Minerals Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 9, pp.

i165-1177, 1994
Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain
Pergamon 0892-6875/94 $7.00+0.00

os92-a~5(94)mo59-x
REMOVAL OF CYANIDE FROM SOLUTION USING ACTIVATED CARBON

M.D. ADAMS

Mintek, Private Bag~X3015, Randburg 2125, South Africa

(Received 26 July 1993; accepted 28 Februaly 1994)

ABSTRACT

The level of cyanide in plant railings is pertinent when considering the use of tailings for
underground backfilling operations.

Activated carbon is known to act both as an adsorbent and as a catalyst for the oxidation
of cyanide, hi the present study, activated carbon was found to enhance the removal of
cyanide, mainly as HCN from aqueous solutions at pH values of 7 and lower. Enhanced
rates of cyanide loss./5"om pH 10 solutions are achieved by the use of softer activated
carbons, or by the use of a higher degree of attrition, which exposes fi'eshly-cleaved
carbon faces to the cyanide solution.

Cyanide is removed most e~ciently from alkaline solutions and pulps by use of copper-
impregnated activated carbon. Copper(l) amt copper(ll) were found to catalyze the
oxidation of cyanide by activated carbon amJ also to result in an increase in cyanide
adsorption capacity. The adsorbed cyanide may be recovered from the loaded carbon
with dilute acid. Existing CIP o1" CIL flowsheets may be adapted to take advantage of
these effects, resulting in a simple, effective means for the removal of the bulk of the
cyanide reporting to gold-plant railings.

Keywords
Cyanide removal; oxidation; destruction; adsorption; activated carbon; copper.

INTRODUCTION

The level of cyanide in plant tailings is pertinent when considering the use of railings for underground
backfilling operations. At present, the majority of mines using the backfill procedure are treating their
gold-plant railings with ferrous sulphate. However, recent work [1] has shown that the immobilized
Prussian Blue species that forms is unstable under alkaline conditions, and may give rise to soluble
Fe(CN)~- in solution. The majority of gold plants send their residues to tailings dams. Pohlandt-Watson
and Jones [2] report the analysis of individual cyanide species present in several tailings dams.
Summation of these figures yields total cyanide concentrations of between 12.5 and 25.0 mg/l. Three of
the five tailings dams analysed contained more than 20 mg/l total cyanide. These levels are clearly well
above the ceiling of 0.5 mg/l required by the General Effluent Standard, but there is little chance of
seepage or leakage.

Presented at Minerals EnghleetCng '93, Cape Town, South Afi'ica,August 1993

1165
1166 M.D. ADAMS

Activated carbon is known to be effective for the oxidation of cyanide, and several relevant patents [3,4]
have been taken out over the past thirty years. Activated carbon has been investigated both as an
adsorbent and as a catalyst for the oxidation of cyanide. The method requires the sparging of the solution
with air or oxygen.

Cyanide is oxidized to cyanate in the presence of activated carbon:

CN" + 2OH- ,~ CNO- + H20 + 2e" (E = -0.97V) (1)

1,~O2+ H20 + 2e- # 2OH- (E = 0.40 V) (2)

CN" + ~&O2 ,-, CNO'. (3)

The kinetics have been found [5] to be first order with respect to cyanide. Some of the cyanate thus
produced is further catalytically oxidized by activated carbon [5]:

CNO- + 2H20 + H + ,,~ NH+4 + HCOj. (4)

In a development by Bernadin [6], copper ions are added to the solution to increase the adsorption of
cyanide, and to aid the catalytic process. The use of powdered activated carbon in conjunction with
CuCI 2 and oxygen has been tested [7] for the removal of cyanide in refinery wastewater solutions, but
was unsuccessful due to the build-up of organic compounds on the carbon. Application to wastewaters
with a low organic carbon concentration looked promising, however.

Activated carbon has been found [5] to display a modest affinity for sodium cyanide, but the adsorption
capacity is probably too low for this to be viable as a process for the recovery of cyanide. Copper has
been shown to adsorb to relatively high loadings on carbon [8], when present in the form of Cu(CN)5.
This option has been investigated by Reed et al [9], who report greater than 99 per cent total cyanide
removal when copper was added to the solution to enhance adsorption.

