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Analysis and modelling of the fragmentation

process - Case studies at El Teniente Mine

Conference Paper May 2016

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Andres Brzovic Lorena Burgos

Codelco Chile Division El Teniente University of Chile
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Adeline Delonca Marcos Gaete

University of Queensland University of Chile
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 Analysis and Modelling of the
Fragmentation Process Case
Studies at El Teniente Mine
A Brzovic1, J Vallejos2, E Arancibia3, L Burgos4, A Delonca5,
M Gaete6 and V Barrera7

ABSTRACT
Fragmentation is one of the most relevant parameters in the design and operation of a mine using
the caving mining method. Fragmentation affects all subsequent operations, including extraction,
comminution processes, secondary blasting and transportation.
There are a number of different models in the literature to estimate the size of the ore fragments
that report to the drawpoints; however, there is still no industry consensus about which one to use.
This paper proposes a new model for predicting the fragmentation reporting to the drawpoints
that is based on the geotechnical unit characteristics, extraction height and column of primary
ore. The model is developed from observations of fragmentation measurements in different mine
sectors of Codelcos El Teniente mine in Chile.
This work focuses on the following three steps:
1. collecting fragmentation and hang-up data from several mine sectors
2. developing a geotechnical block model using oriented core placed within the main geotechnical
units
3. analysing the data and modelling the fragmentation process.
The proposed model is used to discuss the mechanisms and the influence of preconditioning on
the size of the ore fragments that report to the drawpoints.

INTRODUCTION
Historically, block caving was used for relatively shallow,
massive, low-strength, low-grade orebodies that produced
fine fragmentation. In mechanised mining, the strength of the
rock mass can limit the practical size of the extraction-level
excavations and the equipment that can be used (Brown,
2007).
There is now a tendency for block and panel caving to be
used in stronger orebodies that produce larger fragmentation
than they did in the past. Fragmentation in block/panel
caving mines involves the generation of blocks of different
sizes at the drawpoints according to the following three steps:
1. in situ fragmentation corresponding to the natural
fragmentation of the rock mass by the rock structure
2. primary fragmentation corresponding to the fragmentation
produced as the newly caved ore detaches from the cave
back
3. secondary fragmentation corresponding to the blocks
produced by the primary fragmentation that progressively
move down through the draw column to the drawpoints
(Laubscher, 1994).
The actual vulnerabilities are that the fragmentation may be
too big to be handled by the drawpoints or the equipment
or that caving may become stalled. As a result, one of the
key rock mechanics-related challenges in modern block and
panel caving projects, including the new generation of super
caves, is fragmentation assessment.
The literature outlines a number of different models that can
be used to estimate the size of the ore fragments that report to
the drawpoints. They can be based on empirical observations
combined with typical discontinuities spacing distribution
(Blondel, Celhay and Pereira, 1995), the geometrical and
geomechanical characteristics of the mine, the mechanics of
fragmentation or the probabilistic repartition of the fractures

1. Head of Mine Geology, Superintendencia Geologa, El Teniente, Codelco-Chile, Rancagua, Chile. Email: abrzovic@codelco.cl
2. Professor and Titular Researcher, Advanced Mining Technology Center (AMTC), Department of Mining Engineering, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile. Email: javallej@ing.uchile.cl
3. Senior Engineer Mine Planning, Chuquicamata Division, Codelco-Chile, Calama, Chile. Email: earancib@codelco.cl
4. Associated Researcher, Advanced Mining Technology Center (AMTC), Department of Mining Engineering, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile. Email: sindy.burgos@ing.uchile.cl
5. Post-doctoral Researcher, Advanced Mining Technology Center (AMTC), Department of Mining Engineering, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile. Email: adeline.delonca@amtc.cl
6. Student Researcher, Advanced Mining Technology Center (AMTC), Department of Mining Engineering, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile. Email: marcosgt@ing.uchile.cl
7. Project Director, Institute of Innovation in Mining and Metallurgy (IM2), S.A. Filial Codelco-Chile, Santiago, Chile. Email: vbarrera@im2.codelco.cl

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 911 MAY 2016 305
A BRZOVIC et al

in the rock mass. Different software can be used to estimate TABLE 1

the size of the ore fragments reporting to the drawpoints, Lithology and preconditioning used for the three different sectors.
including block caving fragmentation software, the numerical
models of Pierce et al (2007), REBOP (Bridgwater et al, 2003) Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3
and ELFEN (version 4.4.3, by Rockfield; Rogers et al, 2010). Tonalite 1 Dacite Dacite 1 (HF + CB)
However, there is still no industry consensus about which one
CMET HW CMET HW 1 (HF) Dacite 2 (HF)
to use.
In parallel, a series of industrial-scale investigations using CMET HW CMET HW 2 Dacite 3 (HF + CB)
preconditioning have been carried out over the last decade Tonalite 2 CMET FW 1 -
with a view to improving the in situ fragmentation and - CMET FW 2 (HF) -
cavability of the target rock mass. These studies have used
- CMET FW 3 -
and adapted hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting
techniques and applied them either singularly or together HF hydraulic fracturing; CB confined blasting; CMET mafic complex from El Teniente Mine;
(van As et al, 2004; Chacon et al, 2004; Sougarret et al, 2004). HW hanging wall sector; FW footwall sector.

