THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION IN AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT IN KANO STATE: A STUDY OF SASAKAWA AFRICA

ASSOCIATION
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
In recent times, the role played by non-profit, voluntary, state-independent organisations
otherwise known as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have become a topical issue
of discussion and reviews in the academia owing to the indispensability and complementarity
of NGOs roles to government effort geared towards entrenching development and improving
on the quality of life of the populace. In Nigeria, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
play unique roles particularly agricultural development which are supportive of the
government functions to alleviate poverty, create employment, increase agricultural
production and ensure food security. NGOs are generally preferred now like never before
especially in rural, community and agricultural development related projects because they
have demonstrated uncommon ability to reach the poor unlike government institutions. This
ability combined with carefully established development strategies have made NGOs to be
the preferred bride.

The evolution of NGOs in Nigeria dates back to two decades ago when the dire need arises in
Africa to raise the standard of living of the populace and address global environmental issues.
Particularly, the emergence of NGO in Nigeria started in the 1980s when changes in the
strategies and policies of donors and international development agencies forced the
government to adopt structural adjustment policies as condition for aid, which invariably
reduced budget available for extension services in agriculture. In addition, the incidence of
mismanagement of public funds, inefficiencies, and corruption that pervaded Nigeria resulted
in loss of trust by donors and led to increased interest in the use of NGOs for handling
development assistance funds and for project implementation. Further, NGOs during the
period gained a reputation as the leading propagators of a sustainable global environment,
and demonstrated considerable comparative advantage over government institutions
especially in addressing environmental issues such as energy, climate change, and
biodiversity (Woods, 2000; Owusu, 2003; Ndungu, De-Groote & Danda, 2015).

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Agriculture is important to the Nigerian economy as it engages about 70% of the labour force
and contributes over 40% of the Gross Domestic product (GDP). It provides food for the
populace and raw materials for industries (FMARD, 2000). However, despite the huge
potentials in the agricultural sector, government have not been able to harness the
opportunities in the sector to create jobs and satisfy the food demands of the teeming
population. The failure of various government agricultural programmes over the years has
shown that government alone cannot successfully provide the required increase in food
production to match the increase food demand of the bourgeoning population. This
necessitated the coming in of NGOs to collaborate with government in order to achieve rural
and agricultural development goals most especially of food security and employment
generation.

According to Cornish (2001), NGOs are bodies with broad international structure and goals
to be accomplished by influencing government and not constituted political parties. Non-
governmental Organizations are independent of government and their policies. They are non-
profit organizations that gain at least a portion of their funding from private sources. NGO
typically includes any private or non-profit entity that is formed or organized independently
from any national or local government. They are associations of individuals who for one
reason or the other identify some problems and make efforts to find solutions to them by
organizing themselves around the problems and seeking to supplement with internally
generated resources.

NGOs activities cover a wide range of interest encompassing natural resources management,
agricultural development, community development, policy research and human rights, health
and rural development, emergency relief, training and legal advice amongst others. NGOs
roles in agricultural development encompass creation of awareness among farmers of new
technologies, provision of inputs, participation of farmers in demonstration of innovations,
provision of infrastructural facilities, assisting farmers to adopt new technology, increasing
productivity, increase income of farmers and marketing of agricultural products (Ochi, 2006).

Adedoyin (2004) pointed out that notable NGOs existing in Nigeria which activities or core
objectives include rural and agricultural development are Nigeria International Rural
Development Organization (NIRDO), Christian Rural and Urban Development Association
of Nigeria (CRUDAN), Institute for Research and Change Advocacy (IRCA), Nigeria Rural
Extension Service Project (NIRESP), Nigeria Participatory Rural Appraisal Network

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(NIPRANET), Country Women Association of Nigeria (COWAN), and Nigeria Association
of Women in Agricultural Development Programme (NAWAD). Others include Farmers
Development Union (FADU), Diocesan Agricultural Development Programme (DADP),
United Nations Development Programmes (UNDP), International Fund for Agricultural
Development (IFAD), Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and International Institute
for Tropical Agriculture (IITA).

This study however focuses on Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) considering that it is an
international NGO in Nigeria that is committed to agricultural development and supporting
the government in realizing the objective of food security. SAA has established presence in
Northern states such as Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Jigawa, Kano, Kaduna, and Zamfara.
SAA is unique to this study because its agricultural development programmes give
precedence to women farmers, resource-poor farmers and those in more remote locations.
The major objectives of SAA centre on crop productivity enhancement, post-harvest handling
and agro-processing, public-private partnerships and market access, human resource
development, and monitoring, evaluation, learning as well as sharing (http://www.saa-
safe.org/wwa/vision-mission.html).

