Running head: READING COMPREHENSION AND WRITING 1

How instructions in phonology, orthography, morphology, semantics and syntax assist students

reading comprehension and writing.

Devi Rambaran

University of the West Indies, Open Campus

San Fernando, Trinidad

READING COMPREHENSION AND WRITING 2

How instruction in phonology, orthography, morphology, semantics and syntax assist students

with reading comprehension and writing

As a science educator in a secondary school in the Caribbean, there are numerous problems that

are facing both teachers and students which impacts on the delivery of the curriculum. These

problems include and are not limited to school violence, absenteeism of students and reduced

contact time due to infrastructural problems. Added to this is the fact that many students that are

placed in the school are scoring below the 30 percent mark at the standardized Secondary

Entrance Examination (SEA). This score usually represent the students that have poor reading

and writing skills. From my experience, students who have reading and writing problems are not

able to do well in science. The new vocabulary and the need for higher order skills usually

challenge the students who are coming into the classes with poor literacy skills. Students are

required to read content material, follow instructions in laboratory experiments and write reports.

Students who cannot read and write fluently typically encounter problems which often lead to

frustration with the subject. The nature of literacy includes the spoken-written language

relationships and reading and writing as acts of communication and tools of learning.

To assist students with reading comprehension and writing, one needs to look at linguistics and

the varying branches of this field. Linguistics can be defined as the study of language which has

various branches which include phonology, orthography, morphology, semantics and syntax.

Each of these components plays a significant role in a childs ability to read and write.

Languages are composed of sounds that are assembled to form words which are combined to
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form sentences, which are arranged to convey ideas. There are three basic elements that come

together to support linguistic knowledge:

(i) To understand language, one must be able to hear, distinguish and categorize the

sounds in speech (phonology).

(ii) One needs to be implicitly familiar with the structure that constrains the way words fit

together to make phrases and sentences (syntax).

(iii) One must be able to understand the meaning of individual words and sentences being

spoken and the meaningful relations between them (semantics).

Linguistic knowledge depends upon all three elements being synthesized rapidly and fluently.

Reading comprehension involves two main components- decoding and language comprehension.

DECODING LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION = READING COMPREHENSION

If one of the above skills is not developed, children would not develop the comprehension skills

required for academic success.

Phonology make use of phonetics (sounds of speech) to see how sounds are arranged in a

language. It investigates sound differences within a language and the sound patterns. It

essentially looks at how the sounds combine to form words and words in sentences. Phonology

for instance deals with hearing the differences between the spoken words sip and ship.

Additionally it involves being able to distinguish between similar phonemes when they are

embedded in the context of whole words. Phonological awareness is the sensitivity of the sound

structure of a language. The English language (with a few exceptions) is written out sound by

sound. For instance, to write the word dog, a child will listen to the individual sounds

(phonemes) and then use the symbols that represent the word. When a child becomes aware of
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the fact that spoken words are made up of sounds, they are described as having phonological

awareness. This includes the awareness of rhyme, the awareness of syllables and the awareness

of the onset of words. Phonological awareness therefore promotes childrens understanding of

the relationship between speech and alphabetic orthography. Phonemic awareness is a more

specific term that falls under phonological awareness. This refers to the specific understanding

that spoken words are made up of phonemes, not just sounds for instance how many sounds are

in the word dog. A child learning to read will know that phonemes are the building blocks of

spoken words and they can be rearranged and substituted to make different words. In order to

read words in print, children must understand that speech is comprised of sound segments at the

phoneme level (Yopp & Yopp, 2000). Young learners need to hear sounds in words and link

those sounds to the printed language. They learn that it is easier to use larger chunks rather than

individual phonemes. Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness is what is necessary for

the child to understand that the letters in written words represent the phonemes in spoken words

(alphabetic principle). The alphabetic principle consists of the alphabetic understanding which

the knowledge is that letters corresponds to sounds and that words are composed of sounds. The

combination of alphabetic understanding and phonological awareness constitutes the alphabetic

principle. Children's reading development is dependent on their understanding of the alphabetic

principle. An understanding of this principle is the cornerstone of English Literacy.

