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(e) Mechanical and functional properties 9. textures at the micro- and nanoscale: coupled stress
A strong overlap should be created between interface and and texture determination
plasticity projects. In the field of plasticity the following 10. interaction between environment and plasticity
areas of fundamental interest were identified: 11. high strength - high conducting composites
1. collective behaviour of structural defects 12. grain cluster mechanics
2. scale-bridging plasticity and failure concepts in 13. mechanical, transformation, and precipitation funda-
materials simulation and experiment mentals of novel lightweight Mg, Be, Al, Fe alloys and
3. elasticity and plasticity in confined, layered, graded, intermetallic-based lightweight alloys under complex
and nanoscaled materials loadings
4. effects of solute elements on work hardening 14. mechanical properties of alloys and intermetallics
5. anisotropic elasto-plasticity of polycrystalline matter doped with rare earth elements
6. internal stresses in conjunction with plasticity and 15. integrated structure and materials optimization:
transformation integrating design and materials properties
7. void nucleation and coalescence 16. mechanical-functional materials properties as inverse
26 8. mechanics of entangled and percolated systems: problems, i.e. back-extrapolation of optimum thermo-
metal wool, cellular solids, dendritic structures, scale dynamics and microstructures from desired final
and gradient effects in plasticity properties.
M AT E R I A L S : S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G
Isolation Parts
Radomes Heat Exchanger
Burner Nozzles
IR Optics
optical thermal Crucibles
ZrO2 B4C
IC-Packages Engine Parts
MgO SiC
Substrates Dies and
Dielectrics Molds
Al2O3 Si3N4
Resistors
Bearings
Magnets electrical Advanced Ceramics mechanical
magnetical Sealings
Electro- AIN BN
lytes
Piezo- Wear Parts
electrics
BaTiO3 Al2TiO5
Sensors Cutting Tools 27
PbZrTiO5
nuclear
chemical
Pumps
Nuclear Fuels
Filters
Shields
Corrosion and
Absorbers Wear Parts
Catalysts
power semiconductors. Therefore, ceramic materials have advanced materials synthesis and processing, and the eco-
now become the cornerstone of such advanced technolo- nomical manufacturing of components and devices are be-
gies as energy transformation, storage and supply, infor- ing driven more and more by an increased understanding
mation technology, transportation systems, medical tech- of the underlying fundamental scientific phenomena.
nology, and manufacturing technology (Fig. 1.6).
Theoretical treatment and modelling of materials and 1.2.4. Needs for Future Basic Research
components development
Following technological trends, the needs for future basic
In addition to these trends, present-day environmental reg- research in the field of ceramics can be divided into four
ulations and awareness and the recycling of materials will major areas: (a) materials and materials properties research
affect the use of materials and require less expensive pro- in order to widen the areas scope and match its needs for
duction processes. future applications, (b) research to increase the knowl-
edge of economical and ecological production processes for
According to these trends in materials research, a change materials, components, and devices, (c) miniaturization and
in paradigm can be observed. Traditional materials-orient- integration, and (d) modelling and numerical simulation,
ed research is now complemented by more interdiscipli- which would complement or even act as a substitute for
nary and method-linking work, while at the same time the present areas of experimental work, thus not only direct-
different hierarchies of length scales are also considered ing research to defined questions, but also reducing prac-
(Fig. 1.7). Size hierarchies extend from the architecture of tical work and time periods typically combined with prod-
28 structures at the atomic and molecular scale (via micro- uct development. The identified four areas of future basic
structure characteristics in nano- and microsized dimen- research will be discussed in the following.
sions), up to macroscopic features of components and de-
vices. One fundamental area of research to pursue is the (a) Materials and their properties
development of a unified description of deformation and Ceramics now cover an extensive area of functionalities.
fracture in order to design microstructures for improved Hardly any other class of materials offers such a variety of
10 -10 10 -9 10 -8 10 -7 10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 m
natural science materials science engineering
mechanical reliability of ceramic parts. This would de- properties useful for applications. Promising technical de-
crease the materials susceptibility to environmental stress- velopments emerge from the discovery of new compounds,
es and facilitate integration of ceramics into whole engi- and new materials with specific functions have recently
neered systems. In addition, as these tasks become more appeared on the horizon. These materials include high-
and more interdisciplinary, advances in ceramic materials temperature superconductors, ultra high-strain single crys-
will benefit increasingly from closer cooperation among tal piezoelectrics, high-frequency dielectrics, phosphors,
materials scientists, physicists, chemists, engineers, and, intercalation compounds, ductile layer-structured ceram-
especially, biologists. ics, and thermoelectrics. Detailed basic research in solid
state chemistry and solid state physics (i.e., activities fo-
cused on the elaboration of new compounds and the under- Ion conduction also provides great technological benefits.