SAA is committed to the development of agriculture in Kano State. However, the women
farmers in the state are least aware of SAA programmes and utterly ignorant of the
contributions of the NGO to agricultural development in the state. Therefore, as this study
create awareness and bridges the information gap between SAA and women farmers in Kano
state it focuses on the role of non-governmental organizations particularly Sasakawa Africa
Association in agricultural development in Kano State.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The agricultural sector in Nigeria is bewildered by mirage of problems which militate against
optimizing its potential. Some of the constraints include low productivity, poor marketing and
distribution infrastructures, inadequate access to credit, weak extension services and
inadequate database among others (FMARD, 2000). A number of agricultural development
programmes have been carried out by the Federal, State and local government for many years
to boost agricultural production in Kano state. In spite of all the efforts, agricultural
production remain all-time low. Adedoyin (2004) pointed out that the low agricultural
productivity in Nigeria is as result of the farmers use of crude farm tools, lack of capital,
inadequate infrastructural facilities, illiteracy, post-harvest handling, lack of storage and

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processing facilities, pests and diseases difficulties, inadequate lands, illiteracy on the part of
the farmers, rural-urban migration and irrigation problem.

Attempts made by farmers in Kano state to increase agricultural production have always hit a
brick wall due to the use of crude implements and methods as well as outdated practices. The
growing of local breeds of crops and livestock, use of local storage and processing facilities,
application of conservative methods and practices, and superstitious beliefs are prevalent
among Kano farmers. As a result, agricultural yield remain low and output is barely able to
meet subsistence needs how much more commercial demands. Since government has failed
in ameliorating the plight of the farmers, NGO therefore serve as an alternative means to rural
and agricultural development, and bettering the lot of Kano farmers especially the women.

Development of the agricultural sector in Nigeria cannot be achieved without an efficient and
effective extension system. The decline in agricultural extension services poses sizeable
challenge to agricultural research and development in Nigeria since extension is the principle
avenue through which research findings and new technologies are brought to the farmer in
practice and demonstration. The problem is aggravated by dearth of infrastructure such as
good access roads to farm locations and constant power supply thereby making other avenues
such as email or the World Wide Web (WWW) in a telecentre through which information
could get to farmers inaccessible.

According to Agbamu (2005), the Nigerian extension service is bedevilled by several

problems such as inadequacy and instability of funding, poor logistic support for field staff,
use of poorly trained personnel at local level, ineffective agricultural research extension
linkages, insufficient and inappropriate agricultural technologies for farmers, disproportionate
Extension Agent: Farm Family ratio and lack of clientele participation in program
development. Others are poor input supply, irregular evaluation of extension programmes and
policy, institutional and programme instabilities of National agricultural extension systems.

Rural farmers particularly women lack access to knowledge and information that would help
them achieve maximum agricultural yield. Women farmers do not have access to input
necessary for improved rural agricultural development such as knowledge and information in
areas of new agricultural technologies, early warning systems (drought, pests, diseases, etc),
improved seedlings, fertilizer, credit, and market prices. As a result, despite enormous effort
they achieve very little yield per hectare. Accordingly, Aina (2007) opined that farmers would
benefit from global information if information centres are cited in rural areas complete with

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all information and communication gadgets. The lack of access to basic agricultural
knowledge and information by rural farmers in Kano State has forced majority of farmers to
resort to old traditional methods of farming system which invariably results in poor output
and low yield. High illiteracy rate and cultural barriers also contribute to denying farmers
access to modern new information and modern technology.

Sasakawa Africa Association has come to the rescue of farmers in Kano state by creating
awareness among farmers, organizing farmers participatory programmes, providing
agricultural inputs to farmers, encouraging technology adoption by farmers, improve farmers
productivity, enhancing marketing and distribution of farm produce and providing extension
services to farmers and contributing to increase in agricultural production. However, there is
still a wide gap between agricultural production (supply) and food demand even as majority
of farmers still make use of traditional methods and lack access of necessary information and
knowledge. This study therefore examines the role of SAA in agricultural development in
Kano State.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to ascertain the role of non-governmental organizations in
agricultural development in Nigeria. Specific objectives of the research are to:
(i) Examine the role played by Sasakawa Africa Association in agricultural
development in Kano State.
(ii) Ascertain the contributions of Sasakawa Africa Association to rural
development in Kano state.
(iii) Ascertain the strategies and approaches used by Sasakawa Africa Association
in promoting agricultural development in the state.
(iv) Ascertain the extent to which Sasakawa Africa Association programs
improved peasant farmers productivity in Kano State.
(v) Evaluate the factors constraining the NGO from contributing effectively to
agricultural and rural development in Kano State.
(vi) Examine the extent to which women farmers benefitted from the activities and
programs of Sasakawa Africa Association in the state.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions are hereby raised to guide the study.

