volume utilization. However, the use
unreacted even after significant time. It is increasingly
of fly ash is also accompanied by increased setting time
becoming evident that the solution lies in activating the
and decreased early strength. To improve the properties
fly ash to enhance its reactivity thereby harnessing the
of fly ash researchers have used of the methods like
maximum potential of the cementing action provided by
thermal, mechanical and chemical activation to achieve
fly ash hydration. Effective use of high volume fly ash as
enhanced reactivity from fly ash to compensate the
cement replacement therefore requires development of an
loss of early strength. The efficiency however, of some
understanding of the activation process, which enhances
of these methods is debatable since a number of them
the reactivity of fly ash.
are too energy demanding, while others fail in simple
cost-benefit analysis. Different methods, such as fine
Activated fly ash systems involve multiple complex
grinding, elevated temperature curing and use of
processes. Understanding the underlying processes can
chemical activators, have been explored to overcome
lead to production of alternate binders which minimize or
these shortcomings. After comparative studies, it has
totally eliminate the use of cement. Proper understanding
been found that the use of chemical activator is the most
of the type and quantity of products formed, the influence
effective and efficient technique to activate the potential
of process variables and the link between the products of
pozzolanic reactivity of coal fly ashes and to improve the
reaction and the properties of concrete is required. Proper
performance of the fly ash in concrete. The addition of
characterization of fly ash is an essential first step. Use of
activator(s) can significantly enhance the rate pozzolanic
very high volume fly ash in concrete requires very careful
reactions between fly ash and lime, and hence increase
consideration, from the characterization of the starting
the strength development rate and ultimate strength of
materials, through mixture proportioning and curing
hardened concrete containing fly ash.
options to achieve desired properties, to the in-place
early-age and long-term performance of the concrete in
The addition of hydrated lime has been shown to
its fresh and hardened states.
accelerate the reaction degree of fly ash at both early and
later ages. Both the rate of strength gain and the ultimate
In this paper results of an experimental study aimed at
strength of lime-treated fly ash are highly dependent on
producing an ultra-high volume fly ash concrete suitable
the curing temperature [4,5]. The interaction between fly
for warm weather concreting using 100 kg/m3 cement
ash and Ca(OH)2 has attracted the attention of several
which achieves a target mean strength of 30MPa at 28

TECHNICAL PAPER
researchers. There is general agreement that the quality
and quantity of calcium hydroxide that is present in Fly ash Quick lime (CaO)
the matrix of a fly ash cement system is crucial for the Cement Hydrated lime (Ca(OH) 2 )
future performance of these systems. The rate of Ca(OH)2
Cumulative % mass passing

110
consumption in mixtures of hydrated lime and fly ash has 100
90
been shown to increase notably with increasing Ca(OH)2 80
70
content in the initial mixture. Fly ash hydration is the 60
50
only reaction that consumes Ca(OH)2 and the rate of ash 40
30
hydration increases too with Ca(OH)2/fly ash ratio [6]. 20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1
Quick lime as fly ash replacement in cement-fly ash
Particle size (mm)
blends been shown to have a positive influence mainly
on strength development and to be an effective way for
producing Ca(OH)2 in the mix [7]. The reaction rate of Figure 1. Particle size distributions of the components of the binder
phase
high Calcium fly ash with quick lime results in a notable
acceleration of the fly ash degree of reaction throughout
the curing period [8,9]. Quick lime addition and its
subsequent formation to Ca(OH)2 result in a higher
basicity inside the matrix. The increase in pH leads to the
corrosion of the densified outer layer of fly ash particles For evaluating the very high volume fly ash, a baseline
leaving more active cores exposed for reacting forming fly ash concrete mixture where 70% of the cementitious
additional hydration products [10]. It must be pointed binder consisted of fly ash was considered. Two different
out that all the studies on using hydrated and quick lime limes are used as activators in the very high volume fly ash
for increasing the Ca(OH)2 content in the mix are based concrete: 75% purity of reagent grade hydrated lime (HL),
on lower levels of cement substitution with fly ash. Ca(OH)2, and 95% purity of reagent grade quicklime (QL),
CaO. The particle size distributions of all the components
Experimental Program of the binder phase were determined using Microtrac
Commercially available 53 Grade ordinary Portland

cement with Specific Gravity of 3.1 and fineness modulus
of 325 m2/kg was used for all concrete mixtures. Oxide
composition of cement was determined using X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and is listed in Table 1. Table 1. Oxide composition of cement and fly ash
The Sulphuric anhydrite, SO3 content of the cement was Oxide Cement Fly ash
1.5%. Siliceous fly ash conforming to the requirements (% mass) (% mass)
of IS 3812 and IS 1727 (1967) with a specific gravity of Al2O3 3.104 28.818
2.5 and a fineness modulus of 320 m2/kg was used as SiO2 15.76 57.352
a supplementary cementitious material in concrete CaO 71.326 1.924
mixtures. The lime reactivity of fly ash determined as per Fe2O3 5.525 5.97
as per IS 3812 was 5MPa. The oxide composition of the MgO 0.723 0.50
fly ash determined using XRF are listed in Table 1. While K2O 0.717 1.93
the total silica content of the fly ash was 57.6% the reactive SO3 2.056 0
silica determined as per IS 3812(part 1):2003 was 20.19%. Cl 0.233 0.25
The loss on ignition of cement and fly ash were 0.8% and Na2O 0 0
2.5%, respectively. TiO2 0.515 2.24

TECHNICAL PAPER
S3500 Particle Size Analyzer. Isopropanol was used as 340 kg/m3. The batch weights of the lime activated
the medium for dispersion to arrest the agglomeration mixtures are also shown in Table 2.
between particles. The particle size distributions of all the
materials of the binder phase are shown in Figure 1. It can Standard 150 mm Cubes were cast from each mixture to
be seen that while the cement and fly ash have comparable evaluate compressive strength gain. A slump in the range
size distributions, both QL and HL are finer. of 75-100mm was obtained for all concrete mixtures. No
other admixtures were used or added to the concrete
Concrete mix design procedure given in IS 10262 was mix. Immediately after casting, all specimens were
followed with minor modification for M35 grade. For covered with plastic covers to minimize moisture loss
a target mean strength of 43 MPa, water/cement ratio and transferred to a temperature chamber, which was
was taken equal to 0.43. Taking into consideration, the maintained at a constant temperature. Specimens were
minimum requirements for cement content in for M35 demolded at 24 hours and were continuously stored
grade as per IS 456-2000, the cement content was fixed at at a constant temperature up to testing. Two different
340 kg/m3. In the concrete mixture fine aggregate were curing temperatures corresponding to 25 and 40oC were
taken as 40% of the total aggregate volume fraction. The prescribed. For each mix, compressive strength was
weights of fine and coarse aggregate were then calculated measured at 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 56 and 90 days of age.
considering the specific gravities of coarse and fine
aggregate. The batch weights for the control mixture, Thermogravemetric Analysis
which contained no fly ash and the baseline fly ash mixture
prepared with 70% by mass replacement of cement Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) was used to
with fly ash are shown in Table 2. Concrete mixtures determine the Ca(OH)2 content of hydrating cementitious
were prepared with activator dosages of 5 and 10% by materials at different ages after casting. Samples for TGA
weight of the cementitious binder material. The weight were prepared of cement, fly ash, lime activator and water
of the lime activator was included in the weight of the in the same proportion by mass as the concrete mixes.
cementitious binder. In concrete mixtures containing lime After preparation, samples were kept in 1.5 ml air tight
activators, the equivalent weight of fly ash was reduced vials which were stored in the temperature chamber up
to keep the total weight of the cemenitious binder equal to to testing. At the time of testing, samples were crushed,
Table 2. Batch weights in kg/m3 for concrete mixtures (water to cement ratio 0.43)
Control Baseline 5% Quick 10% Quick 5% Hydrated 10% Hydrated
Fly Ash lime lime lime lime
Materials (kg/m3) /
C 70% FA 5% QL 10% QL 5% HL 10% HL
Mix Designation
OPC 53 grade cement 340 100 100 100 100 100
Fly ash 0 240 221 204 221 204

20 mm aggregates* 573 573 573 573 573 573
10 mm aggregates* 573 573 573 573 573 573
Fine aggregates* 767 767 767 767 767 767
Water 146 146 146 146 146 146
Hydrated lime -- -- -- -- 19 36
Quick lime -- -- 19 36 -- --
* Weights of aggregate in SSD state

TECHNICAL PAPER
in IS 1727) is comparable to the vitreous SiO2 obtained late ages. The 28 day compressive strength of the control
from Rietveld refinement. mix was 48 MPa. The compressive strength obtained by
scaling the 28 day compressive strength of the control
[SiO2] vitreous = [SiO2] Total from XRF (Table 1) - [SiO2] Quartz (XRD Rietveld) mix by 0.3 is indicated in the Figure 4. The increase in
- [SiO2] Mullite (XRD Rietveld) the compressive strength of fly ash concrete above the
30% value of control concrete is indicative of pozzolanic
[Al2O3] vitreous = [Al2O3] Total from XRF (Table 1) - [Al2O3] Mullite (XRD reaction involving fly ash, which is enhanced in the
Rietveld) presence of extra Ca(OH)2 supplied by lime addition. The
enhancement in the pozzolanic reactivity appears to be
Higher reactive Silica and Alumina available in the significantly higher in the early ages when quick lime is
vitreous or glassy form are indicative of higher potential used.
for use as replacement of cement. For the fly ash used in this
study, while the oxide composition indicates a total Silica Compressive strength gain in specimens cured at 25OC
content of 57.4%, only 22.5% is available in the reactive is shown in Figure 5. The 28 day compressive strength
form. Similarly of the total Alumina, which is 28.8% by of the control mixture was 49 MPa. The results of lime
mass, a smaller percentage which amounts to 11.6% by activation indicate improvement in the strength only
mass of fly ash is available in reactive form. The results of in the later ages, for both quicklime and hydrated lime,
the study indicate that the reactive components of fly ash when compared with the baseline fly ash mixture.
are not obtained from an oxide content evaluation as is Strength results indicate that higher temperature curing
traditionally done, but require a careful evaluation of the results in a more rapid gain of strength in the fly ash
phases of Silica and Alumina present in the ash. (both activated and baseline) systems but the final
strengths are higher in the concrete cured at 25oC. The
Results trend in strength gain indicates continued increase in
strength with age. These results are in conformity with
The compressive strength of quick lime activated fly ash
the findings of other researchers who have shown that
mixtures cured at 40oC is plotted in Figure 4. The results
higher temperature results in faster early gain of strength
of lime activation indicate a clear improvement in the
but a lower ultimate strength [11,12]. Further, comparing
strength in quicklime activated mixtures, both at early
the strength gain achieved, quicklime is more effective in
and later ages when compared with the baseline fly ash
enhancing strength than hydrated lime.
mixture. Hydrated lime only shows improvements at
70%F 5%QL 10%QL 5%HL 10%HL
40
35
30
Strength (MPa)
25
20
30% of 28d strength of control
15
10
5
0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91
Age (days)
Figure 4. Compressive strength gain in lime activated concrete

mixtures cured at 40 deg C

TECHNICAL PAPER
The Ca(OH)2 content with age as a percentage of the consumption of Ca(OH)2 in the first 7 days matches well
cementitious binder obtained from TGA is shown in Figures with the observed higher rate of strength gain at 40oC.
6 and 7 for samples cured at 40 and 25oC, respectively. At 25oC there is a continued consumption of lime after
The 30% scaled values of the control mixture (with no fly 56 days at a steady rate, which is essentially equal for
ash) are also plotted in the figures for comparison. It can both 5 and 10% quicklime cases. This agrees well with the
be seen that for the control mixture, the hydraulic activity observed linear strength gain with age in lime activated
of cement results in continuous increase in the Ca(OH)2 systems at later ages.
content. Comparing the hydrated and quicklime systems
it is immediately obvious that for quicklime results in a At 40oC the quicklime mixes which have a higher Ca(OH)2
significantly higher Ca(OH)2 content in the mix. When content in the mix after the initiation of pozzolanic activity
compared with the baseline fly ash mixture the Ca(OH)2 exhibit a faster rate Ca(OH)2 depletion after 14 days. This
content of the lime activated systems are consistently indicates that the pozzolanic activity is increased at higher
higher at any age for higher dosage of quicklime. Ca(OH)2 content. It is also interesting to note that while
the lime activated systems exhibit a noticeable increase
For specimen cured at 25oC, comparison of the 70% in Ca(OH)2 up to 3 days followed by a decrease, the rise
baseline fly ash mix with the scaled value of the control mix in the case of baseline fly ash system is insignificant. This
suggests that the depletion of Ca(OH)2 due to pozzolanic is because the hydraulic activity of cement is accelerated
reaction is initiated at 7 days of age. For specimens cured with temperature which releases significant Ca(OH)2 in
at 40oC the significant difference between the Ca(OH)2 the system. This coupled with enhanced pozzoloanic
contents of the baseline fly ash mix and the scaled value activity of fly ash results in a continuous decrease of
of the control mix at 3 days suggests that depletion of Ca(OH)2 with time. The release of Ca(OH)2 from cement
Ca(OH)2 due to pozzolanic reaction is initiated after 1 day hydration appears to be slower when significant Ca(OH)2
of age. In baseline fly ash and the hydrated lime mixes is present in the system.
there is a significant depletion of Ca(OH)2 in the system
at 90 days, while there is significant residual Ca(OH)2 in At 25oC, the trends in the production and depletion of
the quicklime mixes. Ca(OH)2 content in the 5 and 10% quick lime systems are
effectively similar, which indicates that the production
The rate and pace of Ca(OH)2 depletion in the system of Ca(OH)2 from cement hydration and the subsequent
correlates well the strength development. The rapid initial

TECHNICAL PAPER
consumption are not influenced by the Ca(OH)2 content The X-ray diffractogram of the 5% QL fly ash mix cured
of the system. at 40oC at 28 days of age is shown in Figure 9. The
diffractograph of the cement, fly ash and quick lime
While there is a significant depletion of Ca(OH)2 in the powders taken in the mass proportion are also shown
baseline and hydrated lime mixtures, a supply of lime in the figure for comparison. The unreactive phases
is available in the lime activated systems. There is a essentially remain unchanged with age. The depletion of
larger residual Ca(OH)2 in the 10% quicklime system at Gypsum is evident at 28days. The presence of Ca(OH)2 in
any age which does not appear to influence the strength the diffractogram of QL ash mix is due to the contribution
gain. Therefore, considering the availability of lime of cement hydration and the quick lime addition. This
in the system and the near similar increase in strength result is in agreement with the TGA results which show
with age, the required quantity of quicklime for strength a residual Ca(OH)2 in the system. The depression in the
enhancement may be less than 5%. amorphous hump at lower theta angles and a rightward
shift of the entire hump indicates a dissolution of the
The X-ray diffraction patterns of a hydrated cement amorphous silica and alumina from fly ash and the
sample is shown in Figure 8. Hydration transforms formation of amorphous calcium silicate hydrates.
the cement into an X-ray amorphous calcium silicate
hydrate that appears as a broad hump (between 25 and The X-ray diffractograms of the 5% QL fly ash mix cured
40 degrees) on the diffractogram of the hydrated cement at 25oC at different ages are shown in Figure 10. The
sample. The hump associated with amorphous calcium residual Ca(OH)2 can clearly be identified at all ages.
silicate hydrates partially overlaps with the amorphous The reduction of the amorphous hump associated with
hump observed in fly ash, and is shifted towards slightly amorphous silica and alumina (at lower theta angles)
higher 2 values. New crystalline phase can be identified and the rightward shift associated with the formation
with the formation of Calcium Hydroxide. The hydration of amorphous silicate hydrates which accompany the
of cement leads to a total consumption of Gypsum. reduction in Ca(OH)2, is more gradual with age. This
Additionally, Ettringite was found to form within the suggests, the dissolution of silica from fly ash is slower
first day. at lower temperature. The presence of excess Ca(OH)2
supplied by quicklime does not appear to directly
5%QL Powder 5%QL - 28 day mix
Powder Control-28 day
CH - Calcium Hydroxide
CH Q
CH C - Calcium Carbonate
CH - Calcium Hydroxide G - Gypsum
C - Calcium Carbonate Q - Quartz
Intensity (2000/div)
G - Gypsum M - Mullite
Q M CH
CH C
C M
G CH CM Q
CH G CH
CH
C C
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
2 2
Figure 8. X-ray diffractograms of cement and hydrated cement Figure 9. X-ray diffractograms of dry powder and hydrated 5%QL
samples sample cured at 40 deg C