M AT E R I A L S : S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G
standing of their basic properties) will continue to widen It is a basis for energy and information technology systems
the scope of materials, resulting in the optimization of ex- such as batteries, fuel cells, chemical sensors, and chemi-
isting materialsfunctionalities and the likely enhancement cal filters providing efficient and cleaner energy transfor-
of ceramics with new physical behaviours. Since both re- mation, chemical control, and environmental protection.
sult in complex materials, there will be a continuous need Apart from the functional aspect, the application of these
for the comprehensive evaluation of the underlying mate- materials requires the simultaneous fulfilment of many
rials (i.e., structure analysis and phase studies of multi- properties. These include thermal stability, chemical
component systems). Therefore, extended investigations stability, mechanical stability, and electrical stability. Ex-
of physical, chemical, and mechanical properties will be amples in which fundamentals led to new materials and
necessary in order to evaluate the potential of the materials devices are stable proton conductors, interfacially con-
for practical applications. Of special interest will be the in- trolled ionic conductors, and chemical sensors for acid/
vestigation of nanosized effects onto certain properties (i.e., base active gases.
continuous or discontinuous property changes with size
decreases and completely new physical behaviours). In the field of high-temperature superconductivity, impor- 29
tant progress has been achieved over the last few years re-
In the area of ceramic materials, ferroelectric ceramics are garding both energy applications as well as electronics.
technically the most important. They are known for their Large-sized demonstration prototypes of superconducting
unique properties, such as high dielectric permittivity as cables, transformers, and fault-current limiters have been
well as high piezoelectric constants, and are used in multi- fabricated and successfully tested. Some products, such
layer capacitors or as microwave devices within wireless as current leads for low-temperature systems and filters
communication systems. Besides that, they will very likely for mobile telephone base stations, have already been in-
play a key role in the future of information technology as a troduced into the market in a competitive way.
basis for low-cost, low-power energy consumption, high-
density storage, and fast readout of information. Most of Characterized by a steady increase in energy density
the inorganic materials for linear and nonlinear optics are imposed by phenomenal requirements in the thermal man-
also ferroelectric. Infrared absorption, pyroelectricity, ac- agement of last-generation integrated semiconductor
ousto-optical activity, second-harmonic generation, elec- devices, highly thermal conductive materials represent a
tro-optical modulation, and photorefractivity are optim- more important class of functional ceramic materials.
ized in ferroelectrics because of their strong linear and
nonlinear polarizabilities. However, the increasing power There is much room for development in basic research, not
and speed of todays lasers has a large effect on the crystal- only in functional materials, but also in structural materi-
line quality and defect content of ferroelectrics. This is als. Superhard materials for cutting tools, abrasives, and
even more crucial in the case of integrated devices for tribological applications, as well as thermal barrier coatings
which optical density, electric fields, thermal gradients, to improve gas-turbine efficiency, and fibre-reinforced ce-
and mechanical stresses are increased by the limited size ramics for failure-tolerant high-temperature components,
of wave guides. are just a few examples of great technological importance.
Presently, piezoelectric ceramics certainly show the broad- A unique set of properties is exhibited by a newly identi-
est range of individual applications, including sonars, ultra- fied family of ternary-layered hexagonal carbides and
sonic cleaners, buzzers, accelerometers, hydrophones, sur- nitrides (e.g., Ti3SiC2). These ceramic compounds are
face acoustic wave filters, delay lines, piezotransformers, malleable at room temperature and deform plastically at
ultra-precision positioners, and many other sensor and ac- elevated temperatures. They warrant further research.
tuator functions requiring a wide field of interdisciplinary
research for further evaluation. Other important classes of ceramics to be studied both for
functional as well as structural applications are negative-
Magnetoresistive materials, which change their electrical and low-thermal expansion materials such as beta eucryp-
resistivity upon application of magnetic fields, have also tite, sodium zirconium phosphates, vanadates, and tung-
received attention for magnetic reading heads. Ceramics, states. There is a widespread need for these materials in
such as doped rare-earth manganites (in which so-called applications that require either dimensional stability or
phenomena of colossal magnetoresistance were observed) thermal-shock resistance as well as in electronic devices,
exhibit extremely high values for this effect, even superior mechanical parts, catalyst supports for automotive applica-
to that of giant magnetoresistant metals presently in use. tions, high-performance optical mirror substrates, ceramic
M A X - P L A N C K - I N S T I T U T F R M E TA L L F O R S C H U N G S T U T T G A R T
hosts for nuclear waste immobilization, port liners for die- etc.), using standard polymer processing techniques,
sel engines, and coating materials for C/C composites. makes them highly applicable for the production of fibre-
reinforced composites, oxidation-resistant coatings, wear-
(b) Processing and microstructural design resistant materials, and many others.