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 (i) What role do Sasakawa Africa Association play in agricultural development in
Kano State?
(ii) What are the contributions of Sasakawa Africa Association to rural
development in Kano state?
(iii) What are the strategies and approaches used by Sasakawa Africa Association
in promoting agricultural development in the state?
(iv) To what extent has Sasakawa Africa Association programs improved peasant
farmers productivity in Kano State?
(v) What are the factors constraining the NGO from contributing effectively to
agricultural and rural development in Kano State?
(vi) To what extent do women farmers benefitted from the activities and programs
of Sasakawa Africa Association in the state?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses of the study is hereby formulated thus:
(i) There is no significant differences in the mean response of Sasakawa Africa
Association extension officers and peasant farmers on the role played by
Sasakawa Africa Association in agricultural development in Kano State.
(ii) There is no significant differences in the mean response of Sasakawa Africa
Association extension officers and peasant farmers on the contributions of
Sasakawa Africa Association to rural development in Kano state.
(iii) Ascertain the strategies and approaches used by Sasakawa Africa Association
in promoting agricultural development in the state.
(iv) There is no significant difference in the mean responses of NGO extension
officers and peasant farmers on the extent to which Sasakawa Africa
Association programs improved peasant farmers productivity in Kano State.
(v) There are no constraints impeding the NGO from contributing effectively to
agricultural and rural development in Kano State.
(vi) There is no significant differences in the mean response of Sasakawa Africa
Association extension officers and peasant farmers on the extent to which
women farmers have benefitted from the activities and programs of Sasakawa
Africa Association in the state.
(vii) There is no significant differences in the mean response of Sasakawa Africa
Association extension officers and peasant farmers on the extent to which
planned inputs of the NGO have been applied in agricultural development in
Kano State.

1.6 Significance of the Study

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The findings of the study would be of benefit to extension officers, research institutes,
Ministry of Agriculture, policy makers, government and NGOs in the agricultural sector. The
incessant failure of Nigerian government agricultural programmes and inability of
government to harness the potentials in the agricultural sector to deliver food security and
self-sufficiency in agricultural production points to the need to engage in more collaborations
with non-governmental organizations especially those in the agricultural sector.

This findings of this study exhibits the role and contributions of existing NGOs like
Sasakawa Africa Association to agricultural development in Kano state and point out the need
for the government and policy makers to enunciate befitting policies so as to intensify
collaboration and partner with the NGO and other NGOs in order to attain the goal of food
security and self-sufficiency in agricultural production in the nearest future. Research on the
role of NGOs in agricultural development such as Food and Agricultural Organization (1997)
and Ojha & Morin (2001) have noted that agricultural development strategies would benefit
from increased collaboration between government research and extension organizations and
non-governmental development organizations.

The study is relevant in that it ascertain the strategies and approaches used by Sasakawa
Africa Association in promoting agricultural development in the state for the purpose of
optimizing the strategies in order to reach more peasant farmers in the rural areas that were
earlier not reach and subsequently use same as a blueprint for other NGOs with focus on
agricultural development to effectively reach the target farmers especially those in the rural
areas according to plan. The study further evaluate the factors constraining the NGO from
contributing effectively to agricultural development in Kano State with a view to identify the
problems and proffer appropriate solutions in addition to employing the lesson to prevent
occurrence of similar difficulties in the future with respect to SAA and other NGOs which
core objective centre on agricultural development.

The findings of the study will also be of benefit to the farmers in Kano State as it educate
them on the need to embrace modern agricultural technologies and practices as the panacea to
boost agricultural production and make farming more lucrative. It also brings to their
awareness the role of non-government organizations in agricultural development particularly
the activities of SAA and the benefits accruable to farmers who participates in the NGOs
programs. Areas in which farmers would benefit include application and fertilizer

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management, enhancement of crop productivity, post-harvest handling and agro-processing,
and market access amongst others.

Further, the findings of the research adds to the bourgeoning literature on agricultural
development and also provide a background for further research to be carried out with respect
to agricultural development and role of non-governmental organizations in Kano state and
other states in Nigeria.

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The study is restricted to the role of non-governmental organizations in agricultural
development. Specifically, it examines the role played by Sasakawa Africa Association
(SAA) in agricultural development in Kano State. It also ascertains the contributions of SAA
rural development and as well ascertains the strategies and approaches used by SAA in
promoting agricultural development in the state. Further the study ascertain the extent to
which Sasakawa Africa Association programs improved peasant farmers productivity and
evaluates the factors constraining the NGO from contributing effectively to agricultural and
rural development in Kano State. Finally, the research examines the extent to which women
farmers benefitted from the activities and programs of Sasakawa Africa Association in the
state.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter centre on review of literature and other materials related to the study. It covers
the conceptual framework, theoretical framework, review of relevant literature and the
empirical framework of the study. The concept reviewed in the study encompass the concept
of NGO, agricultural development, rural development, extension services, etc.

