Entrapment and Mobilization of

Residual Oil in Bead Packs

N.R. Morrow, SPE, New Mexico Petroleum Recovery Research Center
I. Chatzis, * SPE, New Mexico Petroleum Recovery Research Center
...... Taber, SPE, New Mexico Petroleum Recovery Research Center

Summary. Phase behavior, interfacial tension (1FT), viscosity, and density data were determined for the system 2% CaCl 2
brine/isopropyl alcohol (IPA)/isooctane. Liquid pairs from this system were used in a test of capillary number as a correlating
function for mobilization of residual oil in geometrically similar porous media as provided by bead packs. Close correlation of
results was obtained for a more than five-fold variation in permeability and a more than six-fold variation in 1FT. Extensive
investigation was also made of the change in trapped oil saturation given by vertical upward flooding; the ratio of gravity to
capillary forces varied more than 100-fold. A correlation between trapped oil saturation and Bond number was obtained that was in
good agreement with previous results obtained for gas entrapment. However, capillary numbers for entrapment of a given reduced
residual oil saturation (ROS) were found to be slightly higher than those for entrapment of gas.
Relative permeabilities were independent of whether the trapped phase was oil or gas and were determined mainly by the
magnitude of the trapped nonwetting-phase saturation.
Capillary numbers for mobilization of residual oil from bead packs were much higher than typical values for sandstones. For
bead packs that had been consolidated by sintering, capillary numbers for prevention of entrapment increased and those for
mobilization decreased. The net result was that differences in capillary numbers for mobilization and entrapment were greatly
reduced and results became more akin to relationships observed for consolidated sandstones.

Introduction Fluid System Used in Displacement Experiments

Secondary recovery by waterflooding leads to entrapment of oil
as a result of capillary action. The oil remaining in the swept zone
will be referred to as normal waterflood ROS, S~r' Enhanced
recovery of oil over that produced by secondary recovery can be
achieved under immiscible conditions either by reducing the amount
of oil entrapped or by mobilization of some of the trapped oil. For
strongly wetting conditions, which are assumed to apply through-
out the present work, trapped oil is held as discrete blobs. The proc-
esses of mobilization and entrapment are associated respectively
with displacement of discontinuous and continuous oil. Minimiza-
tion of entrapment is particularly important to maintain the integrity
of banks of recovery agents and developed banks of continuous oil.
Reductions in ROS with an increase in the ratio of viscous to
capillary forces have been demonstrated previously. This ratio is
often expressed as the dimensionless group vp./(J, where (J is the
1FT, v is the superficial velocity, and p. is the viscosity of the dis-
placing (wetting) phase. 1- 3 Relationships between capillary num-
ber and oil recovery by mobilization have been correlated fairly
satisfactorily for consolidated sandstones having a wide range of
permeabilities. 4 Capillary numbers for mobilization from select-
ed carbonate cores 5 were much lower than for sandstones, how-
ever, showing that the correlation determined for sandstones is by
no means general for consolidated rocks. One approach to more
detailed delineation of the role of pore geometry in mobilization
and trapping, which also provides a more meaningful testing of
capillary number as a correlating function, is to investigate geometri-
cally similar systems. In the laboratory, porous media are com-
monly prepared from glass beads or unconsolidated sands. With
due attention to the method of packing, close-sized particles pro-
vide media that, in a statistical sense, are geometrically similar.
For such media, porosity is constant and permeability varies as r2 ,
where r is the particle radius. Ability to scale porous media ge-
ometrically is of particular value with respect to making a direct
test of correlations between capillary number and ROS. Further-
more, theoretical estimates of capillary numbers for oil recovery6-9
need to be tested further against experimental results. In the pres-
ent work, experimental results are reported for mobilization and
entrapment in unconsolidated and consolidated bead packs.
'Now at U. of Waterloo.
Copyright 1988 Society of Petroleum Engineers
SPE Reservoir Engineering, August 1988
Various combinations of fluid pairs were used in the displacement
experiments. Systems of reduced 1FT were prepared by addition
of alcohol to oil/water (OAW) systems. 10,11 The isooc-
tane/IPA/2-wt% CaCl 2 brine system was studied in detail. Calci-
um chloride was added to the aqueous phase so that the system could
also be used in studies of displacement in cores of sedimentary rock
for which permeability damage might be a serious problem because
of the presence of clays and other fine material.
Selected overall compositions were well shaken and allowed to
equilibrate at 25C [77F] with temperature controlled to better
than O.l C [0.18F]. After phase separation, which included
centrifuging, phase compositions were determined by gas chroma-
tography. The phase envelope and tie-lines for equilibrated pairs
of liquids are shown in Fig. lao
1FT's between equilibrated phases were measured by a du Nuoy
ring tensiometer and/or spinning drop for the compositions shown
by the tie-lines of Fig. lao Excellent agreement was obtained over
the range where 1FT's were measured by both methods. From the
separation between tie-lines, it is seen that close control of 1FT can
be achieved through the addition of alcohol, particularly for the
range of about 0.1 to 13 mN/m [0.1 to 13 dynes/cm].
It had been anticipated that the position of the plait point could
be obtained by extrapolating the midpoints of tie-lines. For com-
position pairs giving tensions ofless than 0.1 mN/m [0.1 dynes/cm],
however, the locus showed change in direction (see midpoints shown
for Tie-Lines 6 through 14 in Fig. la). This could result from
difficulties of phase separation and other problems associated with
making measurements close to the plait point. However, the lowest
1FT for which displacement test data are reported in the present
work is 2.8 mN/m [2.8 dynes/cm] (i.e., compositions between those
of Tie-Lines 7 and 8). Therefore, the precision of results at low
tension and the location of the plait point are not crucial to this study.
Phase densities were determined gravimetrically. Viscosities were
determined by Ostwald viscometers. Densities, density differences,
and viscosities of the aqueous and oleic phases at 25C [77F] are
included in Fig. Ib, which provides plots ofIFT vs. density differ-
ence and 1FT vS. viscosity of oil, P.o, or water, P.w' phases.
The sensitivity of phase behavior to temperature was investigat-
ed for a comparable OAW system, the aqueous phase being a 1;3
NaCl/2h CaCl 2 (by weight) solution of equal ionic strength to the
2-wt% CaCl2 solution. The phase envelope for the NaCl/CaCI 2
927
 ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL VI scasl TV (mPo.s)