TECHNICAL PAPER
target strength using quick lime activation. Commercial
Powder CH - Calcium Hydroxide products can be developed, where the quick lime required
1 day C - Calcium Carbonate
G - Gypsum
is optimized for a given fly ash. The results presented were
28 day
56 day
Q - quartz conducted using a specific portland cement and a specific
M - Mullite
fly ash. The degree to which the concrete mixture will
CH Q
Q
CH require modification, or whether the specified properties
M C
G
M
C
M CH Q can be achieved at all, will depend upon the specific
characteristics of the fly ash being employed. Following

points require careful consideration
1. The requirement of quick lime is currently based

on the formation of calcium silicate hydrate as
the primary product of hydration. Fly ash also
10 20 30 40 50 60
contains reactive Alumina in addition to reactive
2
Silica. Enhancing the potential of fly ash requires
utilizing the reactive Alumina in generating
Figure 10. X-ray diffractograms of dry powder and hydrated 5%QL products in the form of Aluminate hydrates such
sample cured at 25 deg C
as Calcium Alumino Silicate Hydrates. Further
influence the dissolution of amorphous silica from fly ash. strength gains can be achieved if the Alumina in
Thus, the rate controlling step in lime activation of fly ash the fly ash is activated in generating additional
appears to be the dissolution of silica from fly ash. reaction products. Methods for characterizing
the formation of Alumino-silicates also need to
Findings and Conclusions be explored using advanced techniques such as,
energy dispersive X-ray and nuclear magnetic
The findings of this investigation pertaining to very high resonance (NMR).
levels of fly ash replacement, 60% by mass of cement and
higher, can be summarized as below 2. Cement contains 15.76% Silica while fly ash
contains 20.2% reactive Silica. There will be a
1. Quick lime provides an effective way of increasing higher contribution of Silica when cement is
the Ca(OH)2 content in the mix. The primary replaced with fly ash. Therefore if sufficient lime
indication is that the strength gain is associated is available, more calcium silicate hydrate should
with the formation of an amorphous hydrate be formed. However, even with lime available in
product and is linked with the rate of depletion of the system, the strengths of fly ash concrete are
Ca(OH)2 in the system. lower than pure cement system. This suggests
efficiency of fly ash is related significantly with
2. The rate of strength gain is directly influenced the dissolution of Silica, which is significantly
by the consumption of Ca(OH)2, which depends influenced by temperature. The trend of strength
on the silica in the system. Higher temperature gain in quick lime activated at 25oC suggests a
favors the release of silica from fly ash. Increasing continued increase beyond 90 days. The long term
the Ca(OH)2 content in the mix does not appear strength derived on utilizing the reactive silica
to influence the release of silica into the mix at the available can potentially be significantly higher
levels of replacements beyond 60% by mass of since residual Ca(OH)2 is available.
cement.
3. Considering the lower efficiency of fly ash, the
The findings presented here indicate the possibility of effective water to cement ratio of the binder is
producing ultra-high volume fly ash concrete with a higher than the comparable binder with equal

TECHNICAL PAPER
weight of cement. Mix design procedures 5. Huang, S., and Cheng, J., (1986),Kinetic reaction in the system Fly
ash-Ca(OH)2-H2O, J.chin.Ceram.soc,14 (1) 191-197.
which consider the efficiency of fly ash are
required. Volumetric-based replacements and 6. Biernacki, J.J. ., Williams, P.J., Stutzman, P.E., (2001), Kinetics of
reaction of calcium hydroxide and fly ash, ACI Mater. J. 98 (4)
proportioning instead of the conventional mass- 340349.
based approaches may lead to better mix designs 7. Caijun Shi.,(1996), Early Microstructure Development of Activated
considering the large difference in specific gravity Lime fly Ash, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 26, No.9, pp.1351-
1359.
between cement fly ashes.
8. Antiohos, S.K., and Tsimas, S., (2003), Activation of fly ash
cementitious systems in the presence of quick lime (part-1).
4. The enhanced efficiency of the activated fly ash at Compressive strength and pozzolanic reaction rate, Cement and
higher temperature can be used to an advantage concrete Research 34(2004) 769-779.
in mass concreting and high temperature 9. Antiohos, S.K., Papageorgiou, A., Papadakis, V.G., and Tsimas, S.,
applications. (2007), Influence of quicklime addition on the mechanical properties
and hydration degree of blended cements containing different fly
ashes, Construction and Building Materials, 22, 1191-1200.
References
10. Ma, W., and Brown, P.W., (1997), Hydrothermal reactions of fly ash
1. ACI 232.2R-96, Use of fly ash in concrete, ACI report (2002). with Ca(OH)2 and CaSO4.2H2O, Cement and Concrete Research,
27(8) 1237-1248.
2. Gupta, M. and Singh, S.P., (2013), Fly ash production and its utilization
in different countries, Ultra Chemistry Vol. 9(1), 156-160. 11. Fraay, A.L.A., Bijen, J.M., dehaan, Y.M., (1989) ,The reaction of fly ash
in concrete A critical examination, Cement and Concrete Research,19
3. Malhotra, V.M., and Mehta, P.K., (2002), High-performance, High (2) 235-246.
Volume Fly Ash Concrete, Supplementary Cementing Materials for
Sustainable Development. Inc., Ottawa, Canada,101 pp. 12. Maltais, Y., and Marchand, J., (1997), Influence of Curing Temperature
on cement Hydration and Mechanical Strength Development of Fly
4. Gray, D.H., Lin, Y.K., (1972), Engineering properties of compacted ash Mortars, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol.27, No. 7, pp.1009-
fly ash, J.Soil Mech. Found. Div. 98 (4) 361 380. 1020.
G.V.P. Bhagath Singh received his M.Tech. in Civil Engineering from IIT Hyderabad and is presently a
research scholar in the same institute. His research interests are supplementary cementitious materials
and geopolymers.
Dr. K.V.L. Subramaniam holds a B.Tech. from IIT Delhi and PhD from Northwestern University, USA.
He is Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Hyderabad. Prior to that, he was a
Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering, City University of New York, USA. He is a fellow of
the American Concrete Institute and a life member of Indian Concrete Institute. His research interests
include microstructure of cement, supplementary cementitious materials, behaviour of concrete and
nondestructive testing.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Damage detection at multiple locations in reinforced

concrete structures using algorithm based on transfer
function estimate
P. Rathish Kumar, Toshiyuki Oshima, Shuichi Mikami and Yasunouri Miyamouri
This paper deals with damage detection and localization in a reinforced concrete structure based on vibration based
monitoring. The sensing system adopted in this study uses the piezoelectric accelerometer to detect, locate and estimate
defects induced in the form of cracks on the beam at different locations. The piezoelectric actuator provides variable
excitations in the frequency range of 0800 Hz that is effective in measuring a high order mode change associated
with the occurrence of damage. In this paper, a damage identification method based on changes in Transfer Function
Estimate (TFE) is presented. The method can be used to accurately detect damage, predict its location and assess the
extent of damage in structures.
Keywords: Structural Health monitoring; damage detection; vibration; health monitoring and transfer function.
1.0 INTRODUCTION interest in the damage diagnosis and health monitoring

of existing highway bridges using vibration based
In the past two decades, a major focus of research
damage identification techniques. There is a growing
is set towards the development of Structural Health
need for built-in monitoring systems for civil engineering
Monitoring(SHM) and non-destructive damage detection
infrastructures, due to problems such as increasing
methods to manage civil structures more efficiently. SHM
traffic loads and rising costs of maintenance and repair.
has gained wide acceptance in the past decade as a means
Most vibration-based damage detection theories are
to monitor a structure and provide an early warning of an
formulated based on the assumption that failure or
unsafe condition using real time data. The goal of SHM
deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and
and other so called smart structures technologies is to
therefore, affect the modal characteristics or the dynamic
develop multifunctional structures, i.e. structures which
response of the structure [1-3]. If these changes can be
provide functionality in other areas besides carrying
detected and classified, it could be further implemented
operational static, dynamic and fatigue loads, with an
for a bridge monitoring system to indicate the condition,
ultimate objective of providing enhanced system level
or damage, or remaining capacity of the structures. It can
performance. In recent years, there has been a renewed
be used to evaluate seismic behavior of the structures
and can help take measures for rehabilitation in case
The Indian Concrete Journal, August 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 8, pp. 33-43 of severe damages. Many damage detection schemes

=

TECHNICAL PAPER

rely on analyzing response measurements from sensors frequenciesusing different
references be
can used as the
placed on the structure [4]. Research efforts have been indicator
=of damage occurrence. In other words, the first

made to detect structural damage directly from dynamic
damage indicator is calculated from the sum of rows of

response measurements in the time domain, e.g. the each matrix, [r] and summing up these changes over
random decrement technique [5, 6], or from Frequency
different references

Response Functions (FRF) [3, 9,10]. Also, some damage

detection methods have been proposed to detect damage

using system identification techniques). In this paper, an
algorithm based on changes in Transfer Function Estimate

(TFE) is presented. The algorithm is used to detect

damage, locate its position and monitor the increase in = ... (3)

damage using only the measured data without the need

for any modal identification or numerical models. The
method is applied to the experimental data extracted

from a reinforced concrete beam model after inducing

some defects to it.

where, f = f1 : fm and r = 1 : n.

2.0 THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION
This
Let Pxy ( f ) denote the TFE, relating two time histories,
x(t) = isused
indicator to detect
thedamage; though it

was found =
to be a weak
indicator

of damage localization.
and y(t). The absolute difference in absolute TFE before
A statistical decision making procedure is employed to
and after damage can then be defined as
determine the location of damage. The first step in this

procedure is
the
picking

of the change in TFE at each

=
... (1)
frequency value from the maximum to
the minimum
column of matrix [ ]. For example
value = in each the r
Where, Pxy ( f ) and Pxy* ( f ) represent the TFE of the
in matrix [r] (Eq. 2), considering the

maximum to the
undamaged
and damaged
structures
respectively. When
minimum value in the first column we can
arrange them
thechange
in TFE is measured
at different
frequencies in

as B1r ( f1 ),B2r=( f1 ) etc
as maximum, next
maximum
in the
the measurement
range from
f to fm , a matrix [ r ] can be
= = 1

first column corresponding to the values of the matrix
formulated

as follows
[r]. Typically, B8r(f 1) means it is the eighth maximum

value
in the first column corresponding to frequency (f1).

The same process

is to the different columns in
applied

matrix [r] to formulate the matrix of maximum changes

=

of
TFE
at =
different frequencies,

[Br]. It should be noted

... (2 ) each value of r (r = 1: n)
that [Br] is a 3D matrix where

formulates one =
matrix

=

where, n represents the number of measuring points

and r represents the number of reference channel. In

matrix [r], every column represents the changes in
TFE at different

measuring channels but at
the same = . ...(4)

=

frequency value. Each measuring channel will be used as

a reference for the other

channels (r = 1: n). Therefore,

the matrix [ ] will be formulated n different times (3D
= r

of TFE changes
matrix). The summation over different

34 The Indian
Concrete
Journal August

2014

=

TECHNICAL PAPER

In order to monitor the frequency of damage detection In order to reduce the effect of noise

or measurement

at any node, a new

matrix [Er] is formulated. The matrix errors, a value of two times standard
= deviation of the

may
consist of 0s at the undamaged locations and elements in vector {K} will be subtracted
from the vector

=
ranking is given for damaged locations as explained
{K}. Any resulting negative values = will be removed.
The
=
earlier.
For example in the matrix [Er], we put a value of 8 same procedures is applied to the vector

{Z} as follows

corresponding to the locations of B ( f ), 3 for B ( f ) and
8r 1 3r 1

so on in
column 1. Similar procedure is followed for other

columns also as shown in the following expression

=

=

=

... (5)

=
=

...(8)

= =
=
=

The of maximum

=

=

total
changes in TFE is calculated
=
from the sum
of
the
rows of matrix [B r ] using different
=
=

each value

references. At of r, the sum of rows of matrix
=

[B ] will

=result in one vector. Therefore, n different vectors

r =
can be obtained. The of these vectors
sum is stored in one

vector {Z}; =

= =

= =

...(9)

= =

= =

= =
=

... (6) =
= =

the

The first damage location indicator
is defined
= as
following
scalar product of { T } and { I } as shown in the

=
= expression
=
Similar to the previous procedures, the total number = =

of times of detecting the damage at different nodes is

calculated from matrix [Er] as

=

=

...
(10)

...(7)

=
=

Another damage
location
indicator

is
formulated
as

follows: the

[B ] (equation4)

sum of rows of
matrix
at each
r

=

2014

=
TECHNICAL PAPER

reference channel represents
a column in the following
matrix Actuator

Accelerometer

4ch 3ch 2ch 1ch 375

=
... (11)

1500

5ch
562.5
Dimension-mm
Where, the first subscript represents the channel number
and the second represents the reference number. A
Figure 1. Dimensions of the concrete beam tested
process of choosing the maximum to minimum value at
each column and discarding other values of that column
is used to construct the matrix from and a new matrix 3.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM
[N] is constructed corresponding to the values in matrix
as In this research, the above concepts are used to examine a
reinforced concrete beam after inducing damage at well-
defined locations. The model is a concrete beam with two
levels of reinforcement one steel rod in the tension portion

and the other steel rod in the compression portion. There

= is no shear reinforcement in the beam tested. The model

... (12)
dimensions and layout are shown in Figure 1. The multi-

layer piezoelectric actuator is used for local excitation.
=

The main advantage of using piezoelectric actuator is that
it produces vibration with different frequencies ranging

The from 0 to 800 Hz that is effective in exciting different

sum of
=

rows
=

of matrix
[ ] defines the vector { sum}

mode shapes. Natural frequencies are measured in the

range of the excitation frequency from 0 to 800 Hz (sweep)

= =

... (13) and also independently at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700

=
and 800 Hz (sinusoidal). The actuator force amplitude
=
is 0.3 kN. The actuator is located at the center of the
the
and = sum
of rows of matrix N defines the vector

{ Nsum
=
}

compression portion of the beam (Figure 1). The location
=
of the actuator is not changed during different damage
=
...(14) states of the structure. The excitation forces used for the

=
=
undamaged and damaged structure are random, equal in
Then the second damage location indicator is defined as
amplitude and have the same vibration wave form but
the scalar product of vectors { sum } and { Nsum } the excitation force does not need to be measured. Totally
=

five accelerometers are mounted on the beam to measure
= ... (15) the acceleration response in the vertical direction on the
beam as shown in Figure 1.
Damage indicators 1 and 2 will be used to determine the
damage location. On the other hand, the total change in 3.1 Beam model
TFE will be used to detect the occurrence of damage and Experimental setup and equipment
assess the damage extent. Totally four cases are examined including three damages
and one under no damage condition.

