Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Dorianna Reimer, Ann Johnson, Ryan Penny, Angie Gagnon & Heather Varaleau
As one may have already deduced from the media, and a variety of other sources,
the central source of the Earth’s environmental problems is humans and our population
growth (Oskamp 2000). The human population has grown to well over six billion
individuals, and continues to grow at an exponential rate. Human impact on the global
biosphere now controls many major facets of ecosystem functioning (Palumbi 2001).
Humanity persists and reproduces as a result of resource manipulation, as with all other
How did the human population come to believe that the Earth and its components
were placed here solely for our use and degradation? In the realm of values, our nation
has a particularly strong value of human mastery over nature, which is well illustrated by
the injunction of the book of Genesis (I, 28): “be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the
earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over…every living thing that moveth upon the
earth”. This point of view dominated for decades and often still does. In 1952, John
Locke argued that nature existed primarily for facilitating the comfort and convenience of
humans (Pierotti & Wildcat 2000). Today, many would argue that statements such as
The world and its creatures are slowly crumbling around us. Those who are not
interested in saving the Earth’s species should at least be motivated to save the Earth for
themselves and the rest of the human race. With all of the Earth’s resources depleted
there will be nothing to keep the excessive human population alive. Human population
growth and overconsumption are no longer a problem that can be dealt with later; the
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collapse of the ecosystem may not be far off. As more advances occur in technology and
medicine, the human population continues to increase. Yet, the Earth stays the same size
as our needs grow and, eventually, we must reach equilibrium otherwise we will push
The effects of human population growth are extensive and are currently affecting
every component of the Earth ecosystem. It would be impossible to explore every detail
of this vast topic in a single paper. As such, we will begin with a brief overview of
human population growth, and then proceed to discuss the impacts of large human
population size on waste creation and how waste creation effects natural populations, we
will look at aspects of land destruction, the implications of human population growth for
wild plants, and the effects of human population growth on biodiversity and the Earth’s
species. Finally, we will suggest possible solutions to the problem of human population
growth.
reached six billion people in September of 1999 (Bryant, 1999). In 1930 the population
was only two billion, thus it has tripled within a human lifetime (Bryant, 1999). The
clearer picture of the enormity of human population growth, every second three people
are added to the earth, which is approximately 87 million people, or the entire population
of Mexico, per year (Bryant 1999). Bryant 1999 suggests that by the year 2050 the
population from 1999 will double, this suggests that there will be over twelve billion
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people on the earth. Although the massive human population increase is undebated, such
projections are. Environmental News Network suggested, in 1999, that by 2050 the
population will have reached 9.3 billion people. Although these projections from growth
models give an idea of where our population is headed, they are likely inaccurate.
Feeney (1991) wrote that population projections beyond a few decades were
not constant and it is difficult to predict at what rate population growth will occur. A
projection done in 1972 suggested that our population would be well over seven billion
people by the year 2000 (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1995). Although it is now thought we will
reach this number before 2010 the projection was inaccurate. Feeney (1991) suggests
that models can be inaccurate because it is not known when human populations began
The population has not remained constant over time (Wall and Przeworski, 2000).
When and why it began to increase is questionable. Based on mitochondrial DNA and Y
chromosomal testing, Wall and Przeworski (2000) suggest that the increase may have
begun as long as 50 to 100 thousand years ago. This suggestion is based on evidence of
an unexpectedly large number of genetic mutations occurring around this point in time.
Alternatively, they also suggest that the human population began to increase
approximately twelve thousand years ago, around the time when agriculture was being
established.
developments have dramatically reduced infant and child mortality throughout the world:
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against cholera, diphtheria and other often fatal diseases; and antibiotics. During the
same period, the “Green Revolution” greatly boosted food output through the cultivation
of new disease-resistant rice and other food crops, and the use of fertilizers and more
Birth and death rates are not the only factors in determining population growth.
Two important factors that the US Census Bureau includes when determining overall
population growth in a given population are life expectancy and infant deaths. Focusing
on the growth within a specific population is also important. In general, it has been
noticed that the greatest increases in population occur in developing nations. Even
though there is high infant mortality and a short life expectancy in these nations, the birth
rate still over compensates giving an increase in population size. It has been suggested
that this is due to the lack of education of women in these nations, and the lack of
resources. Changes in human resource use since the Industrial Revolution have
contributed to these changes. Global, human-induced flows of materials are now twice as
high as natural flows (Gardner and Sampat 1998). As well, at least 100 000 synthetic
chemicals have been invented, and many have been released to the environment, with
unknown consequences (Gardner and Sampat 1998). The number of humans that the
Earth can sustain is determined by the ability of the planet to provide food, living space,
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resource supplies, and waste assimilation (Young 1991). The last service has been
affected both by human population growth and changes in human resource use.