Conceptual Framework

Concept of NGOs

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Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are non-governmental, non-profit making and

self-governing organization set out to ameliorate the plight of the people in dare need of life

sustaining facilities in the society (Omofonmwan and Odia, 2009). According to Osemeka

(2011) NGOs in its broadest sense refers to organization not based on government and not

created to earn profit.

NGOs are non-governmental and non-profit making organization that undertakes

institutionalization of stakeholder participation in community development. Non-

Governmental Organization (NGOs) are self-governing and led by will-ful volunteers. NGOs

are groupings that are outside the domain of government in the areas of formation, funding,

management and the processes and procedure in which it carries out its sets objectives geared

towards cultural, socio-economic and political transformation of all facets of the society

(Omofonmwan and Odia, 2009).

In defining NGOs World Bank observes that:

The diversity of NGOs strains any simple definition. They include

many groups and institutions that are entirely or largely independent
of government and that have primarily humanitarian or cooperative
rather than commercial objectives. They are private agencies in
industrial countries that support international development;
indigenous groups organized regionally or nationally; and member-
groups in villages. NGOs include charitable and religious
associations that mobilize private funds for development, distribute
food and family planning services and promote community
organization. They also include independent cooperatives,
community associations, water-user societies, women groups and
pastoral associations. Citizen Groups that raise awareness and
influence policy are also NGOs.
Specifically, the above definition according to Osemeka (2011) shows that NGOs are non-

profit making, voluntary, service-oriented/development oriented organization, either for the

benefit of members (a grassroots organization) or of other members of the population (an

agency). In essence they are:

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 (i) Organizations of private individuals who believe in certain basic social

principles and who structure their activities to bring about development to

communities that they are servicing.

(ii) Social development organization assisting in empowerment of people.
(iii) Organization or group of people working independent of any external control

with specific objectives and aims to fulfil tasks that are oriented to bring about

desirable change in a given community or area or situation.

(iv) Organizations not affiliated to political parties, generally engaged in working

for aid, development and welfare of the community.

(v) Organizations committed to the root causes of the problems trying to better the

quality of life especially for the poor, the oppressed, the marginalized in urban

and rural areas.

(vi) Organizations established by and for the community without or with little

intervention from the government; they are not only a charity organization, but

work on socio-economic-cultural activities.

(vii) Organization that is flexible and democratic in their operations and attempts to

serve the people without profit for itself.

Given the imperfection of the public and private sector, Elliott (1987) and Fernandez (1987)

argued that the NGO is better placed as voluntary sector organization to articulate the needs

of the poor people, to provide services and development in remote areas, to encourage the

changes in attitudes and practices necessary to curtail discrimination, to identify and redress

threats to the environment, and to nurture the productive capacity of the most vulnerable

groups such as the disabled or the landless populations.

NGOs function alongside the government as well as profit base enterprises in delivery of

social services for the upliftment and well-being of the society, they are therefore refers to as

the third sector. They evolve from experiences, interests, idea and innate zeal to respond to or

remedy the observed phenomena or desire in the society (Ehigiamusoe 1998).

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The Norwegian bilateral aid agency Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation

(NORAD) (2004: 6) defines development-oriented NGOs as organisations that attempt to

improve social, economic and productive conditions and are found both as small community-

based organisations at village and district levels, and as large professional development

agencies at state or national level.

The OECD (2006: 29) describes NGOs as crucial sources of capacity that can be unleashed

to complement and improve the effectiveness of the public sector. NGOs can further be of

use in both implementing capacity development plans and monitoring the outcomes of plans

implemented by government.

Categories of NGOs

NGOs are generally categorized according to the focus of their work (for example whether it

is primarily service or welfare oriented or education and development activities), operations

(for example collaboration with self-help organizations like community-based organizations

or whether they are federations of such organizations or themselves a self-help organization),

approach (for example whether they operate projects directly or focus on tasks such as

advocacy and networking) or scope/ area of coverage (for example international, national,

regional, or community based organizations).

Based on the foregoing, NGOs according to Osemeka (2011) are classified as follows:

(i) Relief and Welfare Agencies: such as missionary societies.

(ii) Technical innovation organizations: organizations that operate their own

projects to pioneer new or improved approaches to problems, generally within

a specific field.
(iii) Public Service contractors: NGOs mostly funded by Northern governments

that work closely with Southern governments and official aid agencies. These
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 are contracted to implement components of official programs because of

advantages of size and flexibility.