Unfortunately, it is a concept that many children often fail to grasp probably due to the lack of

phoneme awareness, which would result in children not understanding what letters in text

represents. Learning that there is a relationship between sounds and letters allow children to

apply these relationships to both familiar and unfamiliar words, and to begin to read with

fluency. Children who are not aware of letter names would not know letter sounds and in
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recognizing words. Children can learn letter names by singing the alphabet song and also by

the use of rhymes. Phonemic awareness and phonological awareness are often confused with

phonics, but phonics is an instructional approach that emphasizes letter-sound relationships and

rules for pronunciation. Research conducted indicated that phonemic awareness is essential to

the process of reading and reading failure has been linked to the lack of phonemic awareness.

The development of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness are dependent on

language rich environments. The quality and quantity of verbal interactions with young children

play a significant role in building reading readiness. As a science teacher in a secondary school,

may of the students that I encounter should have these skills developed by the time they entered

secondary school. However this is not the case as many of the students entering form one level

(grade six) have poor reading and writing skills. It is not uncommon for a student to reach the

CSEC examination level (grade 10/form five) and not be able to read or write at that proficiency

level. Children who are less skilled in reading comprehension demonstrate poor memory for

words that they have recently heard from a spoken discourse (Perfetti &Goldman, 1976). This

can definitely be seen in classes where in direct instruction, children are unable to recall what

was spoken and also recall key terms.

Orthography is a set of conventions on how to write a language. It includes rules of spelling,

hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks and punctuation. Most significant languages in the

modern era are written down and for such languages, a standard orthography has been

developed. Sometimes there may be a variation in language orthography as is between American

and British spelling in the case of English orthography. In the context of the Caribbean

classroom where traditionally the British version have been taught, the use of various textbooks

have resulted in students using different spelling of the same words such as favor and favour.
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Orthographic processing is the ability to understand and recognise these writing conventions as

well as recognising when words contain correct and incorrect spellings. Children with weak

orthographic processing rely heavily on sounding out common words that should be in memory,

leading to a choppy and laborious style of decoding. These students are also more likely to have

difficulty applying knowledge of root words in order to decode a variation of a word and confuse

simple words like on and to when reading. Furthermore, poor orthographic processing will

almost certainly result in both a high rate of spelling errors and poor written expression.

Morphemes are the minimum meaningful units of a language. The study of how morphemes are

put together is called morphology (or morphemics) and is the segment of linguistics which deals

with the structure and form of the words in a language. Morphological awareness involves the

ability to manipulate the morphological units (i.e. morphemes) and the ability to identify root

words and their derived forms. It is the ability to understand the structure of a word and different

combinations of its morphemes. Different aspects of morphological awareness include

compounding, inflectional and derivational. Compounding refers to the formation of new words

by combining two root morphemes, for instance cow + boy = cowboy. In the context of science,

compound words occur in words such as armpit, backbone, breastbone and earache to

name a few. Many students that I have encountered have been able to decipher the meaning of

these words without having prior knowledge of these words. Notably weaker students usually

have more difficulties in pronouncing and deciphering the meaning of these words. Inflectional

morphology refers to syntactic or semantic relations between words without altering the meaning

of the word. For instance plural and tense agreement as in boys and loved . Derivational

morphology results in a change in meaning for instance un + loved = unloved. It is a conscious

awareness of word structure and sematic functional meanings taking into consideration the root,
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structure, suffixes representing the inflectional and derivational processes (Kieffer & Lesaux,

2008). Morphological awareness develops throughout a childs time in school (Nagy, Diakidoy

and Anderson, 1993) and affects reading comprehension directly as it explained that

morphological awareness leads to increased breadth and depth of word knowledge which would

affect reading comprehension (Guo, Ying, Roehrig, Alysia & Williams, 2011). In a secondary

school setting it is expected that a childs vocabulary would increase while at school as they

would be exposed to several different subject areas. Despite this premise, there are many within

the school system that are not functioning at the reading and writing level that they should be.

External factors such as ill-equipped and untrained teachers to deal with poor readers and writers

and large class numbers to teacher ratio do nothing to aid children with literacy problems. As a

science teacher my goal is to effectively deliver content matter, however the additional challenge

of students with reading and writing problems does impeded the delivery of the curriculum and

requires an integration of spelling and writing prompts in the science lessons. English is a

morphophonemic language which represents both morphemes and phonemes in spelling. An

example used by Chomsky and Hall (1968) describes this principle and how a child can use it to

read and make sense of words. The word muscle has a sematic relationship among words such

as muscular and musculature. Morphological awareness develops with exposure to oral and

written language which would result in older children having a stronger relation with reading.