Waste creation often outpaces population growth (Young 1991) and is a major
by consumption patterns and the level of industrialization and therefore varies across
countries and cultures. With the advent of industrial economies in wealthy nations, the
large amounts of raw materials into products, which are often used once and then thrown
consumption, and the economic health of a nation is related to its consumption level
wealthy minority; even in the developed nations, recycling of material was common until
World War II. After the war, planned obsolescence of manufactured products and the
creation of new synthetic materials decreased recycling, with the result that modern
industrial economies are not very efficient at recycling (Young 1991). Most of the waste
smokestack emissions, and product trimmings; non-industrial garbage from homes and
offices is a much smaller fraction of the total waste produced. The amount of material
thrown away by industrial economies, and the potentially toxic nature of it, has increased
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Waste is handled by burying it, burning it, or dumping it in the ocean (or nearby
water body or released in the air), as it has been throughout history (Gardner and Sampat
1998). Extraction of large amounts of raw materials cause damage to habitat through
extraction and processing of material; for example, mining can remove layers of earth
above the site and create large-scale pollution from processing ore; in the United States
alone, 19 000 km of streams and rivers are contaminated by mine waste (Gardner and
Sampat 1998). The conversion of materials to products creates pollution, due to factories
emitting pollutants from smokestacks, or creating toxic ash that is deposited in landfills
(Chiras 1992). Materials that have been used can be buried in landfills, but this creates
problems with toxic leakage from materials and often results in wasted resources that are
replaced by more resource processing and manufacturing. The use of fossil fuels releases
toxic chemicals and large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (Marowski
1992). The increasing human population adds non-industrial wastes like sewage, which
under natural conditions could be handled by natural ecosystems, but overwhelms the
Natural ecosystems have innate waste control mechanisms; however, both the
nature and the amount of waste generated by humans have changed. New synthetic
digest them (Chiras 1992). These new materials can have toxic effects in the
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carbon dioxide are released into air or water, or as solid waste, and the effects of this
enrichment of the environment can result in the alteration of food webs, and subsequent
Effects of Waste
Various types of waste can have numerous effects on species. This is illustrated
Solid synthetic waste can have negative effects on marine species. Debris
dumped in the ocean causes significant mortality and sublethal effects in many marine
species through either ingestion or entanglement (McCauley and Bjorndal 1999). For
example, sea lions have had their jaws tied shut by entanglement in plastic nets or rings,
and have subsequently starved. Brown pelicans have become enmeshed in fishing line
and strangled themselves. Sea turtles have choked on plastic bags that they mistook for
jellyfish and swallowed. McCauley and Bjorndal (1999) examined the effects of nutrient
dilution from ingestion of debris on loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta L. Nutrient
dilution occurs as ingested debris displaces food in the gut, reducing intake of nutrients
by the turtles. McCauley and Bjorndal (1999) found that C. caretta do not increase their
food intake to compensate for nutrient dilution. The effects on turtle populations may be
serious; their diet normally consists of food low in nutrients (medusae and ctenophores),
and up to 51% of C. caretta populations can have debris in their digestive tracts. Broad
offshore currents, decreased growth rate leading to a longer developmental period and
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increased vulnerability to predation, depleted energy reserves for growth and
Synthetic chemicals released into water bodies can also have negative effects on
England. The colony returned to a former industrial site that was originally a seal
breeding ground. Over the period of eight years, from 1989 to 1997, the seal population
at the site had a low yearly birth rate, ranging from 0-10%, which is much lower than the
normal birth rate of 20-30%. As well, seal pup mortality was high, with seven of twelve
pups dying before one month of age. Observers of the pups noted a gradual weakening
of the pups, despite adequate maternal care, and necropsies of three pups found elevated
levels of PCB’s in the blubber. An examination of the environment found that the local
fish and invertebrates had elevated levels of PCBs, which passed up the food chain and
accumulated in the seals, and was passed to the seal pups through their mothers’ milk.
leucas Pallas, in the St. Lawrence estuary, as described by Hickie et al. (2000). The
whale population was decimated by hunting, which ended in 1979 leaving a population in
the low hundreds. Today, whales are not hunted, but the habitat of the estuary has high
levels of pollutants, including PCB’s from toxic discharges locally and upstream of the
Slow population growth has not been linked directly to pollution, but animals
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immunosuppression, and tumor formation. Immunosuppression due to pollution may
Several recent population crashes have been blamed on previously unknown viral
seals, Mirounga leonina L., is decreasing by 1.5% per year. The decline has been linked
to an arbovirus and a low seal immune response. Vulnerability to viruses could pose a
Reliance on human-produced sources of food can cause conflict between humans and
other organisms, by creating so-called pest species. For example, in the Golan Heights in
Israel, golden jackal, Canis aureus L., populations increased between 1993 and 1995
(Yom-Tov et al. 1995). The increase was due to illegal dumping of carcasses in an area
with ranching and poultry farming. The dumps contained mostly turkey, hen, and cattle
carcasses, and 65-70% of the waste was available for predator consumption. The dumps
supported a dense population of jackals, which also preyed upon live calves in the area.
Ranchers controlled jackal populations through poisoning, as is usual with many pest
species, but poisoning had negative repercussions on other species in the area, many of
substances by human activity can be significant. Wayland and Hobson (2001) calculated
that sewage and pulp and paper mill effluent was a major source of nitrogen in the North
Saskatchewan River near Prince Albert, and in the Wapiti River near Grande Prairie,
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Alberta. Johnes et al. (1996) studied ten British catchment areas, comparing nitrogen and
phosphorus intakes between 1931 and 1996, and determined that the increase in livestock
and human populations in the area doubled the areas’ nitrogen and phosphorus loads,
will not necessarily increase abundances at higher levels of the food chain. Miltner and
Rankin (1998) examined rivers and streams in Ohio, and found that trophic enrichment
altered the relative and absolute densities of periphyton and macroinvertebrates. This in
turn influenced higher trophic levels through decreased drift, changes in food quality, and
other organisms. In general, Miltner and Rankin (1998) found changes in community
structure associated with enrichment, especially in low-order streams, with the correlated
effects of loss of sensitive fish species (mostly specialized insectivores), a decrease in the
relative abundance of top carnivores and insectivores, and an increase in the proportion of
increases in nitrogen from treated sewage in coastal waters has been linked to damage or
death of fish and shellfish, algal blooms that decrease dissolved oxygen levels, and
The release of naturally-occurring substances where they normally are not found ,
such as sulphur dioxide, copper and nickel into the atmosphere, can have toxic effects on
flora and fauna. Odasz-Albrigtson et al. (2000) studied the effects of air pollution on
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efficiency was found, along with alteration of growth due to sublethal SO2 levels. As
well, SO2 damaged stomatal mechanisms, decreased the amounts of chlorophyll, and
causing death in some plants. In addition, air pollutants were found to influence seasonal
changes in the cold tolerance of Pinus C. species. Complex mixtures of pollutants are
believed to render forests susceptible to natural stresses, a process that contributes to their
the greenhouse effect, which in turn has been implicated in global warming (Marowski
1992). If such wastes do add to global warming, the implications for other species would
changes habitat dynamics. Habitat changes would affect most species. For example,
habitats. The changing patterns of ocean currents would affect the movement and
survival of mobile invertebrate larvae. Vegetation patterns would shift with changing
along routes. Earlier seasonal melting of ice would affect fish species, who time their
spawning with the spring melt. Melt would result in a large early pulse of water washing
away eggs and larvae, and decreased water levels later in the season subsequently
affecting fish habitat. Less ice in the Arctic Ocean would decrease the space available for
algae, which grows on the underside of the ice, and forms the primary productive layer of
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the Arctic food web. Rising ocean levels due to the melting of polar ice would negatively
affect corals, that need to grow in shallow water in order to photosynthesize. Widespread
extinctions would likely follow from changes in habitat caused by global warming.