TECHNICAL PAPER
The damages to the beam are introduced to the specimen 4.0 DAMAGE IDENTIFICATION ALGORITHM
as follows: FOR DIFFERENT DAMAGE CASES
Case 1: No damage case-no cut on the beam (Figure 2)

4.1 Before introducing any damage
One of the drawbacks of vibration based damage
Case 2: Cutting of the beam of 5mm width and 40mm identification methods is that these methods sometimes
deep (Figure 3). produce false positive readings due to noise, measurement
errors or environmental changes. It is therefore very
Case 3: Cutting of the beam of 5mm width and up to important to determine if the results obtained from any
neutral axis without cutting the reinforcement in tension damage identification methods are due to damage or due
portion (Figure 4). to other changes. Because of this need, the experiment
was performed a number of times on the undamaged
Case 4: Cutting of the reinforcement also in tension structure prior to the introduction of any damage. TFE
portion (Figure 5). data for two different sets of data obtained from the
Figure 4. Damage case D2 (cutting of the beam up to N.A 100mm

Figure 2. Undamaged case (D0) with bottom bar Intact )
Figure 5. Damage case D3 (Cutting of the beam upto NA

Figure 3. Damage case D1 (cut of 5mm up to 40 mm) including cutting of the bottom bar)

TECHNICAL PAPER
undamaged structure is shown in Figure 6 corresponding The total change in TFE was determined using Eq. (3)
to channels 2 and 3. and the results are shown in Figure 7. The total change
in TFE ranged from about 200 to 245 dB. When the total
The TFE is calculated at each measuring channel from the change of TFE was determined using other sets of data
acceleration time history data using MATLAB Standard and that were obtained from the undamaged structure,
MATLAB Signal Processing Toolbox [11-13]. Hanning window similar and very close values of the total change in TFE
of size 4096 is applied to the time signals to minimize leakage. were obtained. The total change of TFE will be used as an
Small changes in TFE can be observed in this figure, indicator of damage detection and damage increase. On
obviously due to noise and measurement errors. TFE data the other hand, damage indicators 0, 1 and 2 will be used
in the frequency range of 400800 Hz was used in the to identify the damage location.
proposed analysis. The data in this range was significant.
4.2 Case 1 damage- crack 5mm wide and
40mm deep
TFE between channel (2,1)
In the first damage case(D1) a crack of 5mm wide and
Undamaged 1 Undamaged 2
40mm deep is made at channel locations 2 and 3.The
1.4 x : 800.8 accuracy of the damage identification methods based on
y : 1.374
1.2 x : 800.8 FRF or cross spectral density (CSD) is dependent on the
y : 1.233
Transfer function estimate
1
x : 478.5
y : 0.9145
x : 623 x : 935.5 frequency range in which FRF [3] or CSD[14] is measured.
x : 615.2 y : 0.9059 y : 1.096
y : 0.8116
x : 837.9
y : 0.9819 x : 832 The accuracy of the damage identification methods based
0.8 x : 609.4
y : 0.8196
y : 0.7025 on mode shapes is dependent on which mode shapes
0.6 are used. The accuracy of the results is at times reduced
x : 644.5
x : 476.6
y : 0.3567 y : 0.3899 when some of the used mode shapes have nodes at the
0.4
damage location[2]. In order to overcome this problem,
0.2
x : 642.6
y : 0.2786
it was decided to use TFE magnitudes in the frequency
0
range of 0800 Hz in the proposed algorithm. This range
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 of measurement covers the total measurement range of
Frequency (Hz) TFE data (ie., from 0 to 800 Hz). The resulting damage
TFE between channel (3,1)
Undamaged 1 Undamaged 2
1.2
x : 570.3
1 y : 1.1
x : 826.2
Transfer function estimate
x : 613.3
y : 0.8182 y : 0.8346 x : 837.9 x : 910.2
y : 0.753 y : 0.7637
0.8 x : 955.1
y : 0.6323
x : 566.4 x : 828.1
0.6 y : 0.4941 y : 0.5088 x : 835.9
y : 0.4662
0.4 x : 914.1
y : 0.2997
x : 955.1
0.2 y : 0.3074
0
500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 6. TFE for two tests on the undamaged structure

TECHNICAL PAPER
indicators for damage case 1 are plotted in Figure 8. In and 2 have been determined to identify the damage
Figure 8(a), the total change in TFE (Eq. 3) increased at location accurately, as shown in Figure 8(b), (c) and (d)
all channels after introducing cuts at channels 2 and 3. respectively.
The total change in TFE due to this is much larger than
that due to noise and measurement errors (Figure 7). 4.3 Case2 damage- crack 5mm wide and
Although the maximum total change of TFE is observed at 100mm deep
channels 2 and 3, it can be noted that damage is detected
In the second damage case(D2) the damage level is
at other locations also, though there is no damage at these
increased by increasing the earlier crack of 40mm deep
locations
to 100mm ie: up to the Neutral Axis. The total change in
TFE (Eq. 3) increased with the crack depth as shown in
Hence, the total change in TFE is not always a good
Figure9(a). The damage indicators 0, 1 and 2 also increased
indicator of damage location. Damage indicators 0, 1

TECHNICAL PAPER
with the damage. The same is shown in Figures9(b), (c) The summary of the total changes in TFE(Eq.3) for the
and (d). different cases is plotted in Figure 11. It was noticed that
the total change in TFE due to noise is less than 250dB at all
4.4 Case3 damage- cutting of steel bar in channels with close values at different channels. After making
tension portion the first cut of 4mm wide and 40mm deep (Damage D0), the
total change in TFE increased at all channel locations as it is
In the third damage case (D3), the damage level increased
known that damage even at one channel location will change
by cutting the reinforcement at the locations of channels 2
the over all stiffness of the structure. The change in TFE is
and 3. Similar observations were noted in the total change
however more at channels 2, 3 and 5. After increasing the
in TFE, damage indicators 0, 1 and 2, though this time
cut up to NA ie; 100mm without cutting the reinforcing bar
the difference in the total change is less as compared to
in the tension portion, the total change in TFE contributed to
earlier cases. These values are plotted in Figures 10(a),
increase slightly at the undamaged locations 1 and 4, while it is
(b), (c) and (d).

TECHNICAL PAPER
more at damage locations 2 and 3. As channel 5 is in between indicators 0, 1 and 2 are employed. Though damage indicators
locations 2 and 3, there is a reasonably more change at 5 also 0 and 1 also located some false positive readings at channel
as compared to 1 and 4 channel locations. After increasing location 5, damage indicator 2 could overcome this problem.
the damage further by also cutting the reinforcing bar in the Hence, Damage Indicator 2 is a better damage-identifying
tension portion. the total change in TFE again increased and indicator.
as earlier the change was more at locations 2, 3 and 5. But, the
relative change in TFE after the reinforcing bar cut was less as 5.0 LIMITATIONS OF TFE METHOD
compared to earlier damages. Therefore, it can be concluded
Though TFE method shows most accurate results in case
that the total change in TFE monitored the increase in damage
of detecting double damage compared to other methods,
successfully in the reinforced concrete beam, though it is not a
it lacks the ability to discriminate between changes
powerful tool to localize the damage. For doing this damage
in the dynamic response resisting from variations in

TECHNICAL PAPER
method overcomes this drawback by using TFE
Change in TFE-Multi reference method data in the total measured frequency range.
D0-Noise D1-Cut upto cover
3. Vibration based damage identification methods
Total change in transfer function(dB)
4000 D2-Cut upto NA D3-Cutting bar

3500
sometimes produce false positive readings due
to measurement errors, noise and environmental
3000
changes. The proposed method has shown
2500
better results in identifying the changes in
2000
TFE associated with damage from the changes
1500
attributed to noise or measurement errors.
1000
500
4. The total change in TFE method could monitor
0
the increase in damage successfully in reinforced
1 2 3 4 5 concrete structures.
Channel number
5. Damage Indicator 2 was found to be a better
damage identifying parameter as it could exactly
Figure 11. Total changes in TFE for different damage cases locate the position of damage without any chance
for detecting false positive readings.
6. There is a reasonably good agreement between

measurements and thus resulting from actual damages.
the experimental and numerical values. The
The variations in measurements include environmental
behaviour was similar when investigated from the
changes, test conditions and repeatability of tests. Also,
analytical and numerical approach.
the vibrations induced by ambient environmental or
operating loads for assessing the structural integrity need Acknowledgement
further investigations.
This research is supported by the Grant-in-Aids for Scientific
Research, Japan Society for Promotion of Sciences (JSPS) and
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
Japan International Science and Technology Exchange Center
The experimental results obtained from the reinforced (JISTEC). The authors gratefully acknowledge their support.
concrete beam demonstrate the usefulness of changes in
TFE magnitude as a diagnostic parameter in detecting
the damage, locating its position and monitoring the References
increase in damage. The main advantages are: 1. DOEBLING S. W., C. R. FARRAR, M. B. PRIME, AND D. W. SHEVITZ,
Damage Identification and Health Monitoring of Structural and
1. The proposed method encompasses the Mechanical Systems from Changes in their Vibration Characteristics,
first three steps of the process of damage A Literature Review, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report, LA-
13070- MS, 1996.
detectionexistence, localization and monitoring.
2. FARRAR C. R. AND D. A. JAUREGUI, Damage Detection Algorithms
The damage increase is based on only the
Applied to Experimental and Numerical Model Data from the I-40
measured data without the need for any modal Bridge, Los Alamos National Laboratory Report, LA-12979-MS,
identification. 1996.
3. SAMPAIO R. P. C., MAIA N. M. M. AND SILVA J. M. M., Damage

2. The accuracy of damage identification methods detection using the frequency response function curvature method,
based on changes in mode shapes are sometimes Journal of Sound and Vibration, 226(5), pp. 1029-1042, 1999.
reduced when the damage occurs at a node of the 4. PEETERS B., MAECK J. AND DE ROECK G., Vibration-based damage
detection in civil engineering: excitation sources and temperature
used mode shapes. Also, the accuracy of damage
effects, Smart Materials and Structures, 10, pp.518-527, 2001.
identification methods based on changes in FRF
5. E. KUMMER, J. C. S. YANG AND N. G. DAGALAKIS, Detection of
or CSD are dependent on the measurement range fatigue cracks in structural members, 2nd American Society of Civil
in which FRF or CSD are measured. The proposed Engineering/EMD Specialty Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, 445-460,
1981.

TECHNICAL PAPER
6. J. C. S. YANG, J. CHEN AND N. G. DAGALAKIS, Damage detection 10. P.RATHISH KUMAR, TOSHIYUKI OSHIMA, TOSHIYUKI YAMAZAKI,
in offshore structures by the random decrement technique, Journal SHUICHI MIKAMI and YASUNOURI MIYAMOURI, Detection and
of Energy Resources Technology, American Society of Mechanical Localisation of small damages in a real bridge by local excitation using
Engineers 106, 38-42, 1984. piezoelectric actuators , International Journal of Civil Structural Health
Monitoring, Volume 2, issue 2, September 2012 pp 97-108, Springer Link
7. R. G. FLESCH AND K. KERNICHLER, Bridge inspection by Publishers
dynamic tests and calculations dynamic investigations of Lavent
bridge, workshop on Structural Safety Evaluation Based on System 11. MATLAB Reference Guide, The Math Works, Inc., Natick, MA,
Identification Approaches (H. G. Natke and J. T. P. Yao, editors), 433- 2003.
459, Lambrecht/ Pfalz, Germany: Vieweg & Sons, 1988.
12. MATLAB Users Guide, The Math Works, Inc., Natick, MA, 2003.
8. H. G. NATKE AND J. T. P. YAO, System identification methods for
fault detection and diagnosis, International Conference on Structural 13. HAYES M., Statistical Digital Signal Processing and Modeling, John
Safety and Reliability, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Wiley & Sons, 1996.
1387-1393, 1990.
14. STOICA P., AND R.L. MOSES, Introduction to Spectral Analysis,
9. P.RATHISH KUMAR, TOSHIYUKI OSHIMA, SHUICHI MIKAMI, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 52-54, 1997.
YASUNOURI MIYAMOURI AND TOSHIYUKI YAMAZAKI, Damage
15. WELCH P. D., The Use of Fast Fourier Transform for the Estimation
Identification in a lightly reinforced Concrete Beam based on changes in
of Power Spectra: A Method Based on Time Averaging Over Short,
Power Spectral Density, International Journal of Structure and Infrastructure
Modified Periodograms, IEEE Trans. Audio Electro Acoustics, Vol.
Engineering, Volume 8, Issue 8, 2012, pp 715-727, Nos 7-9,Taylor and Francis,
AU-15, pp. 70-73, 1967.
United Kingdom.
Dr. P. Rathish Kumar holds a Doctorate from Japan (Monbusho) and is a JSPS Fellow with Post doctorate
from Japan. He is presently the Head of the Structures Division of the Department of Civil Engineering at
NIT Warangal. Presently, he is working on new/alternate/low cost/ recyclable materials, special concretes,
rehabilitation of structures and structural health monitoring. He has published many peer reviewed
technical papers in various journals and conferences of repute. He is a reviewer for several international
journals and is also a recipient of the Aftab Mufti Medal
Professor Toshiyuki Oshima holds a doctorate (engineering) from Hokkaido University, Japan. He is
Professor Emeritus of Kitami Institute of Technology, Hokkaido, Japan. He has widely published research
work in various reputed journals and conferences of repute and has headed committees on revisions
of various codes. He is one of the leading personalities in Japan well known for health monitoring of
structures. His research areas of interest include bridge engineering, structural engineering, earthquake
engineering and structural health monitoring.
Professor Shuichi Mikami is working with the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Kitami Institute of Technology, Japan and keeps interest in structural engineering, bridge maintenance
engineering and structural health monitoring. He has good number of publications in various reputed
journals.
Dr. Yasunori Miyamori holds a PhD from Hokkaido University. He is an Associate Professor in the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Kitami Institute of Technology (KIT). His research
focuses on the intelligent bridge vibration monitoring for integrity diagnosis and tsunami disaster
prevention in the eastern Hokkaido area.

