Proyecto minero de oro y plata Angostura, Santander, Colombia

diseo geotcnico del tajo (etapa pre-factibilidad)

Angostura gold-silver mining project, Santander, Colombia
geotechnical open pit design (pre-feasibility study)
Johannes Horner
iC consulenten ZT GmbH, Salzburg-Bergheim, Austria
Alex Caldern
GeoBlast S.A., Santiago, Chile
Ella Castro, Giovanny Ortz, Toms Nolasco, Wilmar Castro, Alfonso Silva, Javier
Gonzales, Frederick Felder
Greystar Resources Ltd., Bucaramanga, Colombia

Resumen
El proyecto de oro-plata Angostura, localizado en Santander, Colombia, se encuentra actualmente en la etapa
de factibilidad. Como parte de los estudios a este nivel, ha sido elaborado el diseo geotcnico del pit, el cual
sirve como base para el desarrollo del plan minero. Con el fin de establecer un modelo geolgico, geotcnico y
estructural consistente del rea del pit, se realiz una campaa de investigacin detallada compuesta por mapeo
geolgico-geotcnico en superficie y en el subsuelo, anlisis en el sitio y en laboratorio y la evaluacin de ms de
300,000 metros de ncleo de perforacin. Posteriormente, fueron definidos los criterios de aceptabilidad para las
geometras del banco, interrampa y pendiente global. De acuerdo con estos criterios fueron realizados los anlisis
de estabilidad a escala de banco e interrampa evaluando las posibles fallas controladas por discontinuidades y la
estabilidad global evaluando la probabilidad de falla del macizo rocoso. Se determin para cada sector del pit,
una configuracin especial de banco e interrampa. Fueron reconocidas y evaluadas las limitaciones de cada paso
en el proceso del diseo geotcnico del pit. Basado en el conocimiento de estas limitaciones, el prximo paso a
seguir en el diseo geotcnico del pit (estudio de factibilidad definitivo) es continuar mejorando el modelo
geotcnico.

Abstract
The Angostura gold-silver project, Santander, Colombia, is currently in the feasibility stage. As part of this study a
geotechnical pit design had to be elaborated, which serves as basis for the subsequent mine plan. A detailed
investigation campaign, consisting of surface and underground geological-geotechnical mapping, laboratory and
in-situ testing and evaluation of more than 300.000 m of diamond drilling, was conducted, in order to establish a
consistent geological-geotechnical and structural model of the planned pit area. For subsequent geotechnical pit
design acceptability criteria were defined for bench, interramp and global slope geometries. According to these
criteria, stability analyses were performed evaluating discontinuity-controlled failure at bench and interramp scale
and failure of the entire rock mass at global scale. For each sector of the open pit, a particular bench and
interramp configuration could be determined. Limitations of each step within the process of geotechnical pit design
were recognized and evaluated. Based on the knowledge of these limitations, the next step in geotechnical pit
design (definitive feasibility study) is organized for further improvement of the geotechnical model.

The project is wholly owned and developed by

1 INTRODUCTION
The Angostura gold-silver mining project is
located in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia,
approximately 65 km NNE of the City of
Bucaramanga, Department of Santander, and 370
km N of Bogot, at an elevation between 2,600
and 3,500 m above sea level (Fig. 1, 2).
Greystar Resources Ltd. (Canada), who has been
exploring the area since 1995. From September
2008 to March 2009 the pre-feasibility study
(PFS) was conducted; in May 2009 the definitive
feasibility study (DFS) was launched, which will
be completed by the fourth quarter of 2010.
 The pre-feasibility study states a resource
volume of more than 11.5 million ounzes of gold
(measured and indicated resources).
For the feasibility studies a geological-
geotechnical study is required. This study focuses
on rock mass characterization, kinematic analysis
of discontinuity data and stability analysis at
bench-scale, interramp-scale and for the global
slope of the open pit, which will reach more than
800 m of height.
Figure 1: Location map of the Angostura mining
project and major strike-slip faults bounding the
deposit.
Figure 2: Angostura project site and proposed
pit outline (view to NE).
This paper describes the various steps that had
to be undertaken, in order to establish a sound
rock mass model and consistent geotechnical open
pit design.