The adsorption of metal cyanide complexes forms the basis of the CIP process, and it has been suggested
[10] that the optimization of a CIP adsorption circuit for total cyanide removal leads to an enhanced gold
recovery. The aim of the present study is the identification of process options using activated carbon for
the treatment of backfill or tailings pulps and solutions, that would be compatible with existing CIP or
CIL plants.

E X P E R I M E N T A L PROCEDURE

Reagents and Chemicals

All chemicals used were of AR grade. All solutions were made up using de-ionized water. The activated
carbon used in most of the experiments was Le Carbone G210, which was purified by continual washing
with cold de-ionized water.

Activated Carbon Experiments

The experiments were conducted at ambient temperature, using 500 ml of a 0.5 g/l solution of sodium
cyanide at its natural pH value of 10.2, unless otherwise stated. The pH value of the solution was
adjusted with sodium hydroxide or sulphuric acid. Typically, an activated carbon concentration of 25 g/l
was employed. The solution was stirred with a magnetic stirrer, unless otherwise indicated, and the
required amount of activated carbon was added. Dissolved oxygen was measured with a YSI dissolved-
oxygen meter model 54A, which was calibrated with atmosphere-equilibrated de-ionized water, and
corrected for altitude and anabient temperature.
 Removal of cyanide from solution 1167

Cyanide was determined titrimetrically with a silver nitrate solution, using iodide ion and aqueous
ammonia as the indicator.

Cyanate was determined by ion chromatography. The cyanide content of some of the samples was also
checked in this manner, and a good correlation between the two methods was noted.

Impregnated carbons (0.5 per cent Cu) were made by contacting 50 g of dry carbon with either a 20 ml
solution containing 2.683 g CuCI2.2H20 in water, or 0.352 g CuCN in 30 per cent ammonia. The
ammonia was removed by heating at 90C overnight. The CuCN was made by mixing a 0.02 M NaCN
solution with a 0.01 M CuSO 4 solution, filtering off the white precipitate, and drying.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of pH and Carbon Concentration

Previous work [5,11] has shown the effect of activated carbon addition and pH value on the rate of
cyanide removal. At pH 10, virtually no cyanide is lost in the absence of activated carbon, while some
50 per cent is removed in 8 hours when 100 g/l activated carbon is added. When the pH is dropped to
around 7, about 30 per cent of the cyanide is lost in 8 hours in the absence of carbon [5,11], due to
evolution as HCN. The introduction of activated carbon results in approximately 90 per cent removal
over the same time period. At pH 4, both effects are enhanced, and a 90 per cent removal of cyanide
can be achieved in about 4 hours, both with and without activated carbon. Under these rather acidic
conditions, the evolution of HCN takes precedence, and carbon does not have a great effect. Unacceptable
levels of HCN may prove to be present under these conditions, which may rule out this option.

Effect of Activated Carbon Particle Size and Attrition

To determine the effect of particle size, samples of +0.5 mm G210 AS activated carbon were washed,
crushed and sieved into different size fractions prior to contact with the cyanide solution. To reduce the
effect of attrition, an overhead stirrer was used in these experiments.

Figure 1 shows the effect of the particle size of activated carbon on the removal of cyanide from aqueous
solution at pH 10. The crushed carbons all resulted in similar rate enhancements compared to the
uncrushed carbon (+0.5 mm). It is unlikely that this is due to the increase in external surface area,
although catalytic reactions such as the oxidation of cyanide by activated carbon take place predominantly
at the carbon/solution interface, since the additional external surface area generated by crushing is small
in comparison to the approximately 100 m2/g that is available in micropores. The enhanced reaction with
cyanide is most likely due to formation of very reactive broken bond sites along the plane of fracture.