r'
I
O~45 O~5O
,
2 I'w
0.'60
3
l'o' 0.70
~
tl Composition Path r I i I i I

e Composition Anolysis 40

20.
E
~ 10
E S
6
z
a
If)
z
W
I-
.....I

~ I
~ 08
0:: O.t.
w
;Z 0.4

b 0..2

o..llf~-o.::-':.I:J..uLW..l...W.~o.2u......J...L.1</L..U-':o.:-:3w..J.:LU..J..uo.""4
(a) 2% ISOOCTANE (b) IIp . DENSITY DIFFERENCE(g/ml)

Fig. 1-Propertles of Isopropyl alcohol/isooctane/2% CaCI 2 brine system used in displacement studies. (a) Phase envelope for
2% CaCI 2 brine, Isooctane, and isopropyl alcohol showing compositions, tie-lines, and 1FT's of equilibrated liquid pairs. (b) Rela-
tionships between fluid properties at 25C (numbers Indicated correspond to tie-line compositions shown in Fig. 1a).

, ..
Q .....
.'
,-:'

~ .

(a) LOWER END PLUG (b) COLUMN (c) ARRANGEMENT FOR PER-
MEABILITY MEASUREMENTS

Fig. 2-Apparatus for measurement of capillary number relationships and relative permea-
bllitles at reduced residual saturation In unconsolidated bead packs.

system fell very close to that for the CaCl 2 system. A slight in-
crease in tie-line slopes observed for the NaCI/CaCl 2 system was
in the direction to be expected because hydration of sodium ions
is greater than for calcium; this causes a small increase in the amount
of alcohol that partitions into the oil phase. Increase in tempera-
ture from 25 to 30C [77 to 86F] caused a small shift in tie-lines
but little change in the position of the phase envelope. It was con-
cluded that laboratory temperatures were sufficiently well controlled
(232C [73.43.6F]) that displacement experiments could be
conducted at ambient temperature without significant effect on OAW
fluid properties.
Contact angle measurements showed that there was strong wet-
ting of silica by the aqueous phase for all liquid pairs used in the
displacement experiments. For convenience in discussion, the aque-
ous and oleic phases will be referred to as water (W) and oil (0)
phases, respectively.