. which favoured the deposition of precious metals
2 GEOLOGY OF THE ANGOSTURA AREA
The Angostura gold-silver deposit is
predominantly hosted by poly-deformed and poly-
metamorphic Precambrian gneiss of the Santander
massif. Younger intrusive rocks of Mesozoic and
Tertiary age occur in the area, forming elongated
or irregular shaped bodies. In the Perezosa area
where gneisses occur as isolated roof pendents,
the gneiss blocks have a very chaotic distribution.
Schists of the Palaeozoic Silgara Formation occur
only as remnants in the northern part of the
deposit (Ward et al., 1973).
Due to extensive ductile deformation in the
gneiss, a pervasive foliation is developed.
Orientation of foliation planes varies, but shows a
predominance of NE-SW to N-S strikes; minor
orientation is NE-SW striking (Fig. 3).The dips
are moderate to steep towards the NW and SE.
The varying orientation of foliation planes as well
as alignment of small-scale folds suggests the
existence of an isoclinal E to SE vergent fold.
Brittle structures are present as faults and veins.
The most prominent structural features are the
NE-SW trending regional faults La Baja-
Angostura and Romeral-Cucutilla (Fig. 1). Both
regional faults are arranged parallel and are
characterized by right-lateral strike-slip
movement. At the step-over of both faults a fault
jog developed and secondary extensional
structures (veins) were formed. These extensional
structures have NW-SE, E-W and NE-SW trends
and are generally steeply dipping.
Figure 3: (a) stereogram of foliation planes (69
data), (b) stereogram of vein structures (257 data).
Ore formation at Angostura is considered to be
associated with hydrothermal processes related to
magmatic events that occurred during the Andean
tectonic phase (Late Miocene; Ortz et al., 2010).
At that time a hydrothermal system developed,
together with quartz within the extensional
structures (veins).
 Due to circulation of hydrothermal fluids within
the rock mass, several of the original mineral
components were altered and/or destroyed. Major
hydrothermal alteration minerals are quartz,
sericite, kaolinite, and alunite, amongst others,
and chlorite, magnetite and biotite in the mafic
gneisses. The intensity of hydrothermal alteration
varies and usually increases towards the vein
structures.
3 ROCK MASS CHARACTERIZATION
In order to develop a geological-geotechnical
model for the subsequent stability analysis and
design, rock mass types had to be defined. Field
data, drilling data as well as results from
laboratory and in-situ testing were integrated in
the rock mass model.
3.1Field data
The entire area of the Angostura deposit was
mapped geologically-geotechnically. At more than
90 data points information was collected including
lithology, type and intensity of alteration, rock
strength properties, GSI, fracture frequency, and
discontinuities and their properties according to
ISRM suggested methods (ISRM, 1987) and
common standardized rock mass characterization
methods (e.g. Bieniawsky, 1984; Hoek and
Marinos, 2000).
Due to the proposed pit outline, defined in
previous stages of the project (Fig. 1 and 2), a
thorough evaluation of the discontinuity systems
was of prime importance.
3.2Drill core data
When the geotechnical study was launched in
mid 2007, more than 250,000 m of exploration
drilling had already been carried out. By the end
of the pre-feasibility study more than 300.000 m
of diamond drilling were executed. Due to the fact
that all drill core was split for geochemical
analysis it was not possible to review previously
obtained drill core for geotechnical purposes.
To overcome this technical and logistical
problem of reviewing drill core data (visually by
use of photos or manually by reviewing the
remnants of drill core in the boxes), a tailor-made
solution was found by establishing a correlation
matrix (Horner et al., 2008). This matrix
correlates geological logged features, such as
lithology, alteration type and intensity, and
deformational features (fracturing, shearing) and
results in the definition of distinct rock mass (RM)
types. In general, these types are:
- RM1: silicified rock with high rock and
rock mass strength, no sign of deformation
- RM2: fresh or weakly altered rock, no sign
of deformation
- RM3: moderately altered rock, no sign of
deformation
- RM4: any type of rock with high alteration
and/or deformation features
- RM5: fault material
This matrix was converted into a formula and
implemented into the geological data base.
Consequently, running the formula in the data
base, these rock mass types can be determined for
each drill hole.
3.3Laboratory data
For laboratory testing, drill core was selected
from ongoing drillings. UCS testing was carried
out on drill core. In addition, acoustic velocity
testing was conducted at several uniaxial samples
during strength testing. Point load tests were
carried out, in order to obtain correlation factors
with UCS results.
Furthermore, triaxial testing on core samples
was performed; additional samples were taken
from fault material within the exploration tunnels
and were remolded for triaxial testing to obtain
data on cohesion and friction angle.