The effect of the in situ attrition of G210 AS activated carbon was investigated by using different stirrers.
About 60 per cent cyanide removal was attained in 8 hours when a magnetic stirrer was used. When an
overhead stirrer was used, which caused less attrition, the cyanide removal dropped to around 45 per cent.
Activated carbons for the recovery of gold by CIP are required to be hard to reduce gold and carbon
losses and the Le Carbone G210 activated carbon used in these tests is an example of an extremely hard
carbon. A soft carbon would therefore be preferable for the removal of cyanides.

Effect of Carbon Type

Activated carbons that were made from a range of different raw materials were examined. Table 1 details
some of the physicochemical properties of the carbons studied.

Figure 2 compares the different activated carbons for the removal of cyanide at pH 10, using an overhead
stirrer. The peat- and coal-based carbons (A and B) are superior to the coconut-shell carbon and the
wood-based carbon C was even better. In a separate experiment using carbon C, in which the pH value
HE 7:9-G
1168 M.D. ADAMS

100
Carbon particle size
Volume of solution : 500 ml
Mass of NaCN : 0.25 g -0.035 mm
Mess of carbon : 12.5 g
Stirrer : magnetic + 0.07-0.125 mm
...lB..
80
+0.3-0.5 mm

+ 0 . 5 mm

"d" 60

E
a)
-g
C
40

.... ' -'0 .....

O I II , I , I J t i I i
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time, h

Fig. 1 Effect of particle size of G210 AS activated carbon

on the removal of cyanide from aqueous solution at pH 10

100
Volume of Iolutlon : 500 ml
M a u of NoCN : 0.25 g Carbon C
M u s of P.~ubon : 12.5g
Stirrer : overhead
Carbon B
---liB'--
80
Carbon A

G210 AS

60
O
E I J

"O
-
m 40

........:.:~:::S:: . . . . . . . . . . .~

20

0l i I A I i I ,
0 2 4 6
Time, h

Fig.2 Effect of activated carbon type on the removal of cyanide

from aqueous solution at pH 10 (overhead stirrer)
 Removal of cyanide from solution 1169

was not adjusted, the pH dropped to 6.5 after 30 minutes, and 95 per cent of the cyanide was removed
in 7 hours. This may be due partly to the volatilization of HCN. However, even when the pH was
maintained at around 10, the rate of cyanide removal was substantially higher (about 60 per cent in 7
hours) than that of the other carbons. This is probably due partly to the much higher rate of attrition that
was observed in the case of carbon C, and partly to the higher degree of rnaeroporosity (Table 1), which
would effectively enhance the external particle surface area. This premise is substantiated by comparison
of the different carbons with magnetic stirring, shown in Figure 3. Under these conditions, about 90 per
cent cyanide removal was attained using carbon C, even when the pH was maintained at a value of 10.
A comparison between Figures 2 and 3 shows that the effect of enhanced attrition is evident for carbons
A, B and C, but not for G210. It is possible that a very soft waste carbon could be used for the removal
of cyanide from tailings by this method, where carbon recycling is not a prerequisite.

TABLE 1 Physicochemical properties of activated carbons studied

Carbon Raw Skeletal Pore volume, cm3/g Surface

material density area,
g/cm 3 Micro Meso Macro Total em2/g

G210 Coconut 2.09 0.39 0.13 0.13 0.65 1000

shell

A Peat 2.18 0.37 0.03 0.32 0.72 1160

B Coal 2.17 0.37 0.13 0.26 0.75 1160

C Wood 1.60 0.19 0.64 0.93 1.76 1200

Volume of lolution : 500 ml

M m of NK::N : 0.25 g
Mmm of carbon : 12.5 g Carbon C

Stirrer : magnetic f
/ Carbon B
.-~._.
80
Carbon A

G 2 1 0 AS
~,o,o-

--- 60
oO-'" ............................................
t
E ,-""
P ,
1 -"
.'g
:
40 oOo ,'" ..,..-" , ...,.,." .....
oO- .. ........'"J'

\ =/ .......~
/ II .......""
....."
20
'x

_--0" . . . . . . . . 13"
r
0 :
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, h
Fig.3 Effect of activatexl cart>on type on the removal of cyanide
from aqueous solution at pH 10 (magnetic stirrer)
1170 M . D . ADAMS