(iv) Popular development agencies: both Northern and Southern NGOs that

concentrate on self-help, social development and grassroots democracy.

(v) Grassroots development organizations: Southern locally-based development

NGOs whose members are poor or oppressed themselves, and who attempt to

shape a popular development process (these often receive funding from

Development Agencies).
(vi) Advocacy groups and networks: organizations without field projects that exist

primarily for education and lobbying.

Examples of NGOs with service/ welfare or education/ development orientation:

(i) Charitable Orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little

participation by the "beneficiaries". It includes NGOs with activities directed

toward meeting the needs of the poor -distribution of food, clothing or medicine;

provision of housing, transport, schools etc. Such NGOs may also undertake relief

activities during a natural or man-made disaster.

(ii) Service Orientation includes NGOs with activities such as the provision of

health, family planning or education services in which the program is designed by

the NGO and people are expected to participate in its implementation and in

receiving the service.

(iii) Participatory Orientation is characterized by self-help projects where local

people are involved particularly in the implementation of a project by contributing

cash, tools, land, materials, labour, etc. In the classical community development

project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the

planning and implementation stages. Cooperatives often have a participatory

orientation.
(iv) Empowering Orientation is where the aim is to help poor people develop a

clearer understanding of the social, political and economic factors affecting their
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 lives, and to strengthen their awareness of their own potential power to control

their lives. Sometimes, these groups develop spontaneously around a problem or

an issue, at other times outside workers from NGOs play a facilitating role in their

development. In any case, there is maximum involvement of the people with

NGOs acting as facilitators.

Examples of NGOs based on operation:

(i) Community-based Organizations (CBOs) arise out of people own initiatives.

These can include sports clubs, women organizations, neighborhood

organizations, religious or educational organizations. There are a large variety

of these, some supported by NGOs, national or international NGOs, or

bilateral or international agencies, and others independent of outside help.

Some are devoted to raising the consciousness of the urban poor or helping

them to understand their rights in gaining access to needed services while

others are involved in providing such services.

(ii) Citywide Organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce

and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups and

associations of community organizations. Some exist for other purposes, and

become involved in helping the poor as one of many activities, while others

are created for the specific purpose of helping the poor.

(iii) National NGOs include organizations such as the Red Cross, professional

organizations etc. Some of these have state and city branches and assist local

NGOs.
(iv) International NGOs range from secular agencies such as Redda BArna and

Save the Children organizations, OXFAM, CARE, Ford and Rockefeller

Foundations and Rotary International to religiously motivated groups. Their

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 activities vary from mainly funding local NGOs, institutions and projects, to

implementing the projects themselves.

ROLE OF NGOs

NGOs focus centre on a number of areas such as skill acquisition, economic empowerment,

disease control and management: Adult literacy scheme and capacity building and

information driven charity, conflict resolution and peace promotion. NGOs are formed on the

grounds of effecting desired changes in areas that are felt undesirable in the society. They

achieve their aims and objectives through collaboration and partnership with donor

organization and/or networking with other NGOs (Omofonmwan and Odia, 2009).

The roles of NGOs according to Osemeka (2011: 77 79) are:

(i) Development and Operation of Infrastructure: Community-based

organizations and cooperatives can acquire, subdivide and develop land,

construct housing, provide infrastructure and operate and maintain

infrastructure such as wells or public toilets and solid waste collection

services. They can also develop building material supply centres and other

community-based economic enterprises. In many cases, they will need

technical assistance or advice from governmental agencies or higher-level

NGOs.
(ii) Supporting Innovation, Demonstration and Pilot Projects: NGO have the

advantage of selecting particular places for innovative projects and specify in

advance the length of time which they will be supporting the project -

overcoming some of the shortcomings that governments face in this respect.

NGOs can also be pilots for larger government projects by virtue of their

ability to act more quickly than the government bureaucracy.

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(iii) Facilitating Communication: NGOs use interpersonal methods of

communication, and study the right entry points whereby they gain the trust of

the community they seek to benefit. They would also have a good idea of the

feasibility of the projects they take up. The significance of this role to the

government is that NGOs can communicate to the policy-making levels of

government, information about the lives, capabilities, attitudes and cultural

characteristics of people at the local level. NGOs can facilitate communication

upward from people to the government and downward from the government to

the people. Communication upward involves informing government about

what local people are thinking, doing and feeling while communication

downward involves informing local people about what the government is

planning and doing. NGOs are also in a unique position to share information

horizontally, networking between other organizations doing similar work.