3.4In-situ testing
In-situ testing (down-hole seismic velocity
logging) was performed at four selected drill
holes. In order to obtain velocity data for the rock
mass types, the geology logged in these drill holes
was subject to evaluation by the correlation
analysis. Subsequently, the velocity data at each
depth interval were compared with the defined
rock mass type. Hence, for each rock mass type a
range of seismic velocities could be assigned.
Based on the velocity data the dynamic
modulus for each rock mass type could be
determined.
3.5Results of laboratory and in-situ testing
Data analysis of laboratory and in-situ testing
has shown that there is an overlap, in particular in
the strength properties of RM2 and RM3. Review
of samples and the correlation matrix as the basic
tool for rock mass characterization shows that the
assignation of the intensity of alteration, which is
the prime difference between RM 2 and RM 3,
during the drill core logging process is a difficult
and, very likely, ambiguous task. Due to the fact
that a clear distinction between weak and
moderate altered rock is not always possible, both
rock mass types were grouped into one single rock 4.4Limitations of structural characterization
mass type RM23. Limitations of structural characterization were
recognized during data evaluation. In particular
the properties of discontinuities which show a
4 DISCONTINUITY SYSTEMS wide variation in surface conditions and with
different infillings causes difficulties in the
4.1Data acquisition estimation of cohesion and friction angle on the
Within the pit area more than 1,250 discontinuity plane.
discontinuity data were collected at the To overcome this problem, a series of direct
geotechnical outcrop points. Data acquisition was shear tests as well as the use of manually
spatially restricted to road cuts and drilling performed tilt test on drill core was proposed for
platforms as only a few natural outcrops occur the subsequent stage of the project (DFS).
within the pit area.
According to the structural elements defined Table 1
and used internally in the project, discontinuities Shear
were grouped into foliation planes (s), shear Foliation
Fractures Planes /
planes (sh) and fractures (f). Planes
Faults
Orientation highly predom. Highly
4.2Data analysis
variable NE-SW, variable
Table (1) presents the summary of discontinuity NW-SE,
properties for each system. It must be noted that N-S
due to the restriction of outcrop size the Aperture < 5 mm < 5 mm < 5 mm
persistence and the JRC show rather low values Surface smooth, often Slicken-
and thus had to be corrected during the subsequent
condition minor slicken- sided,
investigation phase, in order to not receive too
conservative values for further evaluation and rough; sided, minor
analysis. stepped, minor smooth:
undu- smooth; generally
4.3Structural domains lating generally undu-
Based on the distribution of discontinuities undulating lating
within the entire pit area, four structural domains
Persistence 1 10 m 1 3 m, Up to 10
could be defined (Fig. 4). Each domain is limited
by a major fault towards the other domain. For locally up m, locally
each domain all discontinuity properties were to 10 m even
evaluated separately. larger
Spacing 6 60 6 20 cm up to 6m;
cm, within
locally shear
wider zones 6
60 cm
JRC 26 26 06
Infilling oxide oxide stain, Silty or
stain, narrow silty clayey
narrow infill infilling,
silty infill gauge
Seepage dry dry dry
Rock mechanical properties of discontinuities measured
at outcrops.

Figure 4: Structural domains (Los Laches, Veta

de Barro, Perezosa South and North) identified
within the proposed pit area.
5 HYDROGEOLOGY
5.1Data acquisition
No particular hydrogeological data were
available before the ongoing geotechnical study.
As most of the drill holes were inclined with
about 50 to 70 degrees and were left without
casing or inside protection, only 120 drill holes
out of more than 600 could be used to measure the
water level by use of a water level meter.
5.2Modeling
The obtained data were evaluated and those
data with unrealistic high water levels were
omitted for further analysis.
Modeling results show a water table following
generally surface topography and minor
deviations along major fault zones. The water
table is encountered at depths between about 75
and more than 120 m.
5.3Limitations of hydrogeological modeling
In particular the reliability of acquired data as
well as the shortage of data covering a longer
period of time (rainy season dry season) was the
major restriction to hydrogeological modeling.
6 OPEN PIT SLOPE DESIGN
Slope design had to account for discontinuity
controlled failure as well as for failure of the
entire rock mass.
For discontinuity controlled failure at bench and
interramp scale each structural domain had to be
evaluated separately; in addition, for evaluating
special scenarios, in particular at interramp scale,
only discontinuities with persistence greater than
5 m were considered as significant.