This paper proposes a new model for predicting

Geotechnical block model
fragmentation reporting to the drawpoints based on empirical
analysis. The following three steps are defined: In addition to the information stored in the fragmentation
database, a geotechnical block model provided by the El
1. collecting fragmentation and hang-up data from four Teniente mine is available for all sectors. The analysed rock
different sectors of Codelcos El Teniente mine in Chile has been described as competent and massive, with only a few
2. developing a geotechnical block model using oriented open discontinuities. However, a high frequency of veins is
core placed within the main geotechnical units shown on a small scale (Brzovic and Villaescusa, 2007; Brzovic
3. analysing the data and modelling the fragmentation and Herrera, 2011; Brzovic and Schachter, 2013; Millan,
process. Brzovic and Seguel, 2015). The geotechnical model represents
The new model is defined using the fragmentation database the P32 (m2/m3) parameter defined by Dershowitz (1985) for
blocks of size 20 20 20 m3, which for El Teniente mine
without the use of preconditioning. Then, the model is
is defined as the surface per cubic metre of weak veins with
compared to the fragmentation database resulting from
thickness greater than 1 mm. Figure 1 provides an example
preconditioning (hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting).
of the representation of the P32 for one specific altitude of the
The impact of the preconditioning on the fragmentation is
mine (Millan, Brzovic and Seguel, 2015).
then analysed and evaluated.
Each lithology of each sector presents a different P32 value,
as presented by Brzovic and Schachter (2013). These values
DATABASES range from 215 m2/m3. Empirically, mine sectors with large
P32 values for weak veins have shown better fragmentation
Sectors of study results than those with lower P32 values. It should be noted
The databases were compiled by Hurtado and Brzovic (2014) that these P32 values are assigned without preconditioning.
and represent three sectors of Codelcos El Teniente mine in
Chile. They cover several measurement campaigns from 1995
to 2014, including:
Sector 1 Teniente 4 South. The mafic complex from El
Teniente mine (CMET) of the hanging wall (HW) and the
footwall (FW) lithologies are present in this sector as well
as tonalite lithology.
Sector 2 Reservas Norte. CMET HW and CMET FW
lithology are present in this sector as well as dacite
lithology.
Sector 3 Suapi. Dacite lithology is present in this sector.
For each of these sectors, the following information is
available:
Two layouts of the extraction of the mine 15 20 m and
15 17.32 m.
The ratio between the height of the extraction, h, and the
height of the primary ore, Hp, expressed as a percentage.
The percentage of fragments greater than 1 m3 and 2 m3 as
a function of the height of extraction.
The frequency of hang-ups for each 1000 t of ore extracted
as a function of the height of extraction.
The type of preconditioning used on the specified sector. In
Sector 1, no preconditioning has been applied. In Sector 2,
hydraulic fracturing has been applied to the CMET HW
and CMET FW. In Sector 3, hydraulic fracturing and a
combination of hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting
has been applied. The methods of preconditioning and the FIG 1 Representation of the distribution of the P32 parameter for an
lithology concerned are presented in Table 1. altitude of 1880 m (adapted from Millan, Brzovic and Seguel, 2015).

306 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 911 MAY 2016
 ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF THE FRAGMENTATION PROCESS CASE STUDIES AT EL TENIENTE MINE