warming as a result of their physiology. In many reptile species the sex of offspring
depends upon the temperature at which the eggs are incubated. This affects the rate at
which embryos develop. The sex that benefits from a larger size develops at a higher
defense, while in turtles (Testudines, L.), females are larger because they need to produce
more eggs. A higher temperature could alter sex ratios in reptile populations, with a
Another example comes from a study done by Hogg and Williams (1996) on
Chironomidae (Diptera), early onset of adult insect emergence, increase in growth rates
and precocious breeding in Hyalella azteca (Amphipoda), smaller size at maturity for
Nemoura tripsinosa (Plecoptera) and H. azteca, and altered sex ratios for Lepidostoma
vernale (Trichoptera). It was noted that many of these species could disperse to other
habitats, however, human fragmentation and destruction of habitat has and will eliminate
Conclusions
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Human-created wastes alone have the potential to eliminate many species from
Earth, and are compounded by many other effects of human population growth, such as
habitat loss and resource consumption. Waste can have mechanical effects on species, as
plastic debris has on sea turtles, or toxic effects, as PCB’s have on the harbour seal
population. Waste can also affect habitats, like the effects speculated to occur due to
global warming.
processes, and recycling hazardous materials. Recycling materials can potentially reduce
the amount of waste (Young 1991). However, recycling uses energy, some materials
The main focus of efforts to solve the waste problem should be decreasing
Decreasing consumption levels in developed countries would reduce both resource and
energy use, and lower overall human impact on the global environment. A high standard
of living is still possible with reduced consumption; basics such as food, shelter, and
clothing could be obtained using fewer materials than is currently used by industrial
economies (Chiras 1992). As well, an increase in living standards with less waste would
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both developed and developing countries, would allow greater resource manipulation by
LAND DESTRUCTION
We, as the human race, require more and more land as our total population
continues to increase. If we do not find a way to stabilize our growth, then we must find a
new area to settle and populate, whether it be the oceans or space, or we will eventually
kill ourselves off. Until we can do this, we must take care of the land we have at the
present time and learn how to preserve it as best as we can. We must look at how we are
using our land and how we are destroying it before we can learn to properly manage it
Arable Land
and grow our foods. The Earth has a surface area of about 510 million square kilometres,
of which only 149 million square kilometres is land, the rest is water, mostly oceans
(Brunner 1998). Furthermore, even less of that land is usable, as many land types such as
mountains are uninhabitable. Humans have transformed other land types into arable land,
Arable land is important to the human race as it is the land we utilize for our
survival. We use it to grow crops, grow food for animals we raise, and also land for
animals and humans to live on. Proper management of this land is important because
everyone needs it, yet it is far from evenly distributed among individuals. For example,
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Canada has a population of about 31 million people on about 10 million km2 of land,
while Singapore has about 3.5 million people and only 647 km2 of land (Girvan 1999).
Therefore, in Canada, there are approximately 3.1 people per km2, yet in Singapore there
are approximately 5400 people for every km2 (Girvan 1999). This is an incredible
As we use arable land, we tend to lose it due to overuse, and effects such as
salinization and toxification (Evans 1998). Then, we must then replace that land, in
addition, as our population grows we need more land to grow more crops for the
increased number of mouths that need to be fed. Thus, a problem arises and needed land
must be found or created. Unfortunately, some undesirable measures are taken in order to
Conversion to Agriculture
The process of deforestation, in which forests are cut down and the land is cleared
in order to make open fields for cropland or for animal grazing, is one method of creating
new arable land. Techniques such as slash-and-burn have been adopted to extend
farmland, as it is a quick process and puts nutrients into the soil. Slash-and-burn
techniques have large repercussions on soil biota, which plays an important factor in
sustaining a forest (Soulé and Orians 2001). Having more fields increases crop yield and
consequently increases profits to the farmers. Once the land is cleared, it is prepared for
farming by tilling which causes a greater nutrient release as a result of leaching (Thomas
1994). Once the land is used for crops, the soil is leached of the nutrients it once had, and
without human help, can take a very long time to replenish. In efforts to reverse this
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effect and return nutrients to the soil, farmers load their land with fertilizers that may run
off into nearby ecosystems, such as lakes and rivers, causing further harm. (Thomas
1994). Over cultivation can be devastating to the land, and in turn can create a great deal
Similar to deforestation, lands such as wetlands, marshes, and bogs are filled to
create more arable land. These ecosystems are extremely complex and little disturbances
can cause a cascade of negative effects. Other than being home to a number of habitat
specific species, wetlands, marshes and bogs act as water filters. When they are filled for
There are many reasons why humans raise animals, including for food, fibre,
personal enjoyment, and profit. Often such animals as cattle, goats, or sheep are raised for
their products, such as meats, dairy, or fibre. A great deal of land is needed to maintain
these animals (Thomas 1994). They are herbivores and, therefore, require a field in which
to graze, live, and exercise. As animals graze, they do not only eat the plants, but they
also damage the plants’ foliage and root systems with their hooves (Thomas 1994). This
damage causes a great deal of concern when there are too many animals on one piece of
land, because the land is unable to support them and regenerate fast enough to maintain
itself. Plants die, leaving bare soil that is eroded by wind and leached by precipitation.