DISCUSSION FORUM D
Modelling of framed shear walls for pushover analysis

of reinforced concrete buildings
Dear Sir, far enough. It remained essentially

Refined model Simplified model
elastic. So how do the authors expect

This has reference to the paper titled 1200
1000 to examine the non-linear push over

Modelling of framed shear walls for
response and compare the two models
Base shear (kN)
800
pushover analysis of reinforced concrete
600
in the elastic range? I would appreciate
buildings by Indu Geevar and Amlan 400
if they could elaborate and advise
K. Sengupta published in The Indian 200
about the validity of their conclusions.
Concrete Journal (May 2014, Vol.88, No. 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
5, pp. 58-68). I have some observations. Roof displacement (m) Thanking you and with regards,
The authors have carried out static
Figure 10. Comparison of pushover curves from the refined and Mandakini Dehuri
pushover analysis on a shear wall frame. simplified models
Graduate Student,
The shear wall was modeled in two Civil Engineering,
Simplified model
manners and the results were compared. Simplified model without normal stresses
IIT Roorkee
These results (Figure 10) show that the 1200
1000
maximum lateral roof displacement was the authors reply
Base shear (kN)
800
about 6 cm in a building height of 14.5m Dear Sir,
600
above GL, that is, 0.41%. If the overall
400 I thank the reader for sending the
height of the frame is taken as 16 m, then
200
query. The refined analysis based on
the sway is only 0.375%. The maximum 0
using the multi-layered membrane
elastic sway under service conditions as 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
Roof displacement (m)
elements for modelling the wall panels,
per IS1893 part 1 is 0.4%. Thus it appears
terminated at a push of around 0.06 m
that the shear wall was not pushed Figure 11. Comparison of pushover curves of the simplified
models, with and without considering normal stresses
Disc Forum - Amlan Sengupta - Ra44 44 7/25/2014 3:20:47 PM

DISCUSSION FORUM
of roof displacement (Figure 10) due to local failure of the panel, did not consider the local failure of concrete, and
concrete layer near the corner of a wall panel. The model continued up to a push of around 0.12 m (Figure 11).
could not be pushed further. The roof displacement of The comparison of the results from the two analyses was
0.06 m corresponds to a lateral drift ratio of 0.375%. As based on the initial lateral stiffness and ultimate lateral
per Clause 7.11.1, IS 1893 (Part 1): 2002, the limit of storey load. The lateral deformability from the simplified model
drift under unfactored lateral forces based on elastic was more. Nevertheless, the simplified model can be
analysis is 0.4%. This does not imply that a structural used in a high rise building with several framed walls to
member will remain linear elastic up to that drift level. avoid intensive computation.
In the present model, the behaviours of the lower wall
With regards,
panels and a few frame members had indeed become
non-linear. Dr. Amlan K. Sengupta
IIT Madras,
Compared to the refined analysis, the simplified analysis Chennai 600 036
based on using an equivalent column element for a wall
Pozzolanic industrial waste based geopolymer

concretes with low carbon footprint
Dear Sir, the authors reply

The authors thank the discusser for showing interest in
This has reference to the paper titled Pozzolanic
our paper. We can state clearly that there is no actual bar
industrial waste based geopolymer concretes with low
on use of geopolymer concretes in field. They are even
carbon footprint by N.P. Rajamane, M.C. Nataraja and
cost effective when advantages of these new materials
R. Jeyalakshmi, published in the The Indian Concrete
are considered. However, following points may also be
Journal (July 2014, Vol. 88, No. 7. pp. 49-68).
noted in this regard:
I appreciate the authors work related to this field. They
The chemistry aspects of geopolymers (GPs)
must develop this work with cost effective manner for
discussed in various published articles indicate that
our society.
GPs can be tailor made after thorough systematic
study/research using particular set of materials for
In this paper, the authors mention that geopolymer
any given application.
concrete under ambient curing condition has high
compressive strength at 28th day. So my question is, can
In GP reactions, there is a need for silicate anions
geopolymer concrete be directly used at site or not ? If
which obviously depends on polymerisedor
not, what is the reason for that?
unpolymeric material, the rate of reaction between
source and activator, and also on silica/alumina
Thank you,
ratio. Therefore, GP technology needs optimisation
of various parameters such as: Molar ratio of SiO2/
With regards,
Na2O of activator solutions; SiO2 and Al2O3 contents
Er. M. Ganeshkumar in geopolymeric source material, aqueous alkali or
Virudhunagar 626103. Na2O contents, etc.

DISCUSSION FORUM
With present knowledge, the identification or pozzolanic reaction processes cannot be used to
ofpresence or absence of residual source material describe the GP reactions since the actual mechanism
in final cured GP productis a very challenging of formation of GP gel is complex. However, under
task. This is a major concern. Rate of reaction of optimised conditions, GP technology isa promising
GP (for total conversion of sourceto GP product technology that offers attractive possibilities for
- which is a complex and rapid continuous process) commercial applications with advantages such as,
in general depends on activator type. Duration fast hardening, high early strength, optimal acid
of curing, its nature and condition do affect GP resistance, lower chloride and sulphate diffusion,
reactions. Even the sequence of additions of enhanced protection to steel and long term
components of activator solution has been reported durability.
to be sometimes a parameter; in this regard, it was
mentioned in one paper that addition of alkali first The simplified tips for engineers to use GP
and then addition of silicate had resulted in higher technology on site are still under development and
dissolution of source materials leading to faster rate hence, only well informed and technical personnel
of geopolymerisation. Well known scientist in the should get involved in production and usage of
field of Geopolymer, Dr Palomo had observed once GPs in order to get desired level of performances
that by adding alkaline hydroxide solution first, of structures built with GPs.
the AlSi bonds of Geopolymeric source materials
are broken up thereby causing a higher degree of Many of the above points are with reference to
the AlSi disorder which influences the step of Indian context. However, many site applications
formation of alumino-silicate gel due to sodium of GP concrete are already seen in several countries
silicate (Palomo, 2011)[1]. such as Australia and NZ (CAI, 2011)[3].
Because of possible wider choice of geopolymeric

References
source materials, activators, and reaction conditions,
1. Palomo Angel, and Ana Fernndez-Jimnez, (2011), Alkaline
the attainable strengths of GPs would also differ
activation, procedure for transforming fly ash into new materials. Part
significantly. However, this also shows that tailor I: Applications, World of Coal Ash (WOCA) Conference - May
making of various parameters is possible to achieve 9-12, 2011, in Denver, USA, 14 p
desired performance of GPs. 2. Provis J.L. and J.S.J. van Deventer (Ed). (2009), Geopolymers:
Structures, processing, properties and industrial applications,
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited, ISBN-13: 978 1 84569
The main reason for lack of large scale field 449 4, June, 464 page
applications of GPs is due to very limited research 3. CAI (2011), CIA Z16-2011, Geopolymer Recommended Practice
conducted to generate rational data on comparative Handbook, Concrete Institute of Australia, Committee: DD-001,
ISBN: 1 921093 56,
behaviour of these new binders as technical
alternatives to conventional Portland cement.GP
is mainly a kind of (Si+Al) cementneeding silica N P Rajamane PhD
and alumina rich materials (such as fly ash, (Ex-CSIR-SERC), Head, CACR, SRM University, Chennai
metakaolin, rice husk ash, GGBS etc.,) as source Dr M.C. Nataraja,
materials (Provis, 2009)[2]. GPs are characterised Professor, Dept of Civil Engg, SJCE, Mysore
by a highly polymerised alumino-silicate structure
Dr R Jeyalakshmi,
composed mainly of three-dimensional cross Professor and Head, Dept of Chemistry, SRM University,
linked units.Normal Portland cement hydration Chennai

TECHNICAL PAPER
Reviewing some properties of polymer concrete

Raman Bedi, Rakesh Chandra and S.P. Singh
Polymer concrete was introduced in late 1950s and became well known in 1970s for its use in repair, thin overlays and
floors, precast components. Because of its properties like high compressive strength, fast curing, high specific strength,
resistance to chemical attack, polymer concrete has found application in very specialized domains. Simultaneously these
materials have been used in machine construction also where the vibration damping property of polymer concrete has
been exploited. This paper recaps the studies on polymer concrete and reviews the research work carried out in respect
of selection of ingredients, processing parameters, curing conditions and their influence on the mechanical properties
of the resulting material.
Keywords: Fibre reinforcement; fly ash; micro-filler; polymer concrete; silane agents.
INTRODUCTION upon binder content, aggregate size distribution, nature

and content of the microfiller, curing conditions etc.
Polymer concrete is a composite material which
The most commonly used resins for polymer concrete
results from polymerization of a monomer/aggregate
are unsaturated polyester resin, methlymethacrylate,
mixture. The polymerized monomer acts as binder for
epoxy resins, furan resins, polyurethane resins, urea
the aggregates and the resulting composite is called
formaldehyde resin. Generally, more than 75-80%
Concrete. The developments in the field of polymer
volume in polymer concrete is occupied by the aggregates
concrete dates back to late 1950s when these materials
and fillers. The aggregates are normally taken as inert
were developed as replacement of cement concrete in some
materials dispersed throughout the polymer matrix.
specific applications. Early usage of polymer concrete has
Normally aggregates are added in two size groups i.e.,
been reported for building cladding etc. Later on because
coarse aggregates comprising material of more than
of rapid curing, excellent bond to cement concrete and
5 mm size and fine aggregates having size less than 5
steel reinforcement, high strength and durability, it was
mm. The grading of aggregates in the case of polymer
extensively used as repair material. Precast Polymer
concrete is non standardized till date and varies widely
concrete has been used to produce a variety of products
from system to system. In addition to the coarse and
like acid tanks, manholes, drains, highway median
fine aggregates, micro fillers are also added sometimes
barriers etc.
to the polymer concrete system mainly with an aim to
fill the micro voids. Similar to the conventional concrete,
The properties of polymer concrete differ greatly
polymer concrete can also be reinforced for improving its
depending on the conditions of preparation. For a given
mechanical properties with different kinds of fibres. The
type of polymer concrete, the properties are dependent
use of steel, glass, polypropylene and nylon fibres has
been reported in the literature.
The Indian Concrete Journal, August 2014, Vol. 88, Issue 8, pp. 47-68.

TECHNICAL PAPER
The importance of research on polymer concrete applications. As the material is to be used for higher
materials has been recognized as early as in 1971 with the stresses and strains with alternating loads, adequate
setting up of ACI Committee 548 - Polymers in Concrete. knowledge about the fatigue behaviour of this material is
The Committee has been responsible for developing a of utmost importance.
large database on properties of polymer concrete. The
Committee has also issued state of the art reports and Polymer concrete is prepared by mixing a polymeric
user guides on polymer concrete. RILEM (International resin with aggregate mixture. Microfillers are also
Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials employed sometimes to fill the voids contained in the
& Structures) with setting up of Technical Committee TC- aggregate mixture. Similar to the conventional concrete,
105-CPC (Concrete Polymer Composites) and TC-113- polymer concrete can also be reinforced for improving its
CPT (Test Methods for Concrete Polymer Composites) mechanical properties with different kinds of fibres. The
has been instrumental in preparing various test methods use of steel, glass, polypropylene and nylon fibres has
for these materials. Society of Material Science Japan been reported in the literature.
(JSMS) has also contributed towards the development of
polymer concrete materials with the help of Synthetic- Mechanical properties of polymer concrete systems like
Resins-for-Concrete Committee. Society of Material compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile
Science Japan has also published design recommendations strength have been characterized to a great extent by
for polyester concrete structures as well as a mix design now, whereas properties like damping, creep etc. are not
guide. Amongst the countries which are using polymer researched well. A review of the literature also reveals
concrete composites, the standardization work on various that fatigue studies on polymer concrete are almost non-
test methods and applications has been taken up mainly existent till date.
by Japan, United States, United Kingdom, Germany and
erstwhile Soviet Union. FACTORS AFFECTING MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
Owing to their superior properties like rapid curing, high
There are many factors which influence the mechanical
compressive strength, high specific stiffness and strength,
properties of polymer concrete such as resin type
resistance to chemicals and corrosion, ability to form
and content, aggregate type and mix design, fibre
complex shapes, excellent vibration damping properties
reinforcements, micro filler type and content, curing
etc. polymer concrete materials have also been extensively
conditions, silane coupling agents, moisture content of
used for applications other than for which these were
aggregates etc.
originally developed. Use of polymer concrete in electrical
insulation systems [1,2], machine tool applications have
Resin type and content
been reported since late 70s wherein these have been
used to replace materials including metals like cast iron Polymeric binders are usually two component systems;
for machine tool bases [3-11]. Lot of research has been one containing the polymer base and other a hardener
carried out in last few decades to develop a promising (in case of epoxy systems) or an accelerator (in case of
applications of polymer concrete i.e. its use in machine polyester resins) that reacts with the polymer to form the
tool structures [12-19]. However, before the potential of binding material. It is very clear that the only component
these materials as an alternative material can be fully which dictates the cost of polymer concrete is the resin,
harnessed, a methodology for assessment of the long and therefore attempts have been made to find out
term properties must be available. minimum resin content for achieving an acceptable
strength of polymer concrete.
With the increasing use of polymer concrete, not being
limited to the domain of Civil engineering applications, Polymeric resins that are commonly used in polymer
there is a need for characterization of its properties which concrete are Methacrylate, polyester resin, epoxy resin,
are required for its satisfactory performance in structural vinylester resin and furan resins. Figure 1 illustrates the

TECHNICAL PAPER
classification of liquid resins for polymer mortars and The resin dosage reported by various authors mostly lie
concrete [20]. in the range of 10 to 20% by weight of polymer concrete.
Early studies on polyester resin concrete while taking
Unsaturated polyester resins are the most commonly used resin content as a variable, reported that compressive
resin systems for polymer concrete because of their low strength and flexural strength of polymer concrete is
dependent upon the resin content as shown in Figure 2
cost, easy availability and good mechanical properties 23
. The reported results are a average of three tests. Both
[21]. Furan resins are also used to a great extent in
European countries. MMA has got a limited application
because of its higher flammability and disaggreable
odour, however it has received some attention because
of its good workability and low temperature curability
[20]. The choice of particular type of resin depends upon
factors like cost, desired properties, chemical/weather
resistance required. Epoxy resins are preferred over
polyester because of their better mechanical properties
as well as better durability when subjected to harsh
environmental factors, but higher cost is a deterrent
in their wide spread acceptance. A comparative study
on the properties of epoxy and polymer concrete states
that traditionally epoxy concrete has better properties
than polyester concrete, but the properties of polyester
concrete can be enhanced upto the same level by addition
of microfillers and silane coupling agents [22].