METHODOLOGY Figure 3 presents the model and data for Sectors 2 and 3,
where only hydraulic fracturing was used. It is difficult to
In this paper, a new model of predicting the fragmentation
identify the influence of the hydraulic fracturing as there is
reporting to the drawpoints is proposed. Based on the analysis
not enough data.
of the data, the following model is proposed:
Figure 4 presents the same analysis for the data collected
Oversize = at Sector 3, where both hydraulic fracturing and confined
(a + b # P ) blasting were used. The rock mass in this sector has a low
height of extraction
(a1 + b1 # P32) # d + cn
2 2 32
(1) in situ P32. Figure 4 shows that the collected oversize data
height of the primary ore
is below the curve proposed by the model. This suggests
where: that the combined use of hydraulic fracturing and confined
blasting in this sector has considerably reduced the oversize
a1, b1, c, a2, b2 are constants that are adjusted to the databases
reporting to the drawpoints, as was demonstrated by Brzovic,
This model is adjusted to the mines data, minimising the Hurtado and Marin (2014).
errors associated with the model. Oversize greater than 1 m3
is evaluated and the values of the constants defined in the
model are determined.
DISCUSSION
The model is adjusted using the data of the sectors without Effect of hydraulic fracturing on fragmentation
preconditioning. Next, the model is used to estimate the
In this section, we will discuss the effect of hydraulic fracturing
oversize of sectors with preconditioning. Then, the difference on the P32 parameter by using a conceptual-analytical model.
between the model and the data are used to highlight and
The orientation of the fractures generated by hydraulic
evaluate the influence of preconditioning on fragmentation.
fracturing is perpendicular to the minor principal stress. In
panel caving mines, the stress field is affected by the cavities
RESULTS generated by the production process. Figure 5 shows the
orientation of the fractures related to the minor principal
Model proposed stress ( 3) as a function of the caving front.
Figure 2 presents the shape of the curves obtained for different When there is a short distance from the cavity, major
P32 values. In the case of a low P32, corresponding to a rock changes in the stress tensor in terms of both magnitude and
mass with few weak veins, a pronounced decreasing trend in direction are created. To quantify this influence, the plunge
oversize is observed as the extraction height increases. It is also of the minor principal stress, plunges3, is obtained from
observed that the largest reduction in oversize is produced 3D numerical models as a function of the distance to the
during the first 30 per cent of extraction of the primary ore. cave front for different heights of the centre of the fracture
This is due to the stress-related caving mechanism. (Figure 6). The results indicate that the zone up to 30 m above
In the case of a rock mass with a large number of weak
veins, the change in oversize with extraction height is less
pronounced. The proportion of oversize is low from the
beginning of the extraction of the column until the end of the
process. This observation is consistent with the fact that for
a higher P32, the in situ rock mass unravels due to a gravity
mechanism, with a higher number of small blocks reporting
to the drawpoints.

Application of the model to preconditioned

sectors
To highlight the influence of preconditioning on the
fragmentation process, the expected oversize as a function of
the extracted height is calculated using the proposed model
(Equation 1) considering the in situ P32 of each sector. FIG 3 Data and model proposed for oversize greater than
1 m3 use of hydraulic fracturing on Sectors 2 and 3.

FIG 2 Proposed model for oversize greater than FIG 4 Data and model proposed for oversize greater than 1 m3
1 m3 no preconditioning used. use of hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting on Sector 3.

SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 911 MAY 2016 307
A BRZOVIC et al

FIG 5 Schematic fracture orientation as a function of the distance to the

caving front. plunge3 plunge of the minor principal stress; fractures
FIG 7 Volume of control affected by hydraulic fracturing with a regular
inclination relative to the horizontal ( = 90 - plunge3); d distance
pattern. D distance between the wellbores used in the hydraulic
to the caving front (metres); H height of the centre of the fracture
fracturing; N number of fractures per wellbore; L length of the
measured from the undercut level (metres); R1 fracture radius (m).
wellbore; RP projected radius, equal to R1cos, with being the inclination
of the fracture; AHF hydraulic fracturing area, equal to (R1cos)2N;
V volume of control, equal to D2L. The performance of the hydraulic
fracturing, PHF, is defined by the ratio of the theoretical spacing between
Stheoretical
fractures and the real spacing between fractures, PHF = e
Sreal o
.

FIG 6 Plunge of the minor principal stress versus distance to the

caving front. H height of the fracture above the undercut level.

the undercut level is strongly affected by the distance to the

front, while the effect is low for greater heights. Thus, it was
decided to parameterise the plunges3 using two models:
1. heights lower than 30 m
2. heights greater than 30 m.
Figure 6 presents the results of the parameterisation. The B
curves used to estimate the plunges3 as a function of distance
to the caving front is defined by:

plungev 3 = a # (1 - e-b # d) + y0 (2)

where:
a, b and y0 are constants of adjustment
The orientation of the generated fractures directly affects
their apparent spacing. Figure 7 presents the volume affected
by a regular pattern of hydraulic fracturing.
Considering these parameters, it is possible to calculate the FIG 8 Impact of different variables on the P32HF as a function
fracture area per volume, corresponding to the P32HF, with of the distance to the caving front: (A) the performance of the
the following equations: hydraulic fracturing, PHF, and (B) the fracture radius, R1.