Overgrazing can be prevented; yet again the issue of growing demands for the animals’
Obtaining water in some areas of the world can be more difficult than in others.
Irrigation has been one solution to obtain enough water to support people’s land. Too
many people irrigating from one river can create problems downstream. The river begins
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to lose volume due to the increase in the number of channels being diverted and the
salinity and alkalinity begin to increase with an increase in the sediment to water ratio
(Thomas 1994). Downstream, the river basin becomes drier and less productive because
the lack of water and increased salinity will not allow plants to grow (Thomas 1994). In
turn, more soil erosion occurs as there are no plant roots to hold the soil down.
A great deal of soil erosion takes place due to activities of the human population.
With an excess of soil erosion taking place, a process called desertification can take
areas due to human activities (Goudie 1990). Lately, this has become a serious problem
as such deserts like the Sahara have been growing larger by the year, turning productive
tropical areas into dry, uninhabitable places. This leaves less room for the human race to
live in, yet it is often the human race that is to blame for this process as it is a result of
Urbanization
commercial areas, and residency (Evans 1998). Spreading of cities and towns tends to
take place on surrounding agricultural land which in turn pushes the agriculture out
farther (Evans 1998). This of course means further deforestation and clearing of the
once a field is planted, it will re-grow if the conditions are right, but once a building or
road is laid down, it will take many decades before the surrounding natural communities
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re-establish in the area. A majority of the world’s population now lives in cities, and the
Another serious problem that arises from the increase in human population is
landfills. While usually associated with urbanized areas, landfills have developed into a
severe problem as many large metropolitan areas are running out of room to dump their
garbage. Most areas in North America require certain standards in order to run a landfill
areas continue to grow, so do the landfill sites they use, and many are approaching a
crisis as they have few places left to dump their garbage. Eventually there will be no
more space.
undisturbed land or creation of borders with a number of different objects such as cities,
roads, or canals. Fragmentation has a number of impacts. Gene flow among species may
to our wildlife with the development of more cities and roads in areas that were once
untouched by humans. Disturbances such as fragmentation can only do harm to the land
Solutions
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The human race has already done unimaginable damage to the planet we live on.
We must take immediate action in order to preserve what we have left and try to reverse
some of the effects that have occurred. Conservation management needs to be introduced,
especially in third world countries where the environment isn’t always a priority, but in
that the land we live on is protected for future generations. Necessary steps need to be
There have been many forest management plans to conserve forests across the
world. Replantation programs have been set up to re-establish forests that have been
clear-cut. As for rainforests, there are a number of organizations that are set up to
preserve them from farmers who slash-and-burn the forests. These organizations are
funded by people who support their cause and want to conserve the environment. Also,
similar to these are organizations set up to preserve wetlands from being destroyed.
overstock the land with too many animals. Then, land will not be destroyed and money
can be made from that same piece of land as long as desired. Often, the problem is greed,
and therefore matters such as land management and issues concerning the environment
are overlooked.
are not overexploited, then problems will be minimized, but many people are only
interested in growing as many crops as they can to increase profits. Management of how
much water is taken for irrigation needs to be implemented in some areas in the world,
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piece of land and they took no more, then the river systems would be much healthier and
preventable. Some have attempted to fix the problems that have been created. Proper
irrigation and planting of shrubbery and other vegetation has successfully reclaimed land
that was once lost to desertification. Claiming land as a reserve helps prevent
desertification as that land is not usable by humans and therefore is protected from the
that was once in that region. A continuum is re-established in the particular ecosystem
and over time, relationships that were lost may form again. Fragmentation can sometimes
be difficult to battle against. Where anthropocentric changes have been made, getting rid
of fragmentation is not something that is always law-biding. In this case, getting rid of
that building, road, canal, or whichever placed ‘border’ is not possible without
consequences, and therefore a great deal of ethics would come into play.
becomes very difficult. Often, once something is there and built, then that land is lost and
can be extremely difficult to reclaim. The goal is to try and prevent urbanization before it
into protected land such as a sanctuary or a reserve so that it cannot be used. It is difficult
must inhabit the area and a plan of action to help them must be set up. Often the actual
land is not looked at in this case, but more the animals that live on the land. So
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urbanization should be planned very carefully to prevent any serious effects to the
surrounding environment.
Landfill management is also important for the future as where we put our trash is
something that should not be overlooked. Ensuring that recycling becomes an important
part of everyone’s daily life will dramatically help decrease the amount of garbage. With
more recycling, the less we need to take from the Earth, in forms such as deforestation to
obtain pulp and paper. Where we put our garbage is also a big concern; some countries
pay other countries so they may dump their garbage on that other country’s land. This can
be avoided if everyone is to put in effort to control the amount of waste that they throw
out each day and by encouraging others to recycle as much as they possibly can.