TECHNICAL PAPER
the compressive strength and flexural strength increase Mix design for polymer concrete
with increase in polymer content. After reaching the peak
The influence of the aggregate grading on the properties
these either decrease or remain unchanged with further
of polymer concrete has been long known. The coarse
increase in the resin content. The lowest polymer content
and fine aggregate should be proportioned in such a
at which the properties are maximum will represent the
optimum resin content for the system under study. It is way that aggregate mixture has minimum void content
observed that both flexural and compressive strength and maximum bulk density. This minimizes the amount
attain the maximum value between 14-16% resin content of binder required to assure proper bonding of all the
by weight. Further studies in this area have also provided aggregate particles. Normally, the binder content ranges
the similar results. Variation of compressive strength from 5% to 15% of the total weight but if the aggregate
of polymer concrete for various types of resins and mix is fine, it may even require up to 20% binder.
their dosage has been reported in literature [24]. It was
observed as shown in Figure 3 that highest strength was An early study on mix design of polymer concrete and
obtained in all types of resins at a resin dosage of 12%. properties of polyester polymer concrete used three
For two types of epoxy resins, the strength decreased by continuously graded and two gap graded aggregate
increasing the resin content to 15% whereas for polyester mixtures having a maximum particle size of 20 mm
resin, it almost remained constant. The optimum resin [28]. Calcium carbonate was used as a micro filler. One
content for a particular polymer concrete system is also of the continuously graded mix was prepared according
dependent upon the nature of aggregate used in the to Fullers curve, whereas the other two were proposed
system. Higher resin dosage is recommended when using by the author. Void content of these aggregate mixtures
fine aggregate, because of the large surface area of these were determined and it was reported that the gap graded
materials [25,26,27]. aggregate was having minimum void content of 17.8%. It
was reported that polymer concrete made with aggregate
Aggregate type and mix design grading according to Fullers curve had the highest
strength.
Various types of aggregate materials have been used by
the researchers, most of these based upon the choice of
Another study on the properties of polymer mortars used
locally available materials to reduce the cost. River sand
epoxy resin, silica aggregates upto a maximum size of 2
[28-29] , foundry sand [25,30,31] , crushed stone [32,33],
mm and Andesite as a filler material [37]. These materials
quartz, granite [34,35,36], gravel are some of the materials
were mixed in such proportions that the aggregate
reported by various authors.
mixtures closely resembles the ideal Fullers curve for
2mm diameter aggregate mixture. Epoxy content was
varied between 10 and 35% by weight in increments of 5%.
It was reported that polymer mortars made of individual
fractions of silica aggregates yielded compressive and
flexural strength lower than graded mixes for same resin
content. Further amongst the aggregate gradings which
have been used, Fullers grading resulted in maximum
strengths. But these gradings required a higher resin
content, indicating that the aggregate mixture had a lot
of voids to fill.
Gap graded aggregate mixtures have also been used for

polymer concrete so as to achieve a lower void content.
Gap graded aggregates are reported to have imparted
better workability and higher strengths at lower resin

TECHNICAL PAPER
content. But the main disadvantage with gap graded from 0.15 to 9.72 mm. Void content for the 54 statistically
aggregate mixture is that they are difficult to reproduce designed combinations suggested by Box Behnken design
at site. Researchers have provided the proportions of a of experiments for the six variables i.e. proportions of six
gap graded aggregate for producing void content less grades of sands were experimentally determined and the
than 20% by volume. The maximum size of aggregate minimum and maximum void content obtained were
used was 12.5 mm and gap grading was over 10 to 1.18 21.96% and 31.4% respectively. It was reported that out of
mm sizes [38]. the six different particle sizes chosen for the study, only
three of them were found to be sufficient for obtaining
Studies were conducted with over 350 mixtures of a mix with minimum void content, thereby eliminating
quartzite aggregate with locally available pit sands and the other three grades. Thus a gap graded aggregate
proportions of fine aggregate for 34 least-void content composition was obtained which had fine particles filling
mixtures were obtained [39]. Plots were made between the inter particle voids between the coarser aggregates.
the proportion of aggregate fraction finer than largest Authors suggested a gap graded aggregate having 39.6%
size fraction and the fineness modulus of such a fraction. sand of 4.76 9.52 mm size, 33.5% sand of 2.38-4.76 mm
The proportions required for least-void content followed size and 26.9% sand of 0.15 0.30 mm size as an optimum
a linear trend fairly similar to what one would obtain mix for minimising void content. Later studies on polymer
from the theoretical gradings of Fuller, Weymouth, or concrete made using this optimized mix proportions are
Ehrenberg, but the actual proportions of fine fractions also reported in literature [41]. Aggregate mix composition
were somewhat lower than those obtained from such based upon the optimization of packing density using the
hypotheses. An empirical equation as given below has compressible packing model is also reported [42].
been fitted for this linear trend so that it can be used to
determine the proportions of coarse and fine aggregates Fibre reinforcement
of least-void contents;
A large number of studies have been reported regarding
the effect of reinforcement of polymer concrete by

...(1)
addition of various types of fibres. Steel fibres, glass
fibres, carbon fibres, polyester fibres have been added in
Where Y = Fine aggregate (FA) written as FFLSF.
polymer concrete in varying quantities for enhancement

of its properties. Most of the studies have reported the
X = FinenessModule of FFLSF.

addition of glass fibres in the range of 0 to 4% by weight
of polymer concrete. It has been reported that addition
In using Eq. (1) e.g. when 20 mm maximum size of
of glass fibres improves the post peak behaviour of
aggregate
is
used,

aggregate passing 10mm sieve (and
polymer concrete. The strength and toughness of polymer

smaller) is considered
as fine aggregate.
Likewise,
when
concrete also increases with addition of fibres. Earlier
4.75 mm maximum size of aggregate is used, aggregate
studies on addition of steel fibres in epoxy concrete using
passing a 2.36 mm sieve (and smaller) is considered as
sand as an aggregate reported an increase of 40% in the
fine aggregate. This fine aggregate is named as aggregate
flexural strength with addition of 3.5% steel fibres [43].
fraction finer than largest size fraction and written as
A comprehensive study on effect of addition of various
FFLSF. It was reported that as the fineness module (FM)
types of fibres i.e. nylon, glass, aramid, steel in polyester/
of the fine aggregate increases i.e. coarser aggregate is
vinylester/epoxy concrete related the flexural strength to
used, proportions of FFLSF must be increased in the mix.
compressive strength by Eq. (2) ;

Design of experiments approach has also been used lately
...(2)
using box behnken design of experiments to find out the

aggregate mix proportions of mineral aggregate having for using Eq.(2) are psi. Further it was reported
The units
minimum void content suitable for polymer concretes [40].
that fibre
addition

increases
the flexural strength and

Naturally occurring silica sand from mines were washed,
ductility of polymer concrete. Longer fibres are reported

dried and sieved into six different grades, varying in sizes
to have better effect on compressive strength [44].

The Indian Concrete Journal
August 2014 51

TECHNICAL PAPER
Presenting somewhat contrasting results, it was reported have any significant effect on compressive properties.
that addition of steel fibres increases the compressive Addition of fibres also result in increase in damping ratio
strength whereas addition of glass fibres decreases the of polymer concrete.
compressive strength [45]. A study on optimizing the
resin content of polymer concrete reported maximum In a study on epoxy concrete having 20% resin content
compressive and flexural strength at 14% resin content. and foundry sand as aggregate, addition of glass fibres
Typical stress strain relations in compression obtained in and carbon fibres resulted in an increase of compressive
this study are shown in Figure 4. It is observed that there strength by 27-45% for glass fibres and 36-55 % for carbon
is an increase in the compressive and flexural strength fibres as shown in Table 1. Ductility of polymer concrete
and stiffness due to glass fibre reinforcement. The area also improved with addition of fibres [30]. Addition of
under the stress-strain curve is taken as a measure of copper coated stainless steel fibres in polyester concrete
toughness and it can be seen that glass fibres enhance having granite as aggregate improved the compressive
the toughness of polymer concrete. Change in properties strength of the resulting material [49].
is approximately proportional to the volume fraction
of fibres. Further silane treatment of glass fibres before Microfillers
their use in polymer concrete report an enhancement in A microfiller is also often added to polymer concrete
mechanical properties up to the extent of 25% [46,47]. mix to reduce the void content in aggregate mixture and
thereby increase the strength of polymer concrete. The
The results of a comparative study between reinforced microfiller is a fine powder with a particle size less than
and un-reinforced polymer concrete indicate that for 80 microns. Use of Calcium Carbonate , Fly ash , silica
18% resin, 4% glass fibre content, an increase of 33% in fume has been reported in literature.
compressive strength is achieved with fibre addition.
Failure strain and toughness also increase with addition of Fly ash is a by product of the coal burning in power plants
fibres [48]. Addition of steel fibres beyond 1.3% increases and is used as a filler because of its easy availability and
the compressive strength of the polymer concrete from because its usage in polymer concrete is reported to
80 MPa to 100 MPa. Steel fibres also increase the ductility yield better mechanical properties as well as reduced
of polymer concrete which results in a better post peak water absorption [35]. Addition of fly ash also improves
behavior [29]. In another study on effect of addition of the workability of fresh polymer concrete mix resulting
glass fibres and carbon fibres on polymer concrete it was in products with excellent surface finish [50]. Studies
reported that compressive strength increases by 40% have shown that small size of spherical particles also
by addition of 6% glass fibres. Carbon fibres does not contributes to a better packing of the aggregate materials
which reduces porosity and hinders the penetration of
aggressive agents, thus considerably improving the
chemical resistance of polymer concrete [21]. Addition
of fly ash has been reported by a number of researchers
which results not only in improvement in the workability
Table 1. Compressive properties of plain and fibre

reinforced polymer concrete [30]
Test Compressive properties (average)
series
Strength Elastic modulus Poissons
(MPa) (GPa) ratio
Plain 59.681 11.281 0.259
CFRPC 69.215 10.882 0.247
GFRPC 64.873 11.551 0.257

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 2. Compressive strength values of polymer concrete
aged for different periods (days)[54]
Aging period
Compressive strength (MPa)
(days)
1 45
4 50
7 57
28 60
of the polymer concrete mix but also has a significant

effect on the mechanical properties. Enhancement in
compressive strength upto 30% has been reported by
addition of 15% fly ash in polymer concrete as shown
in Figure 5 [51] . Addition of fly ash is also reported to
have better performance enhancement when compared
to addition of silica fume as a filler as shown in Figure 6 [29,53,54]. Effect of curing time on compressive and
[52]. flexural strength is shown in Figure 7 [29,53]. Polymer
Concrete achieves more than 80% of its 28-day strength
Curing conditions in one day. Conversely, normal Portland cement concrete
usually achieves about 20% of its 28-day strength in
Various curing regimes have been reported by researchers
one day. The early strength gain is important in precast
like room temperature curing, high temperature curing,
applications because it permits the structures to resist
water curing etc. Curing time studies on polymer concrete
higher stresses early due to form-stripping, handling,
have established that it achieves around 70-75 % of its
transportation and erection operations. Almost identical
strength after a curing of one day at room temperature
results are reported by another researcher as shown in
Table 2 [54].

TECHNICAL PAPER
It is observed that compressive strength of polymer functional group with the resin may vary depending
concrete almost becomes constant after dry curing upon the nature of the silane and resin. It is therefore
for a period of 7 days as shown in Figure 8 [55]. The suggested that choice of silane is highly significant for the
compressive strength is shown to be slightly affected by interfacial adhesion between the resin and aggregates. A
the binder life in these results. wide variety of coupling agents has been used by various
authors using different methods of application of silanes.
Silane coupling agents
Effect of different types of silane coupling agents
Since, for the cost considerations, the binder content used
i.e. -methacryloxy propyltrimethoxy silane and -
polymer concrete materials is quite low, the adhesion
aminopropyltriethoxy silane on polyester resin concrete
of aggregates takes place through a fine layer of resin
containing 12% resin is reported in literature [57]. Silane
around the aggregates. A larger contact area is, therefore,
coupling agents were used as integral blend additive
desirable which necessitates a proper space filling of
by mixing 1% coupling agent (by weight of resin)
the gaps by smaller aggregates or microfiller particles.
during the mixing of resin. Addition of -methacryloxy
For a given type of polymer concrete, the properties
propyltrimethoxy silane was reported to have better
are dependent upon binder content, aggregate size
enhancement of properties than - aminopropyltriethoxy
distribution, nature and content of micro filler etc. In
silane. Similar studies were carried out to evaluate
addition to the above parameters, adhesion at binder/
the effect of different types of silane coupling agents
aggregate interface also has an influence at the properties
on polyester resin concrete having 12% resin [58].
of these materials. Adhesion at the interface, in absence
-methacryloxy propyltrimethoxy silane and -
of any chemical bonding may be sufficiently good even
aminopropyltriethoxy silane were used as two different
when it is due to secondary forces between two phases.
types of coupling agents. The effect of method of silane
The use of silane coupling agents, which may provide
treatment on properties was also investigated. Crushed
chemical bonding between the two phases considerably
quartzite with maximum size of 10mm was used as coarse
improves the interfacial adhesion and therefore enhance
aggregate and silecious sand was used as fine aggregate.
the mechanical properties of these materials. The bonding
Silane content was varied from 0.3- 1.5% (by weight of
mechanism of the resin and inorganic aggregate through
resin) in the integral blend method. Pre treatment method
silane is provided below in Figure 9 through a possible
of application of silane agents was also investigated in
mechanism based upon reaction between the silane,
which aggregate was treated with 0.5% aqueous solution
polymer resin and aggregate [56]. The reactivity of the
of silane agent. It was reported that compressive strength
of resin concrete with silane coupling agents was higher
than normal resin concrete. Resin concrete samples
prepared by pre treatment method of silane application
had higher compressive strength than samples prepared

TECHNICAL PAPER
by adding coupling agent to resin mix. Authors reported treatment on mechanical properties. Compressive strength
that addition of 1% silane coupling agent (by weight of was reported to increase with addition of silane coupling
resin) was optimum when using integral blend method agent. Better improvement in properties was observed
of application of silane agent. Grain size distribution while using surface treatment method as reported in
analysis confirmed that grain size of sand had increased Table3 . Maximum improvement in properties was
by application of coupling agent. observed at 1% silane content. Pre drying of aggregates
before surface treatment with silane resulted in no
A study has reported the effect of silane coupling agents improvement in properties than non treated system. It was
on the mechanical and thermal properties of polyester therefore suggested that in absence of aggregate surface
polymer concrete containing 12% resin [59]. Calcium moisture, silane becomes less effective in improving the
Carbonate has been used as micro filler in this study. interfacial adhesion in these composites.
Crushed quartzite with maximum size of 10mm was used
as coarse aggregate and silecious sand was used as fine Effect of silane coupling agents on vinylester mortar has
aggregate. Silane content was varied from 0.3- 1.5% (by also been reported [60]. Two different methods of silane
weight of resin) in the integral blend method. Compressive treatment i.e. direct addition to resin and use of silane for
strength of polymer concrete varied with coupling agent surface treatment of pre treated silica flour were studied.
content. Maxima of compressive strength was obtained Dynamic mechanical analyser has been used to evaluate
between 0.5 to 1% content of silane coupling agent. Use of the Tg and damping of polymer mortar. It was concluded
microfiller increased the compressive strength. Thermal that increase in the silane content decreases the glass
stability as measured by TGA increased with application transition temperature Tg. Further mechanical testing of
of silane coupling agent. specimens has been done to find compressive strength
and flexural strength. It was reported that addition of
Effect of silane coupling agents on compressive strength silane to polymer mortar increases the compressive
of polymer concrete has also been reported [56]. It was strength by 15% and flexural strength by 12%. It has been
reported that use of silane coupling agents which may reported that when using integral blend method of silane
provide chemical bonding between the two phases, addition, 1% silane by the weight of resin gives optimum
improves the interfacial adhesion. Silane treatment was results [56,60]
done using both integral blend method and surface
treatment method to study the effect of method of Moisture content of aggregate
Heat assisted drying of the aggregates before mixing with
Table 3. Effect of method of application of silane coupling resin has been suggested by most of the researchers. It has
agent on properties [56] been reported that water content of the aggregate has a
Method of application Type of Compressive Split remarkable influence on the strength of polymer concrete
siane strength tensile as shown in Figure 10, and therefore the water content
(MPa) strength
(MPa) shall be limited to 0.1% [28]. It has been recommended
PC- untreated - 42 11 that the moisture content of the aggregate shall not
Pre-treatment of AMEO 52.7 11.8 exceed from 0.1% to 0.5% for better mechanical properties
aggregates with 0.5%
MEMO 65.7 13.0 [28,51,53,61-63].
water-methanol solution
of silane VTES 67.5 13.3
AMEO 51.0 12
DURABILITY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Pre-treatment of
aggregates with 0.5% MEMO 57.4 12.4 Durability
aqueous silane solution
VTES 57.8 13.0
Polymer concrete displays high compressive strength,
AMEO 47.6 11.3
Integral blend additive flexural strength and improved acid resistance, less
MEMO 54.0 12.1
(1% resin) permeability as compared to Portland cement concrete.
VTES 55.5 12.0
Studies on effect of exposure to water, acidic environment