Children use their understanding of morphology to learn new words and when they learn to read

a good understanding of morphology helps children spell and pronounce words correctly.

Content areas such as science provide a rich array of morphologically complex words that can be

exploited to improve students comprehension skills (Bauman, 2003). For the English language,
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spelling skills are related to childrens growing awareness of how orthography reflects

morphology as well as phonology (Ehri, 1992; Carlisle, 1998).

Reading comprehension has been defined as the extraction of meaning from printed text (Gibson

& Levin 1975). There are two skills that are vital for understanding text and these are decoding

and semantic processing. The ultimate goal of language is to convey meaning. Semantics refers

to the study of how language conveys meaning. Phonology carries information that makes

spoken words distinct and syntax constrains the arrangement of words in language, semantics

refers to the information contained within the language. Semantics is a global term that

collectively describes meaning at three different levels of language:

(i) The sentence level

(ii) The vocabulary level and

(iii) The morphology level

A childs vocabulary is greatly enriched when the child learns to examine the structure of words-

to examine words at the morpheme level. The child learns that words with common roots have

common meanings and that affixes influence the meaning of a word in specific ways. Semantic

knowledge therefore impacts a childs reading comprehension and fluent word recognition. This

can refer both to the size of vocabulary and depth of individual word knowledge. In the English

language, many words have multiple meanings, for instance the word duck. This can refer to

the noun (bird) or the verb (action). The more aware the child is about a word and its multiple

meanings, the more rapidly the word is processed. Semantics also affects the speed of accessing

the word as well as comprehension.

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Syntax refers to the study of the structure of language, the way words are arranged together and

the relationship between them. It provides meaning and helps minimize ambiguity. The rules of

English syntax prohibit rearranging words in a sentence in a haphazard way. The words in

English sentences are arranged in a fairly stringent structure. All languages have syntax,

although they are not the same. In no language however, is the word order completely free.

Words are combined in specific and restrictive ways. Syntax investigates how words combine

into successively larger structures to form phrases and sentences. There are four theories in

syntax:

(i) Order of the words- linear

(ii) Words in the sentence are different

(iii) Group the words

(iv) Locate connections in the sentence (sentence parts)

Syntax can also help children figure out meanings for unfamiliar words. Chomsky (1971) found

that children who read a variety of sentence construction had enhanced comprehension and more

syntactic knowledge. This knowledge of how words are used within different syntactic context is

key to fluency and comprehension.

Reading is the product of two cognitive elements which are language comprehension and

decoding. Language comprehension generally refers to ones ability to understand speech. It

refers to a childs ability to understand and draw references from speech that is in a language that

the child understands and it is at the level the child should understand. If a child is expected to

read English text, the child must understand spoken English adequately.
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The problem of learning to read is made up of two components- language comprehension and

decoding. Even among children who have adequate language comprehension skills, there are

children who have difficulty reading because they have only mastered one of the two

components. To be a good reader, a child will need to understand what text is and how it works

and what it is used for. Researchers have found that a childs ability to decode words in the first

grade is an excellent predicator of the childs reading comprehension skill in the fourth grade.

Decoding refers to the childs ability to recognize and process written information. Many

children learn that certain symbols represent certain concepts and ideas. For example, when

children recognise the golden arches of a McDonalds restaurant, it represents the concept of

food. This is referred to as environmental print reading. Additionally, the child may only

recognize the word McDonald once associated with the golden arches but not without that

context. Perfetti (1984) states that only a reader with skilled decoding processes can be expected

to have skilled comprehension processes. To understand text, a child must first read the words

accurately. Decoding requires translating print into spoken words and includes knowledge of

sound letter correspondences and structural analysis (syllables, word roots, suffixes and

prefixes). Good readers decode with ease, however poor decoding is a common trait of poor

readers.

Carol Chomsky (1972) strongly supported the connection between linguistic knowledge and the

acquisition of written language for those who acquire reading easily. To her, a child enters

school with a great deal of knowledge about language and can be actively involved in the process

of learning to read. The more a child is exposed to the interaction of sound and letters, the more

the child is likely to become a proficient user of the language- both oral and written. The
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common practice of parents speaking and reading to their unborn baby in-utero appears to have

relevance here.

Everything a child knows about the oral language contributes to the development of the written

language and access to all the processes needed for comprehension. This can be clearly seen with

students within the secondary school system in which they write in the same manner in which

they speak. The advent of social media content such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter has

added more problems with students writing proper and coherent reports.