Based on the distribution of discontinuities and
the intersections with the proposed pit wedge
failure and planar sliding are considered to be the
most important failure modes.
6.1Acceptability criteria
Geotechnical acceptability criteria for the pit
slope design were proposed by the engineering
consultant on behalf of the client, based on
available information from national and
international regulations, as well based on
empirical observations.
These criteria included:
- Bench geometry: in cross section, the
extent of the cone of failed material of the
bench face slope should not exceed 80% of
the entire bench width
- Interramp slope: the probability of failure
in operation should not exceed 10%
- Global slope: the probability of failure
should not exceed 5%; the FOS in
operational conditions (without considering
seismic loading; with anticipated level of
ground water, and with controlled blasting)
should be equal of higher than 1.30; the
FOS under extreme conditions (with
seismic loading; with anticipated level of
ground water, and low quality of blasting)
should be equal or higher than 1.10.
6.2Bench and interramp geometry
According to the resource model and the
preliminary mine design, a wedge and slide
analysis was performed on two bench heights
(6.25 m and 8.75 m).
Bench and interramp geometry are intimately
related as shown in Figure (5).
Figure 5: Relationship of bench and interramp
geometry.
At first stage a kinematic analysis was carried
out for each individual structural domain, in order
to assign a likelihood of certain failure modes for
the slope orientation occurring in the structural
domain.
Subsequently, wedge failure sensitivity analysis
was performed by evaluating all possible
intersections of discontinuity planes with the
proposed bench geometries at each structural
domain.
For the interramp geometry (height 150 m) only
discontinuity data sets with persistence > 5m were
used for the sensitivity analysis.
Planar failure was evaluated by using the
maxima of the distribution of discontinuity data
sets applying a probabilistic analysis for each
bench geometry. The most probable failure
scenario was picked and evaluated, if it complied
with the given criteria.
 The results of the discontinuity controlled mechanical properties was determined by use of
failure analysis are summarized in Table (2). The roclab (rocscience).
previously discussed analysis it was shown that an For the existing hill slopes, the results, using
interramp angle of 47.5 was too steep due to a minimum rock mass parameters, are considered to
resultant FOS of < 1.2 for most of the slope represent a conservative lower-bound back-
orientations. calibration, as evidence of incipient large-scale
slope instability (as may be expected with such
Table 2 low FOS values) has not been documented based
Bench Inter- on the field work performed at the pit area. The
Bench Bench minimum static FOS values for each of these
Structural face ramp
width height slopes, with the water table condition, range from
domain angle angle
1.93 to 2.11.
[] [m] [m] []
For the planned pit slopes, the lowest FOS
Los Laches values (based on minimum rock mass parameter
- East 70 4 6,25 45,0 values), with a water table and pseudostatic
Los Laches acceleration of 0.30 times gravity, range from
- West 70 4,4 6,25 43,1 0.69 to 1.01, or about 8% to 33% lower than the
Veta de values estimated for the corresponding existing
Barro - North 70 4,4 6,25 43,1 hill slopes. These results are also considered to
Veta de represent a conservative lower-bound for the
Barro - South 70 4 6,25 45,0 planned pit slopes. The minimum static FOS
Perezosa values for each of these slopes, with the water
N1 70 4,4 6,25 43,1 table condition, range from 1.49 to 1.76, or about
Perezosa 8% to 29% lower than the values estimated for the
N2 70 4 6,25 45,0 corresponding existing hill slopes.
Perezosa As a comparison, the maximum pseudostatic
S1 70 4,4 6,25 43,1 FOS values (based on maximum rock mass
Perezosa parameter values) with a water table condition, are
S2 70 4 6,25 45,0 in the range of 1.05 to 1.47 (about 9% to 27%
Bench interramp configuration of the Angostura pit lower than the values estimated for the
after the first run of evaluating discontinuity controlled corresponding existing hill slopes). The maximum
failure. static FOS values, with the water table condition,
range from 2.13 to 2.6 (about 4% to 27% lower
6.3Global slope stability than the values estimated for the corresponding
Stability of the overall (global) pit slopes was existing hill slopes).
evaluated with the two-dimensional FLAC
computer code (Itasca). 6.4Optimization
In order to calibrate and constrain the results of Major objective of the optimization of the
performance predictions for the planned pit geotechnical pit design was the increase of the
slopes, the natural hillsides through which the pit interramp angle. Such an increase has significant
will be excavated were first analyzed. Since the impact on the economics of a mine project.