Conclusion
With a rapidly growing population, many aspects of how we should use the land
that has been given to us should be considered. It is important to preserve the land that we
have left and help re-establish the land that has been lost. We only have one planet, and
ensuring that we keep it healthy is important. This can be achieved with proper
WILD PLANTS
One very important aspect of life that is impacted by population growth is wild
plants, those that are uncultivated and growing in there original natural state (Thompson
1993). Wild plants are an important area of study for several reasons. Plants are primary
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producers and they support life on Earth. In addition, wild plants have important
Human population growth affects wild plants in many ways, but particularly in
the destruction of plant habitat via deforestation and agriculture. Humans have also
introduced several invasive nonnative plants and animals to places that cannot withstand
the added competition, thereby causing mass extinctions of wild plant species. There are
countless medicinal wild plants that have become well known and as a result over
harvested to extinction. Delicate wild species are also affected by air, soil and water
As the Earth’s human population increases, so does our use of fossil fuels. The
increasing rates of fossil fuel emissions and other gases has been found to be a potential
cause of global warming (Bunce 1994). Data from Antarctica has shown a definite
correlation between increased greenhouse gases and global warming (Bunce 1994). The
climatic change is thought to be far more rapid than that of a natural climate change,
putting plants at risk. If the changes are too rapid, some plants may be unable to disperse
naturally to new habitats and, subsequently, could become extinct (Soule and Orians
2001).
There is a vast array of anthropocentric alterations presently taking place that are
causing mass extinctions of wild plants. It is estimated that if the present extinction trends
continue, two thirds of the worlds 300, 000 plant species will disappear by the end of the
next century (Belsie 1999). Approximately 60% of the plant species listed under the
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American Endangered Species Act are threatened by invasive species (Soule and Orians
outcompeting them, spreading disease, or alternating the habitat (Soule and Orians 2001).
Humanly disturbed sites are also usually dominated by introduced species, decreasing
Plants and algae are primary producers, supporting life on Earth. Both humans
and wildlife are directly dependent on wild plants both for food and shelter, and
subsequently for survival. Humans rely on wild plants far more than they often realize.
Wild plants are the source of many of our current medicines and unknown medicinal
plants could hold cures for currently incurable diseases like cancer. Today, 3.5 billion
people rely on plant-based medicine for primary health care and less than 1% of all plant
Maintenance of old growth forest is crucial for wild plants. An old growth forest
is in the oldest stage of forest succession and has not been significantly modified by
human activities (Quinby 1998). These forest have higher plant species richness that that
of a replanted forest, and are important for species diversity and prevention of
extinctions. Old stands are also very important for the carbon cycle as they allow more
Medicinal wild plants are invaluable to humans, however, they are often
overharvested once they become well known for their healing properties. There are many
examples of this. The yew tree, Taxus brevifolia, for example was once exploited for
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cancer fighting properties(Watson, T. 1995). Several years ago, taxol could be made only
from bark stripped off a Pacific yew, killing the tree. Each patient's treatment required
two or three of the slow-growing trees. But scientists have recently found a way to make
taxol from the needles and twigs of a European yew. Now U.S. yews grow unmolested,
and humans still benefit (Watson, T. 1995). Medicinal wild plants like these must be
Many people fail to realize the importance of wild plants in supporting the
world’s food supply. Agriculture is highly dependent on the diverse array of genes
contained in wild plants. According to Catling and Porebski (1998), 30% of Canadian
native plant material is related to crop species at a genetic level. Agricultural technology
is able to use beneficial genes of wild plants to make crop plants more resistant to disease
and varying environmental conditions. If wild relatives of crop species become extinct,
this leaves farmers at a serious disadvantage because genes cannot be created once they
have been lost. For example, fifty years ago Chinese farmers used an estimated 10 000
varieties of wheat. By the 1970’s that figure fell to about 1 000 (Kirby 1999).
Conservation Tactics
Why do wild plants get so little attention in comparison to wildlife? Plants are
fundamental to nature’s functioning, yet people are far more inclined to save a “cute and
cuddly” animal over a plant. One approach to preserving wild plants in Europe is a joint
effort. Plant conservationists are joining forces with bird enthusiasts who are far more
numerous and better funded (Vines 1996). These campaigners are making a strong case
for safeguarding areas that are of special interest for both birds and plants.
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Another approach to conservation of wild plants in Canada is creating a list of
prioritized rare species that are economically valuable (Catling and Porebski 1998). This
list would range from plants with little agricultural importance to those with high
potential and some with substantial current economic value. Useful plant properties range
from firewood and harvestable berries and plants with medicinal properties, to close
relatives of major crops. This approach is highly anthropocentric but could be easier to
proposal.
Seed banks are increasingly becoming popular as a tool for conserving wild plant
species. Seed banks provide immediate access to plant samples, allowing researchers to
evaluate them for new sources of medicine, nutrition and genes (Schoen and Brown
2001). Seed banks are also important because plants conserved in seed banks are immune
to habitat destruction, disease and predation. All over the world efforts are being made to
stockpile plant diversity. There are currently over 700 botanical gardens that maintain
seed collections of wild, ornamental, medicinal and crop-related species (Schoen &
Brown 2001). Seed banks are a great idea but cautions should be taken when educating
the public on this matter. It cannot be assumed that plant species put aside in seed banks
are safe for all time. Action must still be taken to conserve wild plant species in their
natural environment.
One example where a seed bank could have proved useful is in the attempt to save
the wild coffee plant of Mauritus. This plant was thought to have become extinct, but a
single plant was found, protected, then cloned (Belsie 1999). Although a single plant
exists, it will still face extinction as it cannot mate sexually and lacks the genetic
26
variation to defend itself against various selection pressures. Had a seed bank contained
seeds of this plant there might have been hope of a rehabilitation program.
In an effort to slow extinction rates of plants around the world, a team of plant
experts working with the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN),
also known as the World Conservation Union are trying to launch an international
program to conserve the world's plants and trees (Kirby 1999). They have drawn up a list
of the conditions to be met to ensure the survival of threatened and important plants,
including: (1) sound scientific information on which to base decisions and policies; (2) an
immediate focus on hot spots, especially those under pressure from human influences; (3)
rigorous criteria to identify sites of high plant diversity; (4) reducing the effects of
invasive plants (and other species); (5) promoting sustainable use and training programs
for botanists.