(iv) Technical Assistance and Training: Training institutions and NGOs can

develop a technical assistance and training capacity and use this to assist both

CBOs and governments.

(v) Research, Monitoring and Evaluation: Innovative activities need to be

carefully documented and shared - effective participatory monitoring would

permit the sharing of results with the people themselves as well as with the

project staff.
(vi) Advocacy for and with the Poor: In some cases, NGOs become spokespersons

or ombudsmen for the poor and attempt to influence government policies and

programs on their behalf. This may be done through a variety of means

ranging from demonstration and pilot projects to participation in public forums

and the formulation of government policy and plans, to publicizing research

results and case studies of the poor. Thus NGOs play roles from advocates for

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 the poor to implementers of government programs; from agitators and critics

to partners and advisors; from sponsors of pilot projects to mediators.

Generally, NGOs provide basic services to people who need them. They complement the

development effort of government or the private sector. They can help to make the

development process more accountable, transparent and participatory. According to Osemeka

(2011), they not only fill in the gaps but act as a response to failures in the public and

private sectors in providing basic services.

Non-governmental organizations play an important role in the development of cooperation

such as bridging the gap between government and the community. They facilitates the supply

of inputs into the management process, mediating between people and the wider political

party, networking, information dissemination and policy reform. NGOs have the ability to

form close linkages to the local communities and to engender community ownership and

participation in development efforts. They also serves as intermediaries between actors in the

development arena, building bridges between people and communities on one side, and

government, development institutions, and donors and development agencies on the other. In

an advocacy role, NGOs frequently represents issues and views important in the dynamics of

the development process.

According to Nelson (2007:2), NGOs undertake a wide variety of activities at the community,

national, regional and global level. These activities include the following:

(i) Advocacy, Analysis and Awareness Raising: acting as a voice for people

both on a representative and self-appointed basis; researching, analyzing and

informing the public about issue; mobilizing citizen action through media

campaigns and other forms of activism; and lobbying business leaders and

policymakers.

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 (ii) Brokerage: acting as an intermediary between different sectors and groups.

(iii) Conflict resolution: acting as a mediator and facilitator.

(iv) Capacity Building: providing education, training and information.

(v) Delivery of services: operational delivery of essential humanitarian,

development and/ or social services.

(vi) Evaluation and Monitoring: Serving as a watchdog or third party/

independent auditor, both invited and uninvited, of government and corporate

performance, accountability and transparency.

NGOs also play significant role in influencing corporate reputation, risk management, costs,

revenues and social licence to operate. They have began to influence the emergence of new

business models, new corporate accountability mechanisms and institutional structures, non-

traditional cross-sector alliance, and changes in the public policy environments or framework

conditions under which certain industries operate. They have played an important role in

changing societal expectations of business by influencing the views and choices of

consumers, employees, investors, regulators, students and the general public (Nelson, 2007).

According to Ulleberg (2009),

As development actors, NGOs have become the main service providers in countries where

the government is unable to fulfill its traditional role. In the education sector, many NGOs

have moved beyond gap-filling initiatives into capacity building activities. In education

planning and management, capacity development implies a focus on the existing capacities of

governments and how these capacities can become strengthened on all levels the individual,

the organizational and the institutional, as well as the broader system context. Governments,
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donor agencies and international organizations involved in development are increasingly

putting an emphasis on capacities as key to sustainable development in general and in

reaching the Education for All (EFA) goals in particular. Equally, capacity development

implies assisting governments in becoming responsible and legitimate actors, willing to

assume ownership of their proper development processes.

NGOs have traditionally taken on the role of gap filling; that is, taking on activities of basic

education provision where the government lacks the capacity to do so or does not consider it

a priority. Some scholars link this role to the structural adjustment programmes that were

introduced in the 1980s and 1990s, claiming that they lead to the disengagement of most

African governments [] from their role as providers of social services such as education

and health, termed as non-productive sectors (UNDP, 2007: 5). Disengagement and lack in

capacity has been and is still the case in many countries, especially when it comes to rural

areas and marginal children. The situation in Uganda is a fitting example. Education

provision is primarily the task of the Ministry of Education and Sports. However, its lack of

capacity and the weak nature of the state in general have opened up the education sector for

NGO involvement. NGOs provide a large part of educational services and help reinforce

government efforts in achieving universal primary education (UPE) objectives (Ibembe,

2007: 13).

The importance of civil society participation is mentioned explicitly in the Dakar Framework

of Action (as adopted at the World Education Forum on Education for All) and recommends

enhanced involvement in education programmes. The framework underlines the role of the

state as the core provider of basic education, but insists on the engagement and participation

of civil society in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of strategies for

educational development (UNESCO, 2000: 8).