Effect of Copper hnpregnation

Previous workers [6,12] have reported the catalytic effect of copper(II) ions on the removal of cyanide
by activated carbon. This phenomenon is also exploited in the use of copper(II)/chromium(VI)-
impregnated activated carbons for the adsorption of HCN gas [13]. Similar catalytic effects have also
been reported when hydrogen peroxide [14], ozone [15] or SO2/air [16] are used as the oxidizing agent
for cyanide destruction. In the present work, the effect of impregnating the carbon with copper salts was
investigated. Figure 4 shows that a marked enhancement in the rate of cyanide removal is obtained when
carbon is impregnated with CuCI2, with about 99 per cent of the cyanide being removed in 2 hours.
Analysis of the copper lost to the solution (Figure 5) indicates that only 0.1 per cent of the copper was
lost in 8 hours. Carbon that was impregnated with CuCI2 and then treated with Na2S solution overnight
showed only a slightly lower extraction rate than the CuC12 impregnated carbon. The aim of this
treatment was to render the copper insoluble, i.e. as CuS or Cu2S. However, somewhat more copper is
lost during the first half-hour than the previous case, and it is then readsorbed after a few hours. It is
possible that this may be partly due to oxidation of the sulphides, since the solution was in contact with
atmospheric oxygen. Impregnation with CuCN also increases the rate of cyanide removal by activated
carbon.

1 oo

CuCI 2

CuS
...~-
80 ,
ee ~
...."
r CuCN
...... ~ k .....

No Cu
---(~--
m 60 /
Volume of =mlution : 500 ml
E M m of NaCN : 0.25 g
~ of carbon : 12.5g
Stirrer : magnetic
Cu on carbon : 0.5 %
"
0
40

20
s

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, h
Fig.4 Removal of cyanide using G210 AS activated carbon impregnated
with various copper compounds, at pH 10

There are three distinct mechanisms whereby copper species enhance the removal of cyanide in the
presence of activated carbon, and the predominant mechanism at any one time depends on the oxidation
state of the copper, the concentrations of copper and cyanide in the solution and the pH value of the
solution:
 Removal of cyanide from solution 1171

(i) Reductionof Cu(II)

It is possible that copper(II) in the CuCl2-impregnated carbon is reduced to copper(I) prior to contact with
the cyanide solution. The effect of any remaining impregnated eopper(II) on the reaction can be explained
on the basis of the standard reduction potential [17] for the reduction of CulI(CN)j[-:

Cu2+ + 4CN- ,," CuII(CN)42- (94 = 1.O x 1022 M -4) (5)

CulI(CN)42-+ e- '," CuI(CN)43" (E = +0.66V). (6)

Typical activated carbons have a reduction potential [ 18] of around + 0.24V (versus the standard hydrogen
electrode), which provides the driving force for this reaction. The CuH(CN)42-species is also unstable
in aqueous solution, and rapidly decomposes to form CuI(CN~ and (CN)2, this step being rate-
determining:

Cun(CN)42-,,.- Cu1(CN)i + th(CN)2 + CN-. (7)

The cyanogen thus produced decomposes as follows:

(CN) 2 + 2OH- ,." CN- + CNO" + H20. (8)

(Analysis of the solution after mixing Cu2+ and CN- in a separate experiment with no carbon present,
showed the presence of CNO- in solution after reaction.)

The net result of this reaction is that some of the cyanide in solution is adsorbed on the carbon in the form
of Cu(CN)2-, and some of the cyanide is oxidized to CNO-, which remains in solution.