field work performed to date does not indicate the In order to optimize the previously defined
presence of large-scale slope failures, or geometry for bench and interramp scale, material
conditions of incipient large-scale slope failures, properties (cohesion, internal angle of friction)
the existing static factor of safety (FOS) for were assigned to the discontinuities.
natural slopes is reasoned to exceed unity. Subsequent stability analysis including material
At the time of analysis, only the planned pit properties (cohesion, friction angle) of large-scale
geometry (pit slopes) of the scoping study were discontinuities (major faults) showed that an
available. As a consequence, this geometry was increase of the interramp angle of up to 5 is
used for numerical stability analysis. possible at certain domains, given that the FS can
Representative geotechnical sections of the pit be kept at 1.3 according the acceptability criteria.
area were prepared showing the distribution of the However, in order to clearly define material
identified rock mass types. According to the parameters of the different types of discontinuities
results of rock mass characterization (field data, it is necessary to conduct detailed laboratory
laboratory and in-situ tests), for each rock mass a studies. These results can then be integrated into
minimum and a maximum value for rock the existing model for further stability analysis.
7 SUMMARY OF ROCK MASS MODEL,
GEOTECHNICAL SLOPE DESIGN AND REFERENCES
FURTHER REFINEMENT
Bieniawsky, Z.T. (1984) Rock mechanics design in
mining and tunneling Balkeema, Rotterdam, 272 p.
For the Angostura gold-silver deposit a Hoek, E., Marinos, P. (2000) Predicting tunnel
consistent tailor-made rock mass characterization squeezing problems in weak heterogeneous rock
concept was established, which served as basis for masses Tunnels and Tunneling International,
the geotechnical model of the pit slope design. November/December 2000.
Rock mass types were defined by use of a Horner, J., Castro, E., Campos, C., Felder F., Ortiz, G.
correlation matrix, which combines information (2007) Rock mass classification for open pit design
at the Au-Ag project Angostura, Colombia ISSAER,
on lithology, alteration type and intensity, and September 2007, Bogot.
deformational features. ISRM (1987) Suggested Methods for the quantitative
Laboratory testing (UCS, PLT, triaxial) and in- description of discontinuities in rock masses. Int. J.
situ testing (down-hole velocity logging) provided Rock Mech. Min. Sci. and Geomech., Abstr. Vol. 15:
strength data for each of the defined rock mass 319-368.
Ortz, G., Felder, F., Silva, A., Horner, J. (2010) The
type. Angostura high-sulfidation epithermal gold and silver
Discontinuities were mapped covering the deposit, California-Vetas mining district, Santander,
entire area of the planned open pit. All important Colombia Economic Geology (in preparation).
geological-geotechnical parameters of the Read, J. and Stacey, P., Eds. (2009) Guidelines for
discontinuities were logged, according to ISRM open pit slope design CSIRO Publishing.
suggested methods. The result was the Ward, D., Goldsmith, R., Cruz, J., Restrepo, H. (1973)
Geologa de los Cuadrngulos H12 Bucaramanga y
establishment of a structural model of the pit area. H13 Pamplona, Departamento de Santander USGS
Based on the distribution of discontinuities, four and Ingeominas, Boletn Geolgico, 21(1-3): 1-132.
structural domains could be established.
Concurrently with surface mapping, a first
hydrogeological investigation campaign was
started, in order to define the water table within
the rock mass.
As was mentioned in the previous sections,
each method of investigation had certain
limitations. The existence of such limitations and
the consequences for any further stability analysis
had and has to be kept in mind.
For the subsequent geotechnical pit design
acceptability criteria were defined for bench scale,
interramp scale and for the global slope.
In a first step a general configuration for the
bench and interramp geometry was defined,
according to the structural model. In a second step
the previously determined geometry could be
optimized by assigning distinct rock mechanical
properties to the discontinuities.
For the next step of the Angostura (DFS),
additional investigations and analysis are
foreseen, including amongst others:
- Direct shear test on discontinuities to
define cohesion and friction angle
- Additional triaxial tests, combined with
mineralogical analysis of fault material
- Detailed hydrogeological investigation
program to establish a detailed
hydrogeological model of the pit area and
surroundings
- Numerical analysis including new data on
hydrogeology and discontinuity properties