(R1cosi) 2rN To analyse the variation of the P32FH in different scenarios,

P32FH = > H PHF sensitivity analyses are presented in Figure 8. This figure has
2
D L (3) the following implications:
For the considered pattern of hydraulic fracturing, the
(R cosi)
2 L maximum value of P32FH that can be obtained is 0.5 m2/m3.
P32FH = > H HF
1
r
Stheoretical P
For the defined range of performance, hydraulic fracturing
2
D L (4) does not have a significant impact on P32FH.
The distance to the caving front has a significant impact.
2 A distance greater than 100 m is recommended for the
(R cosi)
P32FH = > HPHF
1
r
realisation of the hydraulic fracturing. In this case, the
D2Stheoretical (5) value of the P32HF is more constant.

308 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 911 MAY 2016
 ANALYSIS AND MODELLING OF THE FRAGMENTATION PROCESS CASE STUDIES AT EL TENIENTE MINE
The radius of the generated fractures has the biggest
impact on P32FH.
The collected data indicates that the resulting P32 after
hydraulic fracturing is a combination of the in situ and
induced P32. More analysis is required to develop a complete
conceptual framework for design.
Effect of preconditioning on hang-ups
This section highlights the influence that preconditioning has
on the prevalence of hang-ups. Firstly, the frequency of hang-
ups every 1000 t of ore is compared with the proportion of
oversize higher than 1 m3 for sectors without preconditioning
(Figure 9a). Two cases are presented in the form of trends:
1. when the layout is equal to 15 17.32 m
2. when the layout is equal to 15 20 m.
It is evident from Figure 9a that the layout has a significant
impact on the frequency of hang-ups.
Next, the same comparison is undertaken using data from
preconditioned sectors (hydraulic fracturing and confined
blasting). Figure 9b presents the trends for the preconditioned
sectors for both layouts. These relationships show that the use
of hydraulic fracturing in combination with confined blasting
leads to a significant decrease in the frequency of hang-ups
every 1000 t, as discussed by Brzovic, Hurtado and Marin
(2014).
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The objective of the study presented in this paper was to
define a new model for predicting fragmentation reporting
to the drawpoint. The proposed model is based on empirical
analysis and corresponds to data from Codelcos El Teniente
mine in Chile. It depends on the proportion of the column of
primary ore extracted and the in situ P32 parameter of the rock
mass. In accordance with the data, the model shows that in
the case of a low P32 (indicating a rock mass with few weak
veins), a pronounced decreasing trend in oversize is observed
as the extraction height increases. It is also observed that the
largest reduction in oversize occurs during the first 30 per
cent of extraction of the primary ore. This result is related to a
stress caving mechanism. On the contrary, when the P32 is high
(indicating a rock mass with a large number of weak veins),
the height of extraction does not have a strong influence on
the oversize. This observation is consistent with the fact that
for a higher P32 the in situ rock mass unravels due to a gravity
A B
FIG 9 Trend of relationship between oversize greater than 1 m3 and the frequency of hang-ups every 1000 t for two different
layouts: (A) without preconditioning and (B) with preconditioning (hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting).
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 911 MAY 2016
mechanism, with a higher number of small blocks reporting
to the drawpoints.
When using hydraulic fracturing and confined blasting
together, the proportion of oversize greater than 1 m3
decreases significantly. An analysis of the influence of
hydraulic fracturing on the oversize shows that the P32 value
related to the use of hydraulic fracturing is mostly affected by
the fractures radius. Therefore, it is an important parameter
to take into consideration. The collected data indicates that
the resulting P32 after hydraulic fracturing is a combination
of the in situ and induced P32FH. More analysis is required to
develop a complete conceptual framework for design.
The analysis of the influence of preconditioning on the
prevalence of hang-ups shows that the frequency of hang-
ups decreases significantly when using preconditioning. This
result is consistent with previous observations concerning
high P32, with preconditioning increasing the fracturing of the
rock mass and the number of small blocks reporting to the
drawpoints.
This study has been conducted using limited field data,
particularly concerning the sectors where preconditioning
takes place. Therefore, these preliminary results have to be
complemented by further investigations. Currently, the mine
is working on collecting more data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded by API-Fragmentation phase 2. It
was devised and executed by the Institute of Innovation in
Mining and Metallurgy (IM2) S.A. Filial Codelco-Chile. Most
of the geotechnical characterisation of the El Teniente mine
used in this approach was funded by API T10E202, and was
planned and executed by the Superintendencia Geologa of
the El Teniente mine.
The authors acknowledge the El Teniente Division
of Codelco-Chile for permission to use its extensive
fragmentation database and publish the results and for
supporting this work.
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310 SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE & EXHIBITION ON MASS MINING / SYDNEY, NSW, 911 MAY 2016