Ceramics are synthesized into glasses, polycrystals, and
single crystals, and many forms dictated by their use, in- Another growing field of research with an attractive tech-
cluding fine powders, fibres, thin films, thick films, coat- nical potential is the production of materials inspired by
ings, monoliths, and composites. Polycrystalline compo- biomineralization. Oxidic deposits from aqueous solutions
nents are conventionally produced by powder synthesis on organically modified surfaces, for example, provide a
and forming processes followed by sintering at high tem- synthesis route for ceramics at ambient conditions. Such
perature. The performances of ceramic materials are de- template-induced and self-assembled materials using bio-
termined not only by the structure and composition, but mimetic techniques provide soft, low-cost routes, offer-
also by defects (such as pores), second phases (which can ing real opportunities to get new metastable materials that
be deliberately added to facilitate processing), and inter- possess original microstructures as layered polymer-ce-
30 faces. Thus, one of the primary limitations of current ce- ramic composites and cannot be obtained by conventional
ramic processing technologies is that they are an art as well high-temperature routes. Therefore, the investigation of
a science. This situation is changing progressively. For in- interactions between organic and inorganic phases, as well
stance, in order to meet the requirements of miniaturiza- as nucleation and growth phenomena, is a promising area
tion and integration, these techniques have to be supple- of basic research.
mented by deposition techniques, such as physical vapour
deposition (PVD), pulsed-laser deposition (PLD), chemi- Nevertheless, conventional elaboration processes will con-
cal solution deposition (CSD), and chemical vapour depo- tinue to offer breakthroughs. A deeper understanding of
sition (CVD). During these processes, the materials are the surface chemistry of powders will lead to a better con-
synthesized on a microscopic scale without powder pro- trol of the interaction between particles during colloidal
cessing as an intermediate step, usually at temperatures powder processing, thus providing a means for controlling
much below the typical sintering temperature of bulk powder consolidation and defect-free microstructure.
materials. Not only can ceramic materials of small dimen- New methods for net-shape forming based on the control
sions (e.g., the size of semiconductor chips) then be of interparticle forces in dense suspensions of powders
deposited, thus responding to the integration needs of have been proposed recently. There is no doubt that pos-
different materials, but their ceramic compositions and sibilities offered by surface chemistry are far from being
structures can also be designed much more flexibly. The fully exploited, especially in the case of nonoxide ceram-
understanding and mastering of phenomena at the micro- ics. Among the challenges for future years is the develop-
scopic and, more importantly, at the nanoscopic scales ment of processing paradigms for the production of finer
clearly need further basic research. A specific example can powders, which could lead to new applications resulting
be found in thin films of ferroelectrics, where dielectric from different green-state architectures.
properties are dominated by interfacial effects rather than
by the bulk capacitance. Direct and indirect cost savings by process-cost reductions
and product improvements, respectively, are necessary in
A great challenge is the architecture of ceramic materials the field of advanced properties of ceramics. Cost savings
in atomic dimensions, not only in thin films but also in thick are typically achieved by a better understanding of the fun-
films and bulk materials. The ceramic materials will open damentals of the underlying processes. Savings could also
up novel classes of materials with properties still unknown be obtained by new types of low-cost processes, compo-
with respect to conventionally processed materials. One nent design changes or simplifications by using proper join-
possibility for research is the thermally induced transfor- ing techniques, or product-development time reductions
mation of preceramic compounds by solid state thermoly- (e.g., by rapid prototyping). In essence, processing science
sis (SST). By tailoring the composition and molecular struc- remains a net priority, but in the case of ceramics, it now
ture of precursors by means of advanced chemical synthe- extends far beyond the simple processing of powders.
ses, and by controlling thermolysis, the composition,
structure, and microstructure of ceramic materials can be (c) Miniaturization and integration
designed. The characteristics of precursor thermolysis, and One of the great challenges and opportunities in advanced
the relative ease with which various geometries can be pro- processing lies in the miniaturization and integration of
cessed at the preceramic stage (such geometries include different classes of materials (e.g., ceramics, metallic al-
fibres, thin films and coatings, infiltrates, bulk materials, loys, polymers). Miniaturization requires a search for new
processing techniques adequate for the manufacturing of ing of effects that occur during the co-production of dif-
M AT E R I A L S : S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G
miniaturized components and devices, but also a proper ferent materials in a single device, and also of the role
means to control microstructure at the mesoscopic level. played by interfacial chemistry in adhesion and fracture.
A new field of research emerges as many characteristics Concerning microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
reveal side effects at the mesoscopic dimension. For in- all scientific background of mechanical behaviour must
stance, the properties of thin films and nanostructured be revisited for two reasons: (1) classical fracture mechan-
materials often deviate from those of corresponding mi- ics may not be appropriate at the microscale when the size
crostructured bulk materials. of the component approaches grain size; and (2) the vali-
dation of the design will require new testing methodolo-
gies for strength, toughness, fatigue resistance, etc.