30

25

20 Volume of solution : 500 ml

M a n of NaCN : 0.25 g
Mine of oarbon : 12.5 g
E Stlrrer : megnetlo
o Cu on cerbon : 0.5 %
15
o
._
0
10

5
A ............................................................... ...A
. i<:{L.
I
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, h

Fig.5 Concentrations of copper in solution for the experiments shown in Figure 4

1172 M.D. ADAMS

(ii) Adsorption as Cu(CN)~

The copper(I) cyanide species undergo the following series of equilibria:

Cu + +CN- ,,,, CulCN (9)

CuICN + CN- - CuI(CN)~_ (10)

CuI(CN~ + CN- ~ CuI(CN)~z- (11)

Cul(CN)~ - + CN- - CuI(CN)~ - (12)

When a CuCN-impregnated carbon is contacted with a cyanide solution, the concentration of free cyanide
in solution will drop due to reaction (10), with the formation of the strongly-adsorbed Cu(CN~ species.
Figure 6 shows the distribution of copper(I) species as a function of total cyanide concentration at pH 10.
1
/
0.8 cu(c~
pH 10.
0.6

0.4

0.2 Cu(CN)," _

0
1

0.8
~ CuCN

{0
m
O

0.6
pH 7
=
O
0.4
e-
.o_
0.2
[ , CulCN)," ~ ,
0
1 !
CuCN
0.8
pH4
0.6

0.4
0.2
n Cu(CN)~,~, Cu(CN)~,
'~ Cu(CN)~
0~ 0.0o2 o.oo4 o,ooe o.ooe o.ol
Total cyanide concentration, mol/I
Fig.6 Distribution of copper species at pH 10, 7 and 4
with variation in cyanide concentration ([Cu] = 10 mg/l)
 Removal of cyanide from solution 1173

The calculations were made using the HALTAFALL program [19] on an IBM personal computer, and
assumed a total copper concentration of 10 mg/l. The initial total cyanide concentration in the
experiments reported in Figure 4 was about 0.01 reel/l, and much of this would react with the copper
(0.002 mol/l), yielding copper cyanide complexes and cyanate. Figure 6 shows that some of the copper
will initially be present as the Cu(CN)~- species, which has a poorer affinity for carbon [8] than CuCN
or Cu(CN)~, being more negatively charged. This accounts for the initial desorption of some copper
(Figure 5). With the progression of this reaction and the oxidation reaction, and as the free cyanide
concentration drops, the copper will be converted to the Cu(CN)~ and CuCN forms. These species have
higher affinities for activated carbon than Cu(CN)~-, thus accounting for the copper readsorption shown
in Figure 5. Figure 6, which shows the species distribution diagrams for copper cyanide solutions at pH
7 and 4, demonstrates the possibility of lowering the pH to regenerate CuCN on the carbon.

(iii) Catalytic oxidation

Details of the mechanism of catalysis by copper ions are unknown, but there is much supportive evidence
in the literature: Clark et. al. [20] provide spectroscopic evidence that adsorbed CuCN on activated carbon
is present as a 'surface-stabilized' Cu+Cu(CN)~ species. Activated carbon is known [21] to effect the
catalytic oxidation of several species, and the surface oxygen--containing functional groups are thought to
be involved. However, copper ions are known [22] to be a catalyst in other oxidation-reduction reactions,
such as the electro-oxidation of the sulphite ion:

Cu(I) ,,~ Cu(II) + e" (13)

Cu(II) + S032" ,,~ Cu(I) + IhS2062- (14)