TECHNICAL PAPER
have been conducted by various researchers. One such
study on polyester polymer concrete reported a decrease
of 20% in compressive strength after immersion in
water for one month. The results shown in Figure 11
also show that highest reduction in strength is observed
for exposure to NaOH solution [64]. It is known that
the exposure to water for neat polyester does not cause
much reduction in its properties. Therefore it is clear that
the most predominant factor for reduction in strength
of polymer concrete is probably the degradation of the
interface due to water diffusion into polymer concrete.
During long duration exposure to water (12 months),
it is observed that compressive strength of specimens
immersed in water decreased and the greatest decrease
in strength occurred with in the first month (Figure 12).
Silane treatment of aggregates causes improvement in
the degradation behaviour of polymer concrete when
immersed in water [64]. as well as other chemical agents as shown in Figure 13 (a)
and (b) [68]. It is observed that less degradation is observed
A comparison of the effect of immersion in Hydrochloric in epoxy concrete as compared to polyester concrete. A
acid (10%) and sulphuric Acid (10%) on Portland cement number of studies on effect of exposure to atmospheric
concrete and polymer concrete shown no weight loss for conditions, free thaw, marine exposure report that the
polymer concrete whereas 50% weight loss was observed degradation in polymer concrete is very less as compared
for Portland cement concrete [65]. to Portland cement concrete [50,69,70].
Test methods for water absorption and chemical resistance Properties of polymer concrete for machine
specific to polymer concrete have been developed by tool applications
RILEM [66,67]. A comparative study of polyester and
Machine tools have an important role in manufacturing
epoxy concrete when exposed to various chemical agents
industry. For manufacturing precision components and
reported loss in flexural strength after exposure to water

TECHNICAL PAPER
components requiring high surface finish, selection of structures along with their advantages over cast iron
machine structural material is of immense importance. have been developed and it was concluded that polymer
The material selected shall have high internal damping in concrete has found applications in parts subjected to
order to reduce the effect of vibrations on tool and work low stresses and strains. It was further stated that if the
piece. This will result in not only good surface finish material is to be used where higher stresses and strains
but will also reduce the tool wear considerably thereby with alternating loads occur, the finite knowledge about
affecting the economics of the machining process. Several the fatigue strength is required [8-10].
materials such as ferro cement, hydraulic concrete,
polymer impregnated concrete, polymer concrete have A comparative study of the performance of polymer
been used as alternative materials to traditional materials concrete machine beds with cast iron machine beds
like welded steel and cast iron. Among them polymer reported that polymer concrete machine beds have high
concrete has received increased attention since it can be stiffness as well as high resonance frequency. The high
used in a broad range of applications requiring material material damping of polymer concrete is stated as a big
properties such as excellent damping, high rigidity, advantage during dynamic loading of machine structures
good thermal stability, corrosion resistance, dimensional [11]. A large number of studies have established the
accuracy and short processing time [13]. superioraity of polymer concrete over the tradional
materials for machine construction [7,12,18,19,49,71,72].
The use of polymer concrete in machine tools has been
reported since late 1970s. Epoxy concrete has been In a first of its kind comprehensive study on the epoxy
used for making beds of cylindrical grinding machines polymer concrete for machine tool beds, Effect of
by STUDER. The epoxy concrete is reported to have compaction ratio, size of aggregates and mix composition
internal damping factor which is ten times that for cast of aggregate on damping factor, modulus, compressive
iron whereas Modulus and specific gravity is about one strength, flexural strength has been studied [73].
third of that of cast iron [5] . Polymer concrete has been Aggregates were grouped as sand and pebble with respect
used for making structural parts of machine tools. Various to standard mesh number. Aggregates greater than mesh
methods of fabrication of polymer concrete machine no. 6 were classified as sand and aggregates less than

TECHNICAL PAPER
mesh no. 6 were classified as pebble. Modulus of polymer is thus proved that polyester concrete is an appropriate
concrete was reported to increase with increase in pebble material for manufacturing machine tool beds with respect
content of aggregate. Damping factor of polymer concrete to damping. However it could not be proved if damping
is found to be 30 times larger than cast iron. Compressive characteristics of polyester concrete depends upon the
strength of polymer concrete is observed to increase with composition of filler as critical damping characteristics of
increase in pebble content from 10 to 50 %. An optimum all the samples were found to be similar.
mix has been formulated for better properties consisting
of 50% pebble, 42.5% sand and 7.5% resin by weight. Performance of an epoxy concrete bed with 92%
aggregate and 8% resin content is compared with that of
Effect of interface modification and phase separation on a conventional cast iron bed [14]. Tool wear values for
damping properties of epoxy concrete has been reported the cast iron bed are higher than those given by polymer
[74]. Using granite aggregate of size ranging from 0.08 concrete bed and further it was observed that parts
to 5.7 mm , limestone as a filler and coupling agent for machined on polymer concrete bed have high surface
treatment of aggregates loss factor and dynamic modulus finish as shown in Figures 14 and 15.
of epoxy concrete were evaluated. Effect of addition of
acrylonitrile butadiene rubber on damping properties Such differences can be attributed to the high internal
was evaluated. Epoxy concrete containing acrylonitrile damping of the polymer concrete which can be seen
butadiene rubber was reported to have better dynamic from the vibration behaviour during turning of the two
performance. machine tools used . The acceleration time history of the
polymer concrete bed shows a much lower acceleration
Damping behaviour of polyester polymer concrete level when compared with the cast iron one. As far as
having 20% polyester resin by weight of concrete has the acceleration spectrum is concerned, a strong decrease
been reported [16]. Quartz in sizes varying from 0.5 mm in the acceleration peak values can be observed when
to 8mm was used as aggregate. Critical damping values the turning centre is equipped with the bed in polymer
for polyester concrete were observed to be four to seven concrete. This behaviour has been observed in the whole
times higher than those found for the cast iron sample. It field of cutting speed investigated. It means that the
polymer concrete bed leads to an improved dynamic

TECHNICAL PAPER
behaviour characterised by vibrations with lower
amplitude and resonance peaks.
Another study while comparing traditional material for

making machine tool beds with polymer concrete stated
that cast iron has the disadvantage of being cast as low
wall thickness, which in turn results into low natural
frequencies. Polymer concrete on the other hand allows
to produce structures with higher thickness walls to have
high natural frequencies. It was reported that epoxy
concrete having 10% epoxy resin by weight and aggregate
having maximum size of 10mm has loss factor 65%
higher than that of cast iron. Polymer concrete maintains
higher damping in quite a large range of frequencies as
compared to that of grey cast iron [15] (Figure 16) .
Highest damping is reported for a polymer concrete
mix containing 16% epoxy resin, 5% glass fibres of 20
Vibration alleviating properties of glass fibre reinforced
mm length and granite mix having a high proportion of
polymer concrete using orthogonal tests has also been
fine aggregate. Further studies state that two important
reported in literature [36]. Glass fibres of length varying
functional requirements of machine tool bed for precision
from 5 to 25 mm were added into polymer concrete, their
machine tools are high structural stiffness and high
percentage varying from 1 to 5% by weight of polymer
damping, which cannot be satisfied simultaneously if
concrete. Glass fibres were treated with a silane coupling
conventional metallic materials are used for bed structure
agent KH-550 in order to strengthen the interface between
because conventional high stiffness metals have low
epoxy resin and glass fibres. Epoxy resin % was varied
damping and vice versa. Polymer concrete has been
from 8-16%. Damping ratio of polymer concrete was
projected as a high potential material for machine tool bed
seen as strongly dependent upon the resin content of the
structures due to its high damping, moderate stiffness and
concrete as shown in Figure 17. Addition of glass fibres
low cost. A hybrid polymer concrete machine bed having
further enhanced the damping ratio of polymer concrete.
welded steel structure was designed. It is reported that
hybrid machine tool bed had large damping factors over
wide range of frequency [75]. (Figure 18) Damping factors
found experimentally were higher than those obtained
for steel structure or cast iron bed.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Fatigue of polymer concrete 0.5 Hz (Group-A) and 10 Hz (Group-B) to evaluate the
effect of frequency of testing. Another group (Group-C)
Fatigue damage in materials is a process of stochastic
of specimens were tested to evaluate the inclusion of rest
nature. Consequently, probabilistic concepts and methods
period between the load pulse. Specimens were loaded
are needed for an assessment of the safety and reliability
for 0.1 seconds followed by a rest period of 0.9 seconds.
of materials under fatigue. ASTM STP-91-A (1963) defines
It was reported that rate of loading influences the static
fatigue as the process of progressive localized permanent
modulus of rupture as higher modulus of rupture was
structural change occuring in a material subjected to
found at high rate of loading. S-N plots were obtained
conditions which produce fluctuating stresses and strains
for polymer concrete and probability of failure was
at some points and which may culminate in cracks or
incorporated in the S-N relationship to take care of the
complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations.

statistical nature of fatigue data. The

following equation
Studies on fatigue behaviour of polymer concrete are very
described
for cement
concrete
was
applied
to fatigue
data
scarce in literature. of polymer concrete [77];

Results of experimental studies on compression fatigue
...(3)
of resin concrete using polyester resin as the binder are
reported in literature [62]. An aggregate mix containing
Where L is the
probability of survival, S is the stress level,
11.25% CaCO3 as filler material was used in the study
N is
number
of cycles to failure and a,b,c are experimental

whereas fine sand and crushed stone of maximum
20mm
constants.
Multiple linear regression was performed

size were used in the study. The moisture content of the

to determine these experimental constants. The fatigue
aggregate material was reduced to less than 0.1% before
testing results at different frequencies show variations
the mixing. Specimens were cured for 24 hrs at room
in number of cycles to failure and authors conclude
temperature, which was followed by curing at 70 C curing
that frequency of testing shall be taken as a parameter
for 15hrs. To overcome the problem of heat evolution due
in the fatigue testing of polymer concrete. Authors also
to the viscoelastic nature of the polymers, cold air from a
recommend that further testing shall be done to determine
room air conditioner was used to blow air on the specimen
the influence to rest periods on the fatigue behaviour.
during the fatigue tests. Fatigue testing was carried out at
frequency of 150 Hz. It was reported that specimens could
A study on fatigue of polyester polymer concrete
withstand stress level of 59% for 2 million cycles, which
containing 14% resin and blasting sand as aggregate
is generally taken as the measure of the fatigue strength.
material is reported in literature [78]. Specimens of size
This result is very similar to that reported for cement
concrete. Dynamic modulus of elasticity determined by
using ultrasonic wave propagation shows a decreasing
trend as the number of cycles producing the failure is
approached. This was attributed to the production of
microcracks within the specimen. Authors also reported
decrease in the static modulus of elasticity with increasing
the number of cycle of loading.
Effect of loading frequency and rest period on the fatigue

life of polymer concrete has been reported [76]. Three
point bending tests were conducted on specimens of
3x3x11 size to find maximum static rupture load of
silikal polymer concrete made of river run gravel and
coarse aggregate. Specimens were cured for 90 days before
testing. Fatigue testing was carried out at frequency of

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 4. Mechanical properties of cement concrete, polyester concrete and epoxy concrete [22]
Property Cement concrete Polyester concrete Epoxy concrete
(A) (B)a (C)b (D)c (E)d (F)e
Compressive strength (MPa) 24.0 41.2 53.0 68.0 71.6 97.7
Split tensile strength (MPa) 3.2 10.8 11.8 12.1 13.7 18.9
Split tensile/compressive strength ratio 0.14 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.21 0.19
Flexural strength (MPa) 3.6 12.2 13.9 19.3 21.0 21.6
Izod impact strength 3.3 3.5 4.7 4.3 6.6 7.5

a b c d e
Without silane or filler With silane MEMO and without filler With silane MEMO and CaCo3 filler Without silane With silane AMEO

50x50x230mm were tested in four point bending at equationdescribed

for cement
concrete
was
applied to
frequency of 1 and 5 Hz. Stress level in fatigue loading was fatigue data of polymer concrete;

varied from 50-80% in sinusoidal loading. A mean static

flexural strength of 16.5 MPa was reported and the data for

flexural strength was reported to be normally distributed.

... (4)
S-N curves were plotted for polyester concrete and it was

observed that at 50% stress level, some specimens did not Where p is the probability of failure, S is the stress level, Nf
fail even after 2 million cycles. Failure strain was observed is number of cycles to failure and a4,b4,c4 are experimental
to be independent of applied stress level. The following constants. Multiple linear regression was performed to
determine these experimental constants and it was proved
that McCall equation can be used to predict the S-N-p
relationship of polymer concrete as shown in Figure19.
Table 5. Properties of polymer concrete in comparison Summary of other mechanical properties of

with ordinary cement [79] polymer concrete
Property Polymer Concrete
concrete There have been a lot of studies reported on characterization
Compressive strength (MPa) 137 34 of mechanical properties of polymer concrete since early
Tensile strength (MPa) 9.65 1.72 1970s. The properties like compressive strength and
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 36 24 flexural strength are the most reported in literature. A
Shear strength (MPa) 25 7.58 comparison of the properties of various types of polymer
Water absorption, %w 0.3 5.3 concrete with cement concrete clearly revealed that
Freeze thaw resistance, properties of any type of polymer concrete are far superior
# of cycles 3300 590
% weight lost 0 25
that those of cement concrete as shown in Table4 [22].
Hardness impact hammer 55 32 An earlier review paper presented the comparison of
Acid resistance important properties of polymer concrete with cement
% weight lost after 3 months of concrete highlighting the high compressive strength,
immersion:
5% HCl 0.3 24 flexural strength, freeze thaw resistance, low permeability,
15% HCl 3 27 higher resistance to acid and chemical attacks (Table5)
10% H2SO4 1.2 39
[79]. The work reported by various researchers since
Corrosion by distilled water None Severe
1970s in this field is presented in Table6.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 6. Summary of other mechanical properties of polymer concrete
Author Resin & aggregate Variables Properties Brief findings
& microfiller used evaluated
Ohama28 Polyester, Mix composition Compressive (i) The following optimum mix proportion has been suggested:
Andesite, River based upon Strength 11.25% Resin
sand, Calcium maximum bulk 11.25% Calcium Carbonate
carbonate mixed density, Curing 29.1% andesite (5-20mm)
with resin. conditions, 9.6% sand (1.2-5 mm)
water content of 38.8% sand (<1.2mm)
aggregates (ii) Compressive strength becomes constant after 7 days curing at
20 C.
(iii) Strength reduces with increases in water content of
aggregate, maximum water content shall be limited to 0.1%.
Okada33 Polyester, Crushed Resin content- Compressive Compressive strength and tensile strength decrease with
stone 15 mm max. 10-15%, Filler strength, tensile temperature.
size and river content- 10-15%, strength
sand of FM 2.89 Temperature of
in ratio of 45:35, test -5 to 60.
Calcium carbonate
Kobayashi and Polyester, Crushed Silane treatment, Compressive (i) Resin content does not have much effect on compressive
Ito32 stone, fine sand Resin content- 9 strength, strength.
to 13% compressive (ii) Temperature rise observed for frequency range of 200-400 Hz.
fatigue (iii) Addition of 1% silane agent increases the load for
withstanding 2 million cycles from 59% to 64% of ultimate
strength.
Mani et al.22 Epoxy, Polyester, Resin type, silane Compressive (i) Epoxy concrete has much superior properties than the polyester
crushed quartzite treatment, micro strength, concrete.
of size ranging filler addition Flexural (ii) Compressive strength goes up by 30% for the polyester
from I0 mm to 2.36 strength, Split concrete and 36% for the epoxy concrete by incorporation of a
mm, siliceous sand tensile strength silane coupling agent.
of size ranging (iii)The compressive and flexural strengths of the polyester
from 1.18 mm to concrete are greatly improved on incorporation of the microfiller.
150 m, Calcium
carbonate
Vipulanandan23 Polyester, Ottawa Temperature, Compressive (i) Maximum flexural and compression modulus is observed
sand strain rate, void strength, between 14-16% resin content by weight.
content, method Flexural (ii) Strain rate was found to have very limited effect on the flexural
of preparation, strength behaviour.
resin content (iii) Compaction moulding was found to have better results than
vibration moulding.
Vipulanandan46 Epoxy, Polyester, Resin Content, Compressive (i) Maximum compressive and flexural strength reported at 14%
Ottawa sand of Silane treatment, strength, resin content.
COF 1.08 Compaction, glass Flexural (ii)Addition of glass fibres increases the flexural strength,
Blasting sand, COF fibre content strength, Split compressive strength.
4.2 tensile strength (iii) Silane treatment increases the flexural strength by 25%.
Vipulanandan47 Epoxy, Polyester, Temperature, Compressive (i)Compressive strength increases with curing temperature.
Ottawa sand of strain rate, strength, Split (ii) Maximum strength obtained for one day room temperature
COF 1.08 aggregate type tensile strength curing followed by one day curing at 80C.
(i) Blasting sand, and curing (iii)Use of gap graded aggregate resulted in highest compressive
COF 4.2 conditions strength
Vipulanandan80 Polyester, Ottawa Curing conditions, Compressive (i) Maximum compressive strength was obtained for a resin
sand 20-30 silane treatrment, strength, tensile content of 15%.
rate of loading strength, (ii) 1 day room temperature curing followed by 1 day curing at 80
stress strain C increased the compressive strength by around 50% as compared
relationship to 2 days curing at room temperature
(iii) Compressive strength and modulus increase with increase in
strain rate.
(iv) Silane treatment of aggregate increase the compressive
strength by around 14%