Conclusion
Plants support life on Earth. High priority should be placed on education of the
general public about the importance of wild plant preservation and its role in supporting
Changes taking place at a global scale have direct and indirect effects on the
health of wildlife species (Deem et al. 2001). In fact, humans may currently be the
world’s most dominant evolutionary force (Palumbi 2001). Even if the more modest of
the projections for human population growth are correct, it seems likely that many dozens
of threatened or endangered species will, in fact, become extinct before the middle of the
27
next century (Feldhamer et al. 1999). Furthermore, at the current rate of human
population growth, total loss of species would be expected within the next 200 years
(Maurer 1996). There are three main sources of the Earth’s environmental problems:
human population must cease to grow at its present rate if we are to conserve biological
diversity and a working global ecosystem (Maurer 1996) for future generations of both
humans and other organisms. Biodiversity is the summation of all living plants, animals
and other organisms that characterize a particular region, country, or the entire Earth
(Feldhamer et al. 1999). Humans affect biodiversity at the genetic, species, community
and ecosystem level (Chapin et al. 2000). This impact on genetic diversity is critical,
because genetic diversity is the raw material of evolutionary change, including adaptation
and speciation (Chapin et al. 2000). In the rapidly changing environments that we are
creating, without genetic diversity, species have no chance to change with their
environments. In this paper I will discuss five topics. First, I will explore the
consequences of habitat loss, alteration and fragmentation. Second, I will review the
effects of exploitation. Third, I will discuss the repercussions of pollution, both organic
and inorganic. Forth, I will introduce you to the emergence and transmission of disease
will examine the outcomes of species introductions. And, finally, I will suggest some
28
Land use has been ranked as the most intensive driver of terrestrial environmental
change in the coming century (Sala et al. 2000 as cited in Novacek & Cleland 2001).
Many species have been eliminated from areas dominated by human influences (Chapin
taking place on a catastrophically short timescale, and the effects will fundamentally alter
the future of evolution of the planet’s biota (Novacek & Cleland 2001).
and/or death of individuals previously occupying these areas. Loss of habitat not only
minimizes the area available for the resident organism, but it creates edges (and
subsequent edge effects) not suitable for many organisms to live in, and may change
biogeochemical processes at the perimeter. In addition, altered land creates new niches
and welcomes the invasion of new species and new forces. Biodiversity in a given area
can influence the ability of exotic species to invade communities through either the
(Chapin et al. 2000). In many regions, land conversion forces declining populations
toward the edges of their species range, where they become increasingly vulnerable to
collapse if exposed to further human impact (Channell & Lomolino 2000 as cited in
Human activities often augment drift and diminish gene flow for many species,
which reduces genetic variation in local populations and prevents the spread of adaptive
complexes outside their population of origin, thereby disrupting adaptive processes both
locally and globally within a species. (Templeton et al. 2001). Habitat fragmentation is
29
one of those activities. Fragmentation of ecosystems can result in human-made “island
populations of species geographically and to confine them to smaller areas (Deem et al.
2001). Under extreme fragmentation, adaptive potential is lost as the genetic diversity
these fragmented isolates; rather, an extinction rachet is created (Templeton et al. 2001).
Edge effects are a result of fragmentation. Because of their large spatial requirements
and low densities, carnivores (and other large animals) are especially sensitive to edge
effects and related human induced mortality (Schonewald-Cox et al. 1991; Clark et al.
1996; Woodroffe & Ginsberg 1998 as cited in Revilla et al 2001), and adult mortality rate
is a key factor in the viability of small populations of carnivores that are either
fragmented or at low densities (Gaona et al. 1997 as cited in Revilla et al. 2001).
Unfortunately, extinction may be the fate of many wildlife species located within newly
that forests are not the only habitat altered by humans. Most other habitat types,
including grasslands, prairies, swamps, marshes, and other wetlands, have all been
usurped by humans for their own use, with negative consequences for certain mammal
species (Feldhamer et al. 1999) and a great deal of other species as well.
roads and road networks is strongly correlated with economic growth and national wealth
and linked to the scale of ecological disturbance and natural resource degradation (Wilkie
30
et al. 2000). Road building is necessary to sustain many economies because it gains them
access to the resources around them. Roads not only increase access to previously
isolated natural resources (Wilke et al. 1992 as cited in Wilke et al. 2001), they also
fragment landscapes into small, disconnected patches (Forman & Alexander 1998 as
cited in Wilke et al. 2001). In addition, roadways are possible barriers to movement by
small mammals (Oxely et al. 1974: Swihart & Slade 1984 as cited in Feldhamer et al.
1999) and a number of other organisms. Roads are barriers to genetic exchange among
populations. Where roads are constructed, edge habitats predominate, and as a result,
biomass declines (Laurance et al. 1997 as cited in Wilke et al. 2001), community
structure changes (Malcolm & Ray 2000 as cited in Wilke et al. 2001), pest invasion
increases, and the rate of species loss skyrockets (Kreuss & Tscharntke 1994 as cited in
Wilke et al. 2001). The high level of fragmentation created by roads increases the
opportunity for contact among humans, domestic animals, and wildlife (Deem et al.
between these groups (Deem et al. 2001). In addition to the problems previously stated,
the presence of roads provides bushmeat hunters with easier access to once isolated
forests, and consequently increases the export of bushmeat from these forests (Wilke et
al. 2001).