Another approach to the use of the copper/carbon catalysis reaction involves the introduction of the copper
directly to the solution, rather than its impregnate on the carbon. Copper was introduced both in the (+ 1)
oxidation state (as CuCN) and in the (+2) oxidation state (as CuSO4), and the results are shown in
Figures 7 and 8 respectively. CuSO4 has more of an effect than CuCN, but neither salt results in kinetics
as rapid as in the case of impregnated carbons. In the absence of any added copper, approximately 20
per cent of the free cyanide is removed after 8 hours. The addition of copper as CuCN to the solution,
at concentrations varying from 1.5 to 93 mg/l Cu increases the removal of free cyanide to approximately
40 per cent (Figure 7), whereas the addition of copper as CuSO4 at concentrations varying between 2.5
and 61 mg/l increases the removal of free cyanide to approximately 60 per cent (Figure 8). It is clear,
therefore, that the addition of copper as CuCN or CuSO4 even at very low concentrations, results in the
enhanced removal of cyanide. However, the fact that the enhanced removal of cyanide is largely
independent of copper concentration is difficult to interpret, as it cannot be explained in terms of the
various equilibria existing between the Cu(CN)x I'x species. An additional complicating factor arises from
the strong effect noted upon the addition of higher oxygen concentrations to the solution containing Cu(I)
(Figure 7), which is absent when the solution contained Cu(II). The fact that higher rates of cyanide
removal were obtained for CuCN when oxygen was bubbled through the solution supports the notion that
copper-impregnated carbon acts as a redox catalyst. Moreover, the concentrations of cyanate detected
in the final solutions were found to be related to the copper added to the solution, as well as to the final
loading of copper on the carbon, as shown in Table 2. Oxygen evidently oxidizes Cu(I) to Cu(II) on the
carbon surface, thus perpetuating reactions (5) to (8).

CONCLUSIONS

There is little point in using activated carbon for the removal of cyanide at pH values of 7 and lower, at
relatively high carbon concentrations (greater than about 40 g/l), since most of the cyanide is lost as
gaseous HCN under these conditions. The rate of cyanide removal from pH 10 solutions is enhanced by
the use of softer activated carbons, and by the in situ generation of new carbon surfaces by attrition. This
would probably represent a viable process if a supply of suitable waste carbon existed.
1174 M . D . AD^MS

100

I08.smg/,;O,02:4 g/, 12:0moa

Volume of solution : 500 ml
M u s of NaCN : 0.25 g
80 MMs of ceut=on : 12.5g
Stirrer : magnetic

60
o>
E
(D
:
40
..........i i >
....-."""'" ,~mo ##
.........*""o. o , , do
;.;.-,, - ., ,-

20 e ......... ~_ . . . . . o
i .,~t ~
, ..,"
::' ax ......

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time, h

Fig.7 Removal of cyanide using G210 AS activated carbon, from pH 10 solutions spiked with CuCN

The copper(I)/copper(II) couple catalyzes the oxidation of cyanide by activated carbon, and also results
in increased adsorption capacity. Free cyanide can be efficiently removed from solutions at pH 10 by
adsorption onto copper-impregnated activated carbon, or by oxygen-assisted catalytic oxidation using
copper in solution and activated carbon.

A superior approach may be to recover as much of the free cyanide as possible. Typical plant tailings
contain [2] about 60 mg/1 free cyanide, and this represents a substantial revenue (about R I00 000 per
month) on a plant treating ore at 100 000 t/month. Given the 120 Mt/y of ore treated in South Africa
[23], this represents a potential total revenue of R90-miilion/y. There is thus a motivation for a process
that will not only yield acceptable cyanide levels in its effluent, but can also recover the cyanide for re-use
in the leach. A proposed process flowsheet using copper-impregnated carbon is shown in Figure 9. The
process would require about two additional CIP adsorption stages, with the cyanide-loaded carbon being
stripped with cold acid to regenerate the CuCN on the carbon. The cyanide could be recovered from the
acid eluate using conventional AVR (acidification-volatilization-regeneration) technology on a relatively
small scale, whereby the HCN gas is scrubbed into a caustic solution for eventual re-use in the leach.

Current work being undertaken prior to pilot tests is aimed at ascertaining the removal of complex metal
cyanides using copper-impregnated carbons and at minimizing the oxidation reaction.
 Removal of cyanide from solution 1175

100 Initial Cu in solution

65.1 mg/I;O, 60.8 mg/I 5.82.4mg/I 2._58.om_g/I[
w " - l . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Volume of =olutlon : 500 ml

80 Mm of NaCN : 0.2S g
Mmm of r4ut)on : 12.5g
Stirrer : magnetic

.o-"~. " ~ ~
.... D .... ......
.."" ~ ~ . . ~ ..........................................