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The EFA agenda puts pressure on government to expand access and the quality of education.

Since many Southern governments do not have the capacity necessary to reach the EFA goals

in time, the policy agenda opens a window of opportunity for NGOs. One of the

organizations that actively promotes the participation of civil society is UNESCO, one of the

few United Nations organizations with a long tradition of cooperating with NGOs and civil

society.

Two of the EFA mechanisms created by UNESCO illustrate this commitment. The first one,

the Collective Consultation of NGOs on Education For All (CCNGO/EFA), is a process

whereby UNESCO seeks to learn from its dialogue with civil society by promoting and

furthering collaboration between governments and civil society, and encouraging the

participation of civil society in joint EFA efforts (CCNGO/EFA, 2003: 12). Civil society is

also involved in the Fast Track Initiative, a global compact on education in which capacity

development is an important aspect (Rose, 2007a: 15). Interestingly, the four NGOs that

consult regularly with the EFA Fast Track Initiative (Action Aid, Education International,

Oxfam and Save the Children) are often referred to in the literature in relation to capacity

development activities in education. The political will of relevant international actors such as

UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank and bilateral aid organizations together referred to as

a loose international regime for educational development (Baker and Wiseman, 2007: 3)

currently provides a favourable environment for NGOs that want to get involved at the

national level.

According to Miller-Grandvaux, Welmond and Wolf (2002), NGOs intervene where

governments have failed to meet their commitments to communities and they often

established their programs in those parts of the country where government cannot or will not

supply services. NGOs seek to empower communities as a way to strengthen them and to

improve access to and quality of education. Many NGOs working in education began through
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integrated community development programs, which generally included a literacy

component, or sponsorship of children and working in adult literacy often led them to work

with out-of-school children in the same communities. NGOs also carry out social

mobilization by assisting communities to secure needed resources and to participate in the

civil society of their country

Four major domains of NGOs involvement in the education sector according to Miller-

Grandvaux, Welmond and Wolf (2002) are: the relationship between NGOs and government;

the role of NGOs in education policy; the relationship between NGOs and donors; and the

influence of NGOs on civil society.

NGOs have not limited their education activities to service-delivery. They are also involved

in lobbying and advocating for educational reform, working individually and through

networks to participate in policy dialogue in many African countries.

Recent Education For All (EFA) meetings in Johannesburg and Dakar recognized the vital

role of NGOs in promoting universal and equitable quality of education. The EFA discussions

have heralded NGOs new roles as alternative education providers, innovators, advocates, and

policy dialogue partners. And donors have begun to engage in technical and institutional

capacity-building programs for local NGOs. NGOs work at the community-level, thus

affecting social change where others cannot; NGOs can represent and catalyze civil society,

an element many consider critical for sustainability and democratization; and NGOs are

simply more efficient than other partners.

DEVELOPMENT OF NGOs
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Solomon (1994) argues there are four crises and two revolutionary changes that came

together to lessen the hold of the state and create opportunity for increase in organized

voluntary action.

This first is the alleged crisis of the modern welfare state which became known after a fall in

global economic growth in the 1970s. This crisis was accompanied by the crisis of

development resulting from the recession of the 1980s, which practically changed the outlook

for developing countries. This occurrence brought about a new-found interest in "assisted

self-reliance" or "participatory development" which is an aid strategy that stresses the

engagement of grassroots effort through a variety of nongovernmental organizations.

Challenges resulting from environmental degradation have also motivated greater private

involvement. As economic and human activities grows the immediate surroundings suffers

depletion. Citizens have grown increasingly frustrated with government and eager to organize

their own initiatives. Finally, a fourth crisis which is socialism has also contributed to the rise

of the third sector. It caused a search for new ways to satisfy unmet social and economic

needs. This search lead to the formation of market-oriented cooperative enterprises and

stimulated extensive experimentation with a host of nongovernmental organizations.

Beyond these four crises, two further developments also explain the recent surge of third-

sector organizing. The first is the dramatic revolution in information technology that took

place during the 1970s and 1980s which resulted to widespread use of computers, fiber-optic

cable, fax, television and satellites. Information technology as engendered increased

communication links required for mass organization and concerted actions.

The final factor critical to the growth of the third sector was the considerable global

economic growth that occurred during the 1960s and early 1970s, and the bourgeois

revolution that it brought with it. It helped to create in Latin America, Asia and Africa a

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sizable urban middle class whose leadership was critical to the emergence of private

nongovernmental organizations.

According to Garilao (0000), the growth of NGOs operating in the Third World nowadays is

attributable to:

(i) Societal conflict and tension.

(ii) The need to respond more effectively to crisis situations in the face of

breakdown of traditional structures.