Exploitation
functioning of ecosystems (Chapin et al. 2000). Of endangered mammals, more than half
31
hunting pressure (Feldhamer et al. 1999). In the case of trophy hunting, there is also an
effect on the health of the source population, in that the healthiest and potentially most
disease resistant individuals often are removed from populations already under pressure
(Deem et al. 2001). In some locations, mammals are killed by trapping, poisoning or
hunting because they are agricultural pests, competing with humans for their crops and
their livestock (Burton & Pearson 1987 as cited in Feldhamer et al. 1999). As animal
harvesting methods advance, animals stand little chance of survival. Marine fisheries
respond to human food demand with catches often compromising large species, lopping
off each summit of the food pyramid as populations of larger, top-level consumers are
virtually eradicated (Jackson 1998 as cited in Novacek & Cleland 2001). When top
predators are removed, prey populations sometimes explode and deplete their food
overharvesting can lead to transformation of the habitat (Deem et al. 2001), with a variety
of events following. What was once natural selection is now leaning in the direction of
dead bodies, including all the pathogens and parasites they carry, to new areas has
enormous potential for affecting the health of wild and domestic animal populations
Some stocks of wild ungulates, probably the progenitors of stocks of domestic animals,
became extinct, or nearly extinct because they were interbred with domestic forms over
32
mammal, populations have declined because they make good pets (Feldhamer et al.
reduction in wild animal exploitation for use as food, pets, and other purposes would
greatly reduce possible instances of animal extinction and help facilitate their
rehabilitation.
Pollution
types of pollution are currently present everywhere in the world. There is a large body of
evidence that suggests global climate changes and alterations of the biogeochemical
cycles may cause widespread transformations of ecosystems (Novacek & Cleland 2001).
Transformations of ecosystems can have substantial effects on the organisms that occupy
them. Habitat degradation can be a result of acid rain, introduction of toxic wastes, and
climate changes, such as warming trends and changes in rainfall patterns, can influence
the epidemiology of various infectious diseases (Harvell et al. 1999 as cited in Deem et
al. 2001). Global climate changes can have a cascading effect in the world’s large water
bodies. Changes in ocean currents could reduce the number of krill and other organisms
in the sea, and such organisms constitute one of the ocean’s main staples (Feldhamer et
al. 1999). Krill account for about 250 million tons of food for whales, fish, seals, and
other species annually (Myers 1997 as cited in Feldhamer et al. 1999). In addition, air
and water pollution of numerous sorts are also linked to various noninfectious diseases
33
(Deem et al. 2001). Air and water currents circulate and interact across the globe.
Another more direct and obvious type of inorganic pollution is oil spills. Oil
spills are detrimental to a plethora of organisms occupying the oceans. Oil spills are
industries. This gradual release of oil also disturbs organisms, their habitats and their
resources. There are also many other forms of inorganic pollution. Carnivores and other
organisms higher on the food chain are more likely to suffer from inorganic pollution,
because such dangerous chemicals are concentrated as they move through the food chain
inorganic pollutants are chemicals called endocrine disrupters. Endocrine disrupters are
chemicals that mimic hormones or otherwise interfere with normal functioning of the
endocrine system within an organism (Feldhamer et al. 1999). The effects include
infertility, abnormal development, and others that are now just being discovered
(Feldhamer et al. 1999). The list of pollutants that affect organisms and the environment
is almost endless. Nearly everything humans do produces pollutants that affect one or
many individuals, possibly on a global scale. We all do a small part to contribute to this
Disease
The amplified role of diseases as a factor limiting species’ survival can be traced
to anthropogenic changes on a global scale that have direct and indirect influences on the
34
health of wildlife species (Deem et al. 2001). These changes include human population
and an increased proximity of humans and their domestic animals to wildlife (Deem et al.
2001). The problems that introduce disease typically fall into three categories: disease
brought by a subclinical host to a new region (Office International des Epizooties 1987 as
cited in Deem et al. 2001), disease vectors introduced to new geographic locations
(Curasson 1943 as cited in Deem et al. 2001), and diseases encountered by translocated
animals (naïve to such diseases) after being moved to a new region (Pandey et al. as cited
in Deem et al. 2001). Cattle carry diseases such as rinderpest that can be transmitted to
some of the wild ungulates, often decimating local or regional populations (Feldhamer et
al. 1999). In addition, populations that are under stress (most likely due directly or
indirectly to humans) are more susceptible to disease outbreaks that would otherwise run
their course without risking extinction of an entire species (Deem et al. 2001).
Furthermore, greater epidemiological impact of pathogens can make it more likely that
small local populations (many currently exist) will go extinct, the ultimate disruption in
Species Introductions
Human mediated introduction of species into new habitats and areas has and will
continue to be one of the major drivers of biotic change (Sala et al. 2000; Mooney &
Cleland 2001 as cited in Novacek & Cleland 2001). The mobility of people has
transported organisms across geographical barriers that long kept biotic regions of the
Earth separated, so that many of the ecologically important plant and animal species of
35
many areas have been introduced in historic time (Foley et al. 1994 as cited in Chapin et
al. 2000). Once organisms are moved from their original environment and introduced to
these changes. Not all changes result in benefits for resident native species. In some
cases, species introductions by humans have induced evolution in the species around
them (Palumbi 2001) and in some cases they have caused endangerment, eradication, and
extinction. Not all species have the ability to shift their life history strategies and genetic
given area can introduce novel pathogens to susceptible hosts, and can be responsible for
Species transported by humans have been known to change rapidly to match local
2001). These changes allow organisms to exploit their new environments to the fullest,
outcompeting and preying on the organisms around them, often to the detriment of the
native species. The introduction of top predators and competitors can severely harm
endemic mammal species (Feldhamer et al. 1999) and other species at risk. Native
(Chapin et al. 2000). Species that may have been abundant at one time can decline
rapidly under sudden unnaturally induced pressures. A new stable equilibrium may take
decades to establish, and it may not accommodate the original organisms from the area.