-8
"~ 40
.,- .........;;,-
.,~

d" ...,.,." e, /

.....; ~ " , - " 0

2O
/
/
I
I

O-- ' I , I , I , I t I , I i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time, h
Fig.8 Removal of cyanide using G210 AS activated carbon, from pH 10 solutions spiked with CuSO 4

T A B L E 2 Cyanate concentrations in final solutions from cyanide removal

experiments shown in Figures 7 and 8.

Copper Cu Oz Final CNO" concentration in Final Cu

compound in sparge solution, mg/! loading
soln on
No carbon 25 g/l carbon
mg/! carbon g/t
CuCN 108.5 Yes 74 950

92.4 No 2 17 460

12.0 No ND 11 154

1.5 No ND 6 14

CuSO~ 65.1 Yes 26 725

60.8 No 21 36 565

5.8 No 3 7 66

2.6 No 1 61
1176 M . D . ADAMS

GOLD RECOVERY CYANIDE RECOVERY

r'q tonoM H I I
- - -~ ACID
| I 1 ELUTION I
i Au
Cyanld~lon
leach liquor
i : ! ; I vLATILIzATION I
, l i
Cyanide

|:1 ........... n i

,ttq-... I

Fig.9 Schematic process flowsheet for the recovery of cyanide from CIP plant railings
using CuCN-impregnated activated carbon

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work described here was carried out in collaboration with the Chamber of Mines as part of its
research programme, and is published by permission of the Chamber of Mines and Mintek. The
excellent technical assistance of Mrs O.L. Wellington is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

I, Adams, M.D., The removal of cyanide from aqueous solution by the use of ferrous sulphate.
J.S. Aft'. btst. Min. Metall, 92(1), 17-25 (1992).
2. Pohlandt-Watson, C. & Jones, E.A., Historical, analytical and environmental aspects of the
cyanide process in South Africa. Chemsa, 267-273 (October 1990).
3. Bucksteeg, W. & Thiele, H., Waste-water purification. Fr. addn. 92 912, (17 Jan. 1969).
4. Kuhn, R.G., Process for the detoxification of cyanide-containing aqueous solutions. US Patent
3 586 623, (June 22, 1971).
5. Adams, M.D., The chemical behaviour of cyanide in the extraction of gold. 1. Kinetics of
cyanide loss in the presence and absence of activated carbon. J.S. Aft'. b~st. Min. Metall., 90(2),
37-44 (1990).
. Bernardin, F.E., Cyanide detoxification using adsorption and catalytic oxidation on granular
activated carbon. J. Water Poll, Control Fed., 45(2), 221-231 (1973).
7. Huff, J.E., Fochtman, E.G. & Bigger, J.M., Cyanide removal from refinery wastewater using
powdered activated carbon. In: Cheremisinoff, P.N. and Ellerbusch, F., Carbon AdsolTJtion
Handbook. 733-757. Ann Arbor, Michigan (1978).
 R e m o v a l o f cyanide from solution 1177

. Fleming, C.A. & Nicol, M.J., The adsorption of gold cyanide onto activated carbon. III. Factors
influencing the rate of loading and equilibrium capacity. J.S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 84, 85-93
(1984).
. Reed, A.K. et al. An investigation of techniques for removal of cyanides from electroplating
wastes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Series, Program no.
12010, 87 (Nov. 1971).
10. Davidson, R.J.. A pilot plant study on the effects of cyanide concentration on the CIP process.
In: Fivaz, C.E. and King, R.P. (eds). GoM 100. Proceedings of the b~ternational Cot(erence
on Gold. 2, 209-223, SAIMM, Johannesburg (1986).
11. Adams, M.D., The chemical behaviour of cyanide in the extraction of gold. 2. Mechanisms of
cyanide loss in the carbon-in-pulp process, J. S. Aft. Inst. Min. Metall., 90(3), 67-73 (1990).
12. Hoecker, W. & Muir, D.M., Degradation of cyanide. Syrup. Ser. Australas. Inst. Min. Metall.
51, 29-36 (1987).
13. Ross, M.M., Colton, R.J. & Deitz, V.R., The study of whetlerite surfaces by X-ray
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