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 6 Continued
Rebeiz29 Polyester resin Curing time Compressive (i) Authors proposed an optimized mix based upon their study as
from PET waste, strength, that containing 10% resin, 45% pea gravel, 32% sand and 13% fly
10mm Pea gravel, flexural strength ash.
river sand of (ii) Polymer concrete achieves 80% of its strength after curing of
fineness module one day, when compared to seven day curing period.
3.25, Fly ash
Kim et al.73 Epoxy ,Sand > Compaction ratio, Damping factor, An optimum mix was reported as having 50% pebble, 42.5% sand
mesh no.6 & Pebble size of aggregates, modulus, and 7.5% resin.
< mesh no. 6 mix composition compressive
strength
Varughese35 Polyester ,Granite Fly ash and river Flexural (i) Fine aggregates in combination with fly ash and river sand
aggregate sand contents strength show synergism in strength behaviour and resistance to water
confirming to have been varied absorption up to the level of 75% by weight of fly ash.
ASTM mesh No- in full range of (ii) At the higher level of fly ash, properties decline as the mix
5-50, river sand, 0-100% of fine becomes unworkable due to the fact that pure fly ash because of
Fly ash aggregate to study large surface area, does not mix with resin binder effectively.
the replacement
of river sand with
fly ash.
Maksimov34 Polyester , 58% Compressive Compressive strength in the range of 90-108 MPa has been
crushed granite strength, reported.
and 21.8% sand, Flexural
calcium carbonate strength
Fattah and Epoxy, Polyester, Resin content Compressive (i) Maximum compressive strength was achieved at 12% resin
El-Hawary24 56% coarse strength, content for all types of resins.
aggregate (9.5- Flexural (ii) Highest modulus of rupture was also obtained at 12% resin
12.7mm) and 36% strength content, which was almost 3 times that of cement concrete.
fine aggregate
Orak16 Polyester ,Quartz, Mix composition Damping factor (i) Damping of polyester concrete is four to seven times higher
0.5 mm- 8 mm than cast iron.
(ii) Damping characteristics not much influenced by mix

composition.
Ferreira25 Polyester ,Clean Resin content, Three point (i) Best results obtained for 20% resin content.
sand, Foundry micro-filler bend tests on (ii) Clean sand gives better properties with low resin content as
sand, calcium content, mixing specimens of foundry sand has high specific surface.
carbonate method, type of 40x40x160 mm
sand
Bignozzi et al.12 Polyester ,Silica Use of recycled Damping, loss (i) Addition of powdered rubber, tyre rubber etc. increase
sand, .075 2 mm, fillers i.e. modulus damping over wide temperature.
calcium carbonate powdered rubber, (ii) Polymer concrete containing organic fillers can be used for
tyre rubber etc. making machine tool bases.
Ribeiro27 Epoxy, Clean sand, Resin content, Three point (i) Curing cycle of 3hrs at 80C gives almost same results as 7days
Foundry sand, micro-filler bend tests on at 23C curing.
calcium carbonate content, Type of specimens of (ii) Epoxy resin gives better properties with foundry sand
sand, curing cycle 40x40x160 mm as aggregate whereas polyester gives better properties with
( 7 days at 23C & clean sand because of the higher capacity of epoxy to wet the
3 hrs at 80C) aggregates.
Rebeiz et al.51 Polyester ,Pea Fly ash content Compressive (i) Replacing 15% by weight of sand with fly ash results in 30%
gravel as coarse strength increase in compressive strength.
aggregate and sand (ii) Caution should however, be exercised when using a relatively
as fine aggregate. high loading of fly ash, because the high surface area of the
oven-dried for a material would make the mix become too sticky and thus
minimum of 24 h unworkable.
at 125C to reduce
their moisture
content to less than
0.5% by weight,
Fly ash.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 6 Continued
Cortes and Epoxy, Basalt, Test Frequency Damping, (i) Damping loss factor of polymer concrete is 65% higher than
Castillo15 Quartzite- upto Compared with that of cast iron.
10mm size that of cast iron (ii) Polymer concrete maintains its damping over a large frequency
range.
Suh and Lee75 Polyester ,Sand and Mix composition Damping (i) The polymer concrete bed had large damping factors over wide
Gravel frequency range.
The following mix (ii) Damping factors found experimentally were higher than those
determined by trial for steel structure and cast iron.
& error:
Fine aggregate
(Sand)- 30%,
Gravel 1-1.5 mesh
number 30%,
Gravel- 1.5-3.2
mesh number-
15.4%,
Gravel- 3.2-6.4
mesh number-
7.1%,
Gravel- 6.4-12 mesh
number- 7.1%
Barbuta et al.81 Epoxy, River Resin content, Compressive (i) Compressive strength varies from 43.4 to 65.3 MPa and Flexural
gravel, 0-4 mm size micro-filler strength, strength varies from 12.29 to 17.5 MPa.
and 4-8 mm size, content Flexural (ii) Resin content of 15.6% found suitable for almost all the
Silica fume strength, Split properties of polymer concrete.
tensile strength
Haidar et. al.42 Epoxy, Gravel, Resin content, Compressive (i) Maximum compressive strength and flexural strength were
2-4 mm, Gravel to curing conditions strength, reported for a resin content of 13%.
sand ratio of 0.25 Flexural (ii) Maximum compressive and flexural strength was obtained
used for optimum strength after 3 days of curing.
packing density.
Concluding Remarks generated regarding the effect of various param-

eters on the properties of polymer concrete.
Based on the critical review of the available literature on
polymer concrete, following conclusions can be drawn:
a. Use of various types of thermoplastic and
thermosetting resins has been reported in the
1. Polymer concrete has been initially developed as
literature. Most of the studies on polymer
an alternative material in the domain of civil engi-
concrete have been reported on polyester and
neering, but over the period of time, owing to its
epoxy resins. Few studies are reported on the
superior properties has found favour as a replace-
use of Methacrylate, vinylester and furan resins
ment material in machine building applications.
also. Comparative studies between epoxy and
Rapid curing, high compressive strength, high
polyester resins report that epoxy polymer
specific stiffness and strength, resistance to chemi-
concrete has far superior mechanical properties
cals and corrosion, ability to form complex shapes,
and durability.
excellent vibration damping properties are chiefly
responsible for its use in these areas.
b. Various types of aggregate materials have been
used by the researchers most of them based upon
2. Research on characterization of mechanical prop-
the choice of locally available materials to reduce
erties of polymer concrete has been carried out by
the cost. River sand, foundry sand, crushed stone,
number of researchers and sufficient data has been

TECHNICAL PAPER
quartz, granite, gravel are some of the materials on the mechanical properties. Enhancement in
reported by the authors. compressive strength upto 30% has been reported
for addition of 15% fly ash in polymer concrete.
c. The resin dosage reported by various authors
mostly lies in the range of 10 to 20% by weight g. Heat assisted drying of the aggregates before
of polymer concrete. Higher resin dosage is mixing with resin has been suggested by most
recommended when using fine aggregate, because of the researchers. It has been recommended that
of the large surface area of these materials. A few the moisture content of the aggregate shall not
studies have been reported in the literature to exceed 0.5% for better mechanical properties.
find out the optimum resin content based upon
the minimum void content of the aggregate mix. 3. The influence of the aggregate grading on the
properties of polymer concrete has been long
d. A large number of studies have been reported known. The coarse and fine aggregate should be
regarding the effect of reinforcement of polymer proportioned in such a way that aggregate mixture
concrete by addition of various types of fibres. has minimum void content and maximum bulk
Steel fibres, glass fibres, carbon fibres, polyester density. This minimizes the amount of binder
fibres have been added in polymer concrete required to assure proper bonding of all the
in varying quantities for enhancement of its aggregate particles. Normally the binder content
properties. Most of the studies have reported ranges from 5% to 15% of the total weight but if
the addition of glass fibres in the range of 0 to the aggregate mix is fine, it may even require up to
6% by weight of polymer concrete. It has been 20% binder. Very few studies have been reported
reported that addition of glass fibres improves in the literature regarding the proportioning of the
the post peak behaviour of polymer concrete. The aggregate mix in polymer concrete. Earlier studies
strength and toughness of polymer concrete also in this regard have reported that polymer concrete
increases with addition of fibres. Few studies on made with aggregate grading according to Fullers
silane treatment of glass fibres before their use curve had the highest strength. Further it was
in polymer concrete report an enhancement in reported that use of gap graded aggregate resulted
mechanical properties upto the extent of 25%. in minimum void content. An empirical relation
has also been suggested in the literature, which can
e. Various curing regimes have been reported by be used to determine the proportions of coarse and
researchers like room temperature curing, high fine aggregates of least-void content. Later studies
temperature curing, water curing etc. Curing time suggest the optimum mix composition of aggregate
studies on polymer concrete have established for minimising the void content based on design
that it achieves around 70% of its strength after of experiments approach. The mix composition
a curing of one day at room temperature. A suggested was again based upon the use of gap
number of researchers have used 7 days room graded aggregates.
temperature criterion in their research work.
4. Since, for the cost considerations, the binder
f. Various types of micro fillers like fly ash, content used polymer concrete materials is quite
silica fume, calcium carbonate etc have been low, the adhesion of aggregates takes place
incorporated in polymer concrete to improve through a fine layer of resin around the aggregates.
the compressive strength of polymer concrete. A larger contact area is therefore desirable, which
Addition of fly ash has been reported by a necessitates a proper space filling of the gaps by
number of researchers which not only results in smaller aggregates or microfiller particles. Use of
improvement in the workability of the polymer a silane coupling agent (which strengthens the
concrete mix but also has a significant effect adhesion between the resin and the aggregate)

TECHNICAL PAPER
improves the adhesion and thus the ultimate These relationships are based upon the basic
strength of the polymer concrete. Adhesion at power law functions. The research has shown
the interface, in absence of any chemical bonding that the empirical equation used to predict fatigue
may be sufficiently good even when it is due to behaviour of plain concrete fit well for polymer
secondary forces between two phases. The use concrete also.
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concrete and mortar. Technical Committee TC-113 test Methods for 1996, Vol. 18, No. 6, pp.445-453.
concrete polymer composites (CPT), International Union of testing 75. Suh, J. D. and Lee, D. G., Design and manufacture of hybrid polymer
and Research Laboratories for Materials and Structures. concrete bed for high-speed CNC milling machine, International Journal
of Mechanics and Materials in Design, 2008, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp 113-121.
67. RILEM 1995, PC-12: Method of test of chemical resistance of polymer
concrete and mortar. Technical Committee TC-113 test Methods for 76. Woelfl, G., McNerney, M. and Chang, C., Flexural Fatigue of Polymer
concrete polymer composites (CPT), International Union of testing Concrete, Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, 1981, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp.84-
and Research Laboratories for Materials and Structures. 88.
68. Ribeiro M C S, Taveras C M L and Ferreira A J M, Chemical Resistance 77. McCall, J.T., Probability of Fatigue Failure of Plain Concrete, Journal
of epoxy and polyester polymer concrete to acids and salts, Journal of of the American Concrete Institute, August 1995, pp.233-244.
Polymer Engineering, Vol 22, No. 1, pp. 27-44 ,2002.
78. Vipulanandan, C. and Mebarkia, S., Fatigue crack growth in polyester
69. Griffiths, R., Ball, A., An assessment of properties and degradation polymer concrete, SP 201-9, American Concrete Institute, California,
behaviour of glass fibre reinforced polyester polymer concrete, 2001, pp.153-168.
Composites Science & Technology, 2000, Vol. 60, No. 14, pp- 2747-
79. Kirlikovali, E. , Polymer/Concrete Composites- A review, Polymer
2753.
Engineering & Science, 1981, Vol. 21, No. 8, pp.507-9.
70. Reis, J M L, Ferriera, A J M., The effects of atmospheric exposure on 80. Vipulanandan, C., Characterization of Polyester polymer and polymer
fracture properties of polymer concrete, Building and Environment, concrete, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 1993, Vol. 5, No.1,
2006, Vol, 41, No. 3, pp.262-267. pp.62-82.
71. Tanabe, I., Takada, K. and Nakamura, A., Thermal and mechanical 81. Barbuta, M., Mechanical Characteristics investigation of polymer
characteristics of epoxy resin concrete used in machine tool structures, concrete using mixture design of experiments and response surface
JSME International Journal, 1990, Vol. 56, pp.236-43. method, Journal of Applied Sciences, 2008, Vol. 8, No. 12, pp.2242-49.
Raman Bedi BE, ME, is pursuing his PhD in Mechanical Engineering at Dr B.R. Ambedkar National Institute
of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab. He is an Associate Professor in Department of Mechanical Engineering
at the same institute. He has around 15 years of teaching and research experience. His research interests
include fatigue behaviour of composite materials, polymer concrete composites etc
Dr. Rakesh Chandra is a Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Dr B.R. Ambedkar
National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab. He has more than 35 years of teaching, research and
consultancy experience. His research interests are fatigue of composite materials, damping behaviour of
composites and nano composites.
Dr. S.P. Singh is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Dr B.R. Ambedkar National Institute
of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab. He has about 23 years of teaching, research and consultancy experience.
His research interests are fatigue behaviour of fibrous concrete composites, recycling of materials in
concrete. He is member of American Concrete Institute (ACI), Indian Concrete Institute (ICI) and Indian
Society for Construction Materials and Structures (ISCMS).