928 SPE Reservoir Engineering, August 1988

 TABLE 1-TRAPPING OF OLEIC PHASE AT VARIOUS BOND NUMBERS FOR CAPILLARY NUMBER OF 1.01 x 10- 5

Residual
Bead Radius, a ilp Saturation Standard Number of
Mesh r (ltm) (mN/m) (g/cm 3 ) ~ ~ (%) Deviation Runs vitIa + 0.001412(ilpgr 2 Ia)
---
70/80 97.2 22.37 0.318 0.00132 759.47 15.15 0.61 6 1.2 x 10- 5
80/100 81.9 11.53 0.300 0.00171 585.05 15.19 0.51 6 1.25x 10- 5
45/50 163 21.05 0.315 0.0039 256.23 15.16 1.11 8 1.56x 10- 5
35/40 230 21.05 0.315 0.0078 128.69 14.06 0.55 6 2.11xl0- 5
30/35 274 21.53 0.317 0.0109 91.74 13.53 1.6 10 2.55x 10- 5
30/35 274 6.65 0.288 0.0319 31.35 10.94 1.12 7 5.51 x 10- 5
18/20 463 10.1 0.300 0.0624 16.03 7.84 0.81 5 9.82xl0- 5
18/20 463 6.5 0.289 0.093 10.75 6.42 0.71 6 1.41xl0- 4
16/18 545 6.65 0.288 0.126 7.82 4.3 1.09 8 1.88x 10- 4
18/20 463 2.5 0.274 0.23 4.35 3.12 0.88 9 3.35 x 10- 4

Experimental Procedures for Displacement Work
Unconsolidated Bead Packs. Bead packs were contained in a glass
chromatographic column with internally threaded glass ends (see
Fig. 2). The column had an internal diameter of2.5 cm [1 in.] and
length of 30 em [12 in.]. The column was fitted with threaded teflon
end pieces. A glass frit of pore size 10 to 20 ~m was sealed into
the lower end with epoxy resin. A circular polytetrafluorethylene
screen and polyethylene washer were inserted in the upper end.
The column could withstand pressure differences of up to 1.379
MPa [200 psi] across the bead pack and glass frit.
All liquids used in displacement experiments were deaerated be-
fore use. The empty column was first flooded with the W phase
at high capillary number to ensure removal of all air from the frit.
The upper portion of the glass tube was wiped dry, and the column
was weighed with the W phase in and below the frit. More W phase
was added, and a known weight of beads was slowly and carefully
added to avoid trapping of air while the column was vibrated to
aid uniform packing. Sufficient beads were added to make the pack-
ing essentially fixed when the upper end cap was screwed down.
The fIlled column was disconnected and weighed at initial and sub-
sequent stages of displacement.
Establishing Irreducible Wetting-Phase Saturation. The W phase
was displaced with the 0 phase by gravity. Fluid levels were set
so that the hydrostatic head at the membrane provided sufficient
suction for drainage of all the given bead pack to irreducible wetting-
phase saturation. The suction was well below that needed for
penetration of the glass frit. The column was allowed to drain for
about 24 hours. The space below the frit remained completely filled
with lower phase at all times.
Mobilization. The column was flooded with W phase at low capil-
lary number to give an S~r of about 15 %. Because the W phase
is more viscous than the 0 phase, viscous instabilities should not
occur during the establishment of S~r' The column was then
flooded with W phase at increasingly higher flow rates (i.e., in-
creased capillary numbers). All runs were carried out with a spe-
cially constructed pump that was driven through mechanical linkage
by an air piston. After steady-state flow conditions had been estab-
lished, flow rate was measured at the set pressure acting on the
air piston of the displacement pump. The pump capacity was about
200 cm 3 . About 2 PV was passed through the column at each
selected flooding rate. After flooding at a given rate, residual satu-
ration was determined by weighing. Bead size, 1FT's, and density
differences in this series of experiments were such that the effect
of buoyancy on ROS was very small.
Relative permeabilities were measured at reduced ROS achieved
after mobilization of trapped oil. Permeability to the flowing water
phase was determined by a falling-head technique for which the
rate of volumetric displacement was proportional to the hydrostatic
head. For a given saturation, plots of volumetric displacement vs.
logarithm oftime yielded straight-line relationships, with permea-
bility being related to slope. The resistance of the column was meas-
ured in the absence of the packing to allow correction for the
resistance of the fritted glass and the inlet and outlet ports. In ob-
taining reproducible measurements, however, some difficulty was
experienced that appeared to be related to the large correction re-
quired for the presence of the frit compared with that for a wire
screen used in previous work. 12 The experimental procedure for
tests in which relative permeabilities are reported was therefore
modified as follows so that the frit could be removed after the bead
pack was drained to irreducible saturation. The packing was first
saturated with the beads held in place by a wire mesh. The end
piece containing the fritted glass was then screwed into the upper
end of the column, the height of the column being such that the
frit bore down on the packing. After the upper part of the column
assembly was fully saturated through the packing, the column was
inverted and drained to irreducible wetting saturation. After
drainage, the column was restored to its original position, and the
end piece containing the frit was removed and replaced by the origi-
nal end piece containing the wire screen. The column was then
waterflooded at low capillary number to establish normal ROS,
S~r' After permeability at saturation S~r was measured, the column
was flooded at high capillary number to a reduced ROS. The falling-
head technique was then used to measure permeability under con-
ditions where the correction for the resistance of the column in the
absence of beads was quite minor. These measurements provided
relationships between relative permeability to water at S~r and re-
duced residual saturation, Sor'
Entrapment. In experiments on entrapment of oil by water, the
column was set up and drained to irreducible water saturation by
the method described previously. The column was then flooded at
some selected capillary number, and the volume of oil trapped was
determined gravimetrically. Next, the column was flushed with
about 8 to 10 PV of IPA and then resaturated with the W phase.
The procedure of draining to irreducible wetting-phase saturation
was then repeated with subsequent flooding carried out at increased
capillary number. This cyclic procedure was used to obtain a rela-
tionship between capillary number and reduced residual saturation
achieved by entrapment for a given packing.
The effect of buoyancy forces on entrapment was investigated
by carrying out a series of floods at constant and comparatively
low capillary number with bead size, 1FT, and density difference
as variables.
Sintered Bead Packs. Cylinders of artificial consolidated media
were made from bead packs by light sintering at about 700C
[l,300F]. The cylinders were 7 cm [2* in.] long and 3.8 cm [llh
in.] in diameter and were encapsulated in epoxy resin of about
1.3-cm [lh-in.] thickness with metal end plates tapped for inlet and
exit flow lines. It was found that the epoxy-confined core could
withstand pressures of at least 250 kPa [36 psi]. This method of
confining the test specimen was chosen so that saturations could
be determined accurately by weighing. However, difficulties were
experienced in obtaining satisfactory gravimetric and volumetric
material balances for OA W systems, so only one preliminary set
of data is presented for this system.
In a second approach to studying the effects of consolidation, a
packing of lightly sintered glass beads was formed between two
rectangular glass plates separated by a distance of about six bead
diameters. The spacing was set by two strips of glass set at the ends
of the plates and temporarily glued in place. After a third side was
closed with masking tape, the space between the plates was filled