(iii) Ideological and value differences with the powers-that-be in the planning and

implementation of development work.

(iv) The realization that neither government nor the private sector has the will,

means or capacity to deal with all immediate and lingering social problems.

CHALLENGES FACING NGOs

The challenges facing the NGOs operations and management are the massive increase in the

required private welfare services; the diversification of population social needs; greater

demands for transparency and accountability (Bug and Dallhoff, 2006 in Monteduro, Hinna

and Boesso (2010). Also observed is the shift from philanthropy to sponsorship and a shift

from operating funds to project-based funding.

According to Omofonmwan and Odia (2009), many NGOs especially those in Nigeria are

being constrained by a number of factors ranging from that of funding to shortage of

volunteers.

Non-governmental Organisation (NGOs) can be distinguished by sectors. For example there

are NGOs in sectors like: Agriculture, Community development, Microcredit/ Enterprise

Institutions, Health /Population, Human Settlement/Environment, Women, Education and

Development, Social Development and Youth organisations. Service oriented NGOs are those

that provide different kinds of services to people and to other organizations. There are the
22
professional NGOs who have different lines of profession for example, education, health and

environment. There are NGOs as well as the Network NGOs who deal with association of

other NGOs (DFIDs Consultative Report, 1998).

Governments believe that it is their legitimate right and responsibility to control everything

that happens in their state. Although government wants to partner with NGOs but the

relationship is that of government regulating NGOs. As a result, NGOs performance or

coverage in the education sector is to a large extent determined by the amount of space given

to them by the government. Amongst others the space given by the government is

determined by political considerations as well as by calculation of the contribution of NGOs

to economic and social development.

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 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the methodology used in carrying out the study. In essence, it
describes the procedure of the research. The chapter covers sub-headings such as research
design, study area, population of the study, sample and sampling technique, instrument of
data collection, validation of instrument, reliability of instruments, method of data collection,
and technique of data analysis.
3.2 Research Design
The research will espouse descriptive survey research design. Survey research methodology
is suitable for the study since it poise to examine the opinion of farmers viz-a-viz the opinion
of extension officers of the NGO which is Sasakawa Africa Association. The adopted design
is supported by the Osuala (2001) and Ezeah (2004). According to the scholars, descriptive
survey research design is one in which a group of people are studied by collecting and
analysing data from a few individuals in the group who are considered to be representative of
the entire universe or group utilizing interview and questionnaire. Descriptive survey research
design is considered appropriate due to the fact that the research findings is based on the
responses or information obtained from farmers and NGO extension officers concerning the
role of Sasakawa Africa Association on agricultural development in Kano State.

3.3 Study Area

3.4 Population of the Study

The population of the research comprises 1000 registered farmers and 30 extension officers
of the NGO namely Sasakawa Africa Association n Kano State. Altogether, the population of
the study equals 1030.

3.5 Sample and Sampling Technique

Out of a total population of 1030 a total of 500 respondents comprising 470 farmers and 30
NGO extension officers will be selected. Thus, the sample size of the study equals 500
respondents. Purposive sample technique will be adopted in this study.

3.6 Validation of the Instrument

The 50 items questionnaire was face validated by four academicians who are experts in the
field of Agricultural Economics from the Department of Agricultural Economics of Bayero
University. Face validation according to Osuala (2001) is the extent to which experts agree

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that the instrument items are correct, appropriate and relevant to the study. Therefore, face
validation is targeted at determining the degree to which the questionnaire items are relevant
to the objectives of the study as well as research questions.

After scrutiny and assessment the questionnaire instrument was modified and restructured.
Accordingly, other necessary items that were earlier omitted were then included in order to
make the instrument complete and able to measure all the variables included in the research.
Based in the amendments, the final copy of the instrument structured and the suggestions
made by the experts were reflected on the final copy of the instrument before it was
administered for reliability testing.

3.7 Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability of an instrument refers to the consistency with which the instrument measures
whatever it purports to measure or the degree to which the test measures the same thing time
after time and item by item. The reliability of the instrument will be established using
Cronbach Alpha () reliability coefficient. To determine the reliability of the instrument, a
trial test will be carried out to show whether the items of the instruments are reliable.

3.8 Administration of the Instrument

The instrument will be administered and retrieved by self, that is, by the researcher. However,
a total of three research assistants will be engaged to help in administration and follow-up of
the questionnaires in order to elicit adequate responses from the respondents.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Data collected for the study will be computed using Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet) package.
The analysis of the data geared towards answering the research question will done using
descriptive statistics such as mean and standard deviation while the hypotheses of the
research will be tested using Chi-square and t-test at 5 percent level (95% confidence
interval) of significance.

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