Understanding meaning from the written text is crucial to effective reading comprehension.

Reading comprehension is the foundation to future academic learning in all subject areas;

enhanced vocabulary makes children confident in speaking and writing. For instance, students

within science class who have a wide vocabulary tend to write better laboratory reports than

students who have limited vocabulary. Like most skills, reading comprehension develops in

phases which are associated with elements which include phonemes, morphemes, syntax and

semantics. It is an active process that requires intentional thinking during which meaning is

constructed through interactions between text and reader.

Lexical knowledge refers to the knowledge which enables a child to recognize and pronounce

familiar, irregular words. This is developed throughout a readers life. The development of

lexical knowledge is most visible in children. Young readers start off as sight readers and when

the child recognises the limitations of memorizing whole words and shapes and starts

deciphering words. Eventually through experience with the words and feedback from teachers ,

the more words they will be able to identify correctly.

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Comprehension skills can be taught explicitly by demonstrating, modelling and implementing

specific strategies to assist readers. Explicitly teaching comprehension involves:

(i) Explicit description of the strategies used

(ii) Teacher/student modelling

(iii) Collaborative use within the class

(iv) Guided practice between student and teacher

(v) Independent use by the student

Explicit instruction in multiple areas of linguistic development can propel childrens acquisition

of written language from decoding to fluent comprehension. According to Scarborough (2001)

reading is a multifaceted skill and is gradually acquired over years of instruction and practice.

Skilled reading is the fluent execution and coordination of word recognition and text

comprehension as illustrated in Figure 1.0.

Increasingly strategic

LANGUAGE EXPRESSION

SKILLED READING

WORD RECOGNITION

Figure 1.0 Model based on Scarborough Model (2001)

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Reading and writing are similar processed of composing meaning; practice with one contributes

to the success of the other. Within my context, I have had to employ simple activities such as

word sleuths, crossword puzzles, spelling quizzes and flash card games to increase students

science vocabulary. The aim is to increase their vocabulary skills so as to produce better

laboratory reports and essays. Effective planning by teachers ensures that reading, writing,

comprehension, composition and spelling lessons are linked. Writing is an effective way for

learners to demonstrate comprehension and give an option to show understanding of text. It is the

belief that instruction and support should be provided by the teacher. As teachers, there should

not be any assumptions about the students language comprehension skills in our classes. It

should be known that children in our classes do not necessarily come from similar linguistic

environments and may not have equal language development. It is also essential that the

classroom be a linguistically rich environment, for instance by means of charts, word games and

use of videos.

Professional development programmes for teachers can be used to strengthen teachers skills and

strategies in giving quality feedback- positive, encouraging and diagnostic. This can equip

teachers in helping learners develop an awareness of letter-sound relationship, speaking and

decoding and gaining confidence and competence in reading. Improving students

comprehension within the classroom can incorporate teacher directed questions, student self

questioning, use of semantic organizers (graphic organizers) and student summarization of texts.
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References

Bender, W.N. (2010). Syntax and Semantics. Learning Disabilities.

http://www.education.com/reference/article/syntax-semantics/

Cain, K (). Morphology and reading comprehension development. Psychology. Lancaster

University.

Gafoor, A., Remia, K. (2013). Influence of Phonological Awareness, Morphological Awareness

and Non-verbal ability on Reading Comprehension in Malayalam. Guru Journal of Behavioural

and Social Sciences. Volume 1 (Issue 3). 128-138

Golinkoff,Roberta., Rosinski, Richard. (March 1976). Decoding, Semantic Processing, and

Reading Comprehension Skill. Society for Research in Child Development, Volume 47 (No.1),

252-258.

Guide for Designing Systemic Reading Instruction and Intervention K-3.

Available via: https://education.state.mn.us/mdeprod/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE

McCutchen, D., Stull, S., Herrera, B., Lotas, S,. Evans, S. (2014). Putting Words to Work:

Effects of Morphological Instruction on Childrens Writing. National Institute of Health Volume

47 (No. 1). doi:10.1177/0022219413509969.

Perfetti, C., Landi, N., Oakhill, J. (2004). The Acquisition of Reading Comprehension Skills.

227-247.
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The Unfolding of Carol Chomsky: How insights into Childs language changed the development
of the Written Language. (2016).
Available via: https://ase.tufts.edu/crlr/documents/2009WolfGottwald.pdf