36
When introductions occur, hybridizations may result that can lead to extinction of
the species involved (Avise & Hamrick 1996; Rhymer & Simberloff 1996 as cited in
Feldhamer et al. 1999). This problem can arise in three ways: (1) through the
modifications result in the possibility of two previously separated species meeting and
interbreeding, or (3) our own conservation attempts and the introgression of gene pools
that can result from such activities (outbreeding depression for example) (Feldhamer et
al. 1999). Besides the possible conflicts created by breeding programs and conservation
efforts, humans are changing gene complexes at a whole new level. A new human
exogenous genes into domestic plants and animals (Palumbi 2001). Whether human
Solutions
order to slow down the degradation of the Earth and its species. For those who are not
informed about the current problems, a key step to rehabilitation is education and
awareness. It is important to educate people about the risks of current human behaviors
Intervention on the part of the source of these current traumas, namely humans, is
required for any possibility of recovery or even maintenance of the biota (Novacek &
Cleland 2001). All of the environmental problems with which humans are currently
faced have been caused by human behavior, and can all be reversed by human behavior
37
(Oskamp 2000). Novacek and Cleland (2001) suggest three steps to recovery. First, we
must identify the threats to the biota and the entities most vulnerable to these threats.
Second, we must consider the scientific principles or strategies that inform prescriptions
to alleviate the threats. Third, we must apply feasible recovery strategies to aspects of the
Unless human consumption changes drastically during the next century, major
loss of biodiversity is a virtual certainty (Maurer 1996). In the long run, our society will
have to get by with far less resources per person and will also have to reduce the number
of people (Oskamp 2000). Attempts to control population growth will reap large rewards
in preserving biodiversity, particularly when the rate of population growth reaches zero
(Maurer 1996).
Population growth in itself is not the only problem; population behavior is key.
Because our impact on the biosphere is not likely to decline, we must use our knowledge
about the process of evolution to mitigate the evolutionary changes we impose on the
species around us (Palumbi 2001). These evolutionary changes include extinction and
nonetheless, that the accumulation of scientific information itself is not the solution to our
biodiversity and ecological relationships we must also deal with perhaps the most subtle
and complex community relationships within those ecosystems, the multifaceted roles of
The way humans view the world has a large impact on how we treat it. Although
in many individuals the traditional view of dominance over nature has vanished to a large
38
extent, pieces of it remain ingrained in our social and cultural structure. An integral step
to rectifying the current ecological dilemma is to alter this view. Many Native American
groups look at nature from a different perspective. Traditional knowledge is based on the
premise that humans should not view themselves as responsible for nature, i.e., we are
not stewards of the natural world, but instead we are part of that world, no greater than
any other part (Pierotti and Wildcat 1997b as cited in Pierotti & Wildcat 2000). Adoption
of beliefs such as these would put us one step closer to solving the problem.
Conclusion
Humans do many things that interfere with the natural function of the Earth’s
species, and it often results in their destruction. The main factors causing current
exploitation, increased pollution (in a number of forms), and introduction of alien species
and genes to resident populations. Current trends in human activity are detrimental to the
biodiversity and maintenance of the world’s biota. If human population growth continues
at its current rate, we will consume so much energy that there will be none left for other
species (Maurer 1996). Once these changes have occurred, they are not amenable to
mitigation (Chapin et al. 2000). The general impact of human activities on genetic
almost no chance of survival. Clearly, the future evolution of the planet’s biota depends
39
(Novacek & Cleland 2001). Biodiversity and its links to ecosystems have cultural,
intellectual, aesthetic and spiritual values that are important to society (Chapin et al.
2000). In addition, changes in biodiversity that alter ecosystem function have economic
impacts through the provision of ecosystems in goods and services to society (Chapin et
al. 2000).
The current biodiversity crisis has one obvious biotic cause: ourselves (Novacek
& Cleland 2001). Human alteration of the global environment has triggered the sixth
major extinction event in the history of life and caused widespread changes in the global
distribution of organisms (Chapin et al. 2000). The repercussions are massive. I think
Chapin et al. (2000) said it best: “We are in the midst of one of the largest experiments in
there are some emerging solutions. Some are as ridiculous as genetically decreasing
average human height to 0.64mm. This idea was presented by Viau and Wistey in 1997,
on the pretext that each person would have optimal space for himself if his nearest
neighbor were to be just beyond his sight. To achieve this, one would have to be of the
forementioned height so that one could not see beyond the curvature of the earth. The
other option to resolve the overpopulation problem would be to have only 2.32 million
people on the earth, which at this point is equally as difficult (Viau and Wistey, 1997).
To reduce our current population to this level we would have to have one child per couple
for over twelve generations (Viau and Wistey, 1997). Although at first thought this
40
suggestion does not seem so unreasonable, it truly is impossible to enforce. China for
example has had a ‘one child per family policy’ since 1979. To enforce this means
restricting individuals’ freedom, even to the point where the freedom to choose abortion
is taken away and such procedures are forced (Bryant, 1999). Even in a country where
enforcement of such a law did occur, the population did not decrease to the level desired.
human populations.
More realistic suggestions have been made but they work at a much slower rate.
Education and provision of birth control are becoming increasingly important. It has
been proven that with education and empowerment of women, population growth rates
have leveled off. In developing countries where there is a lack of education for women
and provision of contraception, the birth rates are much higher. In such developing
countries, 96% of global population growth occurs (Environmental News Net, 1999).
“At the U.N. Conference on Population in Cairo in 1994, 179 nations endorsed a new
This program hopes to have greater success than those whose focus is merely on birth
control by identifying and working on the contributing social problems that lead to over
population. For example, this program wants to increase women’s health, education and
employment, as well as access to family planning facilities. Another part of this program
would ensure that men fulfill their responsibilities to ensure healthy pregnancies, proper
child care and promotion of women’s worth and dignity (Bryant, 1999). This paper did
41
not suggest how these ideas would be implemented. Public awareness would lead to a
solution, allowing individuals to control their familly size and lead lower impact lives.
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