POINT OF VIEW
Finite element modeling of RC deep beams

strengthened in shear with CFRP strips
Mitali R. Patel and Tejendra Tank
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) and steel plates a complete ring around the column. But strengthening
are adopted for strengthening of structural elements of beams sometimes becomes more problematic as they
such as beams and columns. The strengthening of deep are cast monolithically with the slabs. Although bonding
beams in particular becomes more cumbersome, as deep of FRP on the either side of beams or at the soffit does
beam usually fails in shear. This paper aims to present provide some shear strengthening to the beams [3]. Many
an analytical model of reinforced concrete deep beam
strengthened in shear with externally bonded CFRP strips
using an FEM based software. Eight different cases of deep
beams with same configuration have been considered with
three different strengthening mechanisms. The Objective
of this paper is to find out the best shear strengthening
mechanism for strengthening of reinforced concrete deep
beams. The results of analytical model are compared with
the experimental work carried out in past and show an
excellent correlation with the experimental work.
I. Introduction
Strengthening of structural elements such as beams
and columns has become vital now-a-days due to
many unavoidable circumstances such as revised
loading conditions change in occupancy conditions and
deterioration of existing structure due to environmental
effects. Strengthening of structural elements by externally
bonded FRP laminates is very effective technique adopted
successfully worldwide [1]. Externally bonded FRP
laminates can be used to increase the shear strength of
reinforced concrete beams and columns [2]. Figure 1 shows
the possible strengthening mechanisms. It can be seen
that strengthening of column can be easily achieved by
wrapping the column with continuous FRP sheets to form

POINT OF VIEW
researchers have found that the FRP laminates applied (A) Engineering data
to the reinforced concrete element provides efficiency,
1. Concrete Nonlinear
reliability and cost effectiveness in rehabilitation [4].
The concrete material requires the linear isotropic
A large number of software available in market incorporate elasticity and multi-linear isotropic hardening properties
finite element based analysis [5]. In this paper, an attempt to depict the exact concrete nonlinear behavior [7]. The
has been made using FEM based software to bring into present study assumed that the concrete is homogeneous
focus, the versatility and powerful analytical capabilities and initially isotropic. The compressive uniaxial stress-
of finite element technique by objectively modelling the strain relationship for concrete nonlinear is obtained by
complete response of test beams. This model can help to using the following equations to compute the multi-linear
confirm to the laboratory investigation of the behaviour isotropic stress-strain curve for the concrete nonlinear
of deep beams. and is as shown in Figure 2.

In this paper, total eight Deep beams having same = = ...(1)

configuration are considered with three possible
=
strengthening mechanisms as shown in Figure 1. In all === ==

mechanisms, CFRP strips are applied on both the sides +

+
= ==
...(2)
of the Deep beam considered, to strengthen the beam = =
= + = +
+

against shear. +

== == = ...(3)

II. Finite Element Modelling
=
+
=

= =
The finite element analysis calibration study included =
==
modelling reinforced concrete deep beamsin the software

considering the dimensions and properties corresponding
=
...(4)

to experimental work for analysis of deep beams carried

out by previous researcher [6]. Following are the steps of
analysis followed in the software. The simplified stress-strain curve for each deep beam
model is as shown in Figure 2. The curve starts at zero
stress and strain. Point 1, at 0.3 f c is calculated for the
stress-strain relationship of the concrete in the linear range
which is the elastic zone where stress is proportional
to strain (material obeys Hooks law which states that
within elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain [8].
Thereafter the material enters plastic zone, from where
material behaviour is non-linear). Points 2, 3 and 4 are
obtained from Equation 2, in which 0 is calculated from
Equation 4. Point 5 and is at 0 and fc. The behaviour
is assumed to be perfectly plastic after point 5. Table 1
shows concrete nonlinear property. Concrete non-linear
material selected here adopts the smeared crack analogy
for cracking of concrete in tension zone [9].
2. Structural steel
For structural steel, linear isotropic and bilinear kinematic

hardening properties are required. Bilinear kinematic

POINT OF VIEW
hardening property for steel are required due to plastic
behaviour of structural steel. The bilinear hardening
property requires the yield stress of steel and hardening
modulus of steel. To obtain the hardening modulus
of steel or tangent modulus of steel after yielding, Es =
0.01Es. Figure 3 shows the stress strain for reinforcing or
structural steel. Table 2 shows the properties of structural
steel.
3. Cfrp laminates
FRP composites are material that consists of two

constituents. The constituents are combined at a
macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. One
constituent is the reinforcement, which is embedded in
the second constituent, a continuous polymer called the
matrix. The reinforcing material is in the form of carbon
fibres, which are typically stiffer and stronger than the
matrix. The CFRP composites are orthotropic material. Table 2. Properties of structural steel
Hence their properties are not the same in all directions. Density 7850 kg/m3
Table 3 and Table 4 show the properties of CFRP laminates Reference temperature 250c
and epoxy adhesive respectively. Thermal expansion 1.210-5 /0c
Linear Isotropic
(B) Geometry Modulus of elasticity (ES) 2105 MPa
Poissons ratio() 0.3
The geometry of all deep beams is shown in Figure 4.
Bilinear Kinematic Hardening
Considering the shear strengthening of deep beams, two
Yield stress ( fy ) 413.68 MPa
stirrups of 5mm diameter are provided at the each support
Tangent modulus (Es) 2103 MPa
Table 3. Properties of CFRP laminates

Table 1. Properties of concrete nonlinear
Density 1.6 gm/cm3
Density 2300 kg/m3
Poissons ratio 0.183
Reference temperature 25C
Modulus of elasticity 160000 MPa
Linear Isotropic
Tensile yield strength 2800 MPa
Modulus of elasticity (Ec) 3104 MPa
Tensile ultimate strength 3050 MPa
Poissons ratio () 0.2
Multi-linear Isotropic
Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa)
1. 0 0 Table 4. Properties of epoxy adhesive
2. 0.0004 12.41 Density 1800 kg/m3
3. 0.0008 22.414 Poissons ratio 0.22
4. 0.0015 35.01 Modulus of elasticity 165000 MPa
5. 0.0023 40.825 Tensile yield strength 30 MPa
6. 0.00268 41.39 Compressive ultimate strength 95 MPa
7. 0.00272 41.4 Thermal expansion co-efficient 2.510-5/0c

POINT OF VIEW
and under each point load. In the beam considered, in one point loading case required six CFRP strips per side
order to apply point load on the surface, steel plate is of the beam while for two point loading case only four
provided under the load, similarly for supports steel strips were needed per side of the beam. The thickness of
plates are provided. epoxy adhesive considered is 0.5 mm.
In all the deep beams considered for analysis, CFRP strips (C) Model
are applied at 0 degree, 90 degree and 45 degree orientation
In the software, multi-physics module under static
to the neutral axis of the beam as shown in Figure 1. The
structural analysis system is opened and material
CFRP strips are applied only in the shear span region
properties are assigned to various parts of the beam.
of the beam. In all beams the width and thickness of
Reinforcements were assigned structural steel property
the CFRP strips are 50mm and 1.2mm respectively. The
and concrete beam was assigned concrete nonlinear
center to center spacing of 100mm is used for both, 90
property.
degree and 45 degree oriented CFRP strip strengthened
deep beams.
In same module of the software, connections between
various parts of the beam can easily be assigned such
Since CFRP strips are considered only in the shear span
as connection between concrete and steel is bonded
region of the deep beams in 90 degree one point loading
connection, steel and steel is bonded etc.
case, eight strips are required per side of the beam while
in two point loading case, six strips required per side of Meshing of the finite element model is also provided.
the beam. Similarly in 45 degree orientation mechanism Figure 5 shows the meshed beam. Fine meshing is

POINT OF VIEW
preferred in cases where there are chances of problematic

geometries. discussions are pertaining to deformation only, for the
strengthened and non-strengthened beams.
(D) Setup
In the setup portion, boundary conditions such as type III. Results and Discussion
of support and loads are assigned. Figure 6 and Figure 7 Analysis of one point loading beam and two point loading
show assigning of supports and loads. beam was carried out in the software. From the results
it is clear that, 45 degree orientation of CFRP strips for
(E) Solution strengthening is the best strengthening mechanism for
In the software, many types of solutions are obtained enhancing the shear capacity of the beam.
such as static structural, flexible dynamic, rigid dynamic,
linear buckling, harmonic response etc. Since all types of Figures 8 and 9 show the comparison of experimental
structural element are considered in static structural for results and analytical results of one point load beam and
this particular problem, static structural analysis has been two point load beam respectively. Also from Figures8
considered. and 9, it is clear that the analytical results show good
Static structural analysis gives different types of stress,

strain and deformation of that particular element. Here

POINT OF VIEW
degree orientation of CFRP strips in comparison
to non-strengthened beam.
4. For one-point load beam, load carrying capacity

of 0 degree, 90 degree and 45 degree orientation
of CFRP strips show an increase up to 4%, 44%
and 51.5% respectively as compared to non-
strengthened beam.
5. Similarly in two-point load beam, load carrying

capacities of 0 degree, 90 degree and 45 degree
orientation of CFRP strips, are observed
to increase up to 28.9%, 30.2% and 39.8%
respectively compared to non-strengthened two-
point load beam.
agreement with the experimental results [6]. All beams of 6. It is observed that, 45 degree orientation of CFRP
the finite element model are stiffer than the actual beam strips is the best mechanism to enhance the shear
in the linear range [10]. There are many factors for higher capacity of deep beams, and hence improved
stiffness of the software model such as the bond between load carrying capacity for the same beam can be
the concrete and steel reinforcement is assumed to be achieved by adopting the mechanism.
perfect (no slip) in the software model but for the actual
beams the assumption will not hold to be true and slip References
actually occurs, therefore the composite action between 1. Khalifa Ahmed, Gold W. J., Nanni Antonio, Abdel Aziz M.I,
the concrete and steel reinforcing is lost in the actual Contribution of Externally bonded FRP to shear capacity of RC Flexural
Members by ASCE Journal for Composite of Construction, Nov
deep beams. Also the micro-cracks produced by drying 1998.
shrinkage and handling are present in the concrete. These 2. Tavarez F. A., Bank L. C., Plesha M. E., Analytical of Fiber-Reinforced
would reduce the stiffness of the actual deep beam, while Polymer Composite Grid Reinforced Concrete beams by ACI Structural
Journal, 2003.
the software model doesnt include micro-cracks due to
factors that are not incorporated into the same. 3. Malek Amir M., Saadatmanesh Hamid, Analytical study of reinforced
concrete beams strengthened with web-bonded fiber reinforced plastics plates
by ACI structural Journal, May-June 1998.
IV. Conclusions
4. Mehdi Alizadehnozari, Hamidreza Sharifi, FRP Composites used in
Structural by American Journal of Scientific Research, 2011.
1. The results of this study indicate that the
externally bonded CFRP strips can be successfully 5. Godat Ahmed, W. Neale Kenneth, Labossiere P., Numerical Modeling
of FRP shear strengthened Reinforced Concrete Beams by ASCE Journal
employed to enhance the shear capacity of the of Composite of Construction, Nov-Dec 2007.
deep beams.
6. Jon Erik Moren, Shear Behaviour of Reinforced concrete Deep beams
strengthened in shear with CFRP laminates by New Jersey Institute of
2. When compared with non-strengthened one-point Technology.
loading beam, load carrying capacity of beam 7. Ibrahim A. M., Mahmood M. Sh., Finite Element Modeling of Reinforced
Concrete beams strengthened with FRP laminates by European Journal
strengthened with 45 degree oriented CFRP strips
of Scientific Research, 2009.
is enhanced by 51.5%.
8. Gorji M. S., Analysis of FRP strengthened reinforced concrete beams using
Energy Variation Method by World Applied Science Journal, 2009.
3. Similarly in two-point loading beam, load
9. Chen G. M., Chen J. F., Teng J. G., On the Finite Element modeling of
carrying capacity enhances up to 39.8% in 45 RC beams shear strengthened with FRP by Journal of Construction and
Building Material, 2010.

POINT OF VIEW

POINT OF VIEW
10. Godat A., Labossiere P. Neale K. W., Numerical Investigation of the 3. Basic analysis guide ANSYS 12.1.
parameters influencing the behavior of FRP shear strengthened beams by
Journal of Construction and Building Material, 2011. 4. ANSYS structural analysis guide.
5. ANSYS 12 WB Engineering Data guide.

Bibliography
6. ANSYS tutorials online.
1. Deniaud C., Cheng J.J. Roger, Reinforced Concrete T-Beams Strengthened
in shear with Fiber Reinforced polymer Sheets by Journal of Composite 7. ANSYS workbench user guide version 12.1.
for Construction, Nov 2003
2. Lee H.K., Cheong S.H., Ha S.K., Lee C.G., Behavior and performance
of RC T-Section deep beams externally strengthened in shear with CFRP The software used for this study was ANSYS.
sheet by Journal of Composite Structures, 2011.
Mitali R Patel received her Masters in Engineering, specialising in computer aided structural analysis with
a Gold Medal from Gujarat Technological University as well as Gujarat Institute of Civil Engineers and
Architects. She is a Design Engineer at SNS Infrastructure Services, Ahmedabad. Her areas of interest are
strengthening of existing structural elements using FRP composites and analysing behaviour of structural
elements under shear and also use of various admixtures for achieving higher strength to concrete. She has
published papers in various journals and conferences, and she holds an outstanding academic record.
Tejendra Tank received his Masters of Engineering in computer aided structural analysis and design
from L.D. College of Engineering and is currently pursuing his doctorate degree from Applied Mechanics
Department, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat. He is Assistant Professor at Indus Institute of
Technology and Engineering, a constituent of Indus University and has over four years of experience. He
is involved in student developmental activities at Indus University and has guided students at bachelors
and masters level from various universities. He has published many papers in international journals and
presented several at national and international conferences. His area of research include retrofitting and
strengthening of existing reinforced concrete structures and curing efficiencies of various curing compounds
used in current concrete industry.

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THE INDIAN CONCRETE JOURNAL

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Published by ACC Limited, L.B. Shastri Road, Near

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The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 

Contents Aug 2014.indd 3 7/25/2014 7:46:35 PM

From the Editors Desk...

results show that this cement was effective in creating a

 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

Quality Control and Quality Precast Concrete Technology

The course aims at imparting updated knowledge on quality

 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 

Ferrocement is a material of millennium and an avenue

This event is organised to provide a platform for researchers, Contact

 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

CED 29 (7962): Draft Indian Standard Guidelines

BAU targets all those involved in planning, designing and

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 

Portland cement based new cements for

INTRODUCTION with calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) of lower Ca content

10 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

To avoid above mentioned corrosion related problems in

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 11

Metal exposed to dry cement powder faced severe

Figure 1a. Bell jar assembly experimental setup

(i) Corrosion sport on (ii) No corrosion on

(i) Corrosion sport on (ii) No corrosion on

Figure 1b. Observations in bell jar experiment

Element K series Atomic wt %

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 13

Pan mixer was used to mix the ingredients of the mortar

In case of 5% NaCl Exposure test, after 90 days, the rebar

3. Good behaviour (C) indicates corrosion rates

Alternate wet and 3 E A

A = Excellent = Corrosion rate of less than 10% of that of the control.

14 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

less desirable Rating of D (Figure 2b). 5.0

The nominal contents of ingredients of concrete mixes

Figure 2b. Rebar from OPC mortar after 1 year of continuous

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 15

(5) CR-PC Concrete for Resistivity and Rating

SELF CURINGPORTLAND CEMENT (SC-PC)

(1) Preparation of SC-PC and Test Specimens

16 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

Note : Test specimens: concrete cylinders of size - 75 mm dia * 150 mm high.

due to maintenance of desired level of humidity inside

The three mixes prepared were CM, SC-PCM-1, and SC-

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 17

(4) Water Absorption (Porosity of Matrix)

18 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 19

20 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

CONCLUDING REMARKS References

8. FM 5-522 (2000), Florida Method of Test for An Accelerated Laboratory

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 21

22 The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

Activation of siliceous fly ash at very high levels of

Keywords: Fly ash; activation; lime; quicklime; XRD; TGA.

Introduction water, the continuous production of concrete is required

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014 23

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014

The Indian Concrete Journal August 2014