SPE Reservoir Engineering, August 1988 929

 1.0.-------,r-----~-------,

LEGEND z
o Legend
20 ---
-- . . --
BRINE-ISO-OCTANE-IPA SYSTEM-I Nc
SOLTROL OILAIR SYSTEMI Nc = 2.82xI0") 12
=1.01 x 10")
~
a::
f Experimental Data 13

:J __ ... PredICtion byWilklnson(1984) "

SOLTROL OILAIR SYSTEM'INC = 1.01 x IO"-by interpolation)
~
- Regression line '
15 01

10
... -- - ------ ------ ----- - --. ---- ...J

:5 '-
o If)0
If) I

W .~
a::lf)
5 z~

- 001
w
l.!)
0L---~25-----5~0-----7L5----~IOO~--~12-5----IL50-----. z
I LJ \~r-'>{)r) U.li61J loq(N ) - 0.26637
B
INVERSE BOND NUMBER --.- u lr)rt'l'ldt liHl (r)f'ff l( ll'nt Ll.993
dpgr 2

Fig. a-Comparison of relationships between trapped residual

nonwetting phase and inverse Bond number for air/oil and
oil/water systems.
(a)
IOr-~----r--------r----------'"
with glass beads and masking tape was run along the fourth side. Legend
vtJ/(j
The model was then heated in a muffle furnace at 710C [13lOF]
" AIR-OIL DATA 2.82x10' 5 }
for about 1 hour. The glass beads became lightly consolidated and .J.. Morrow and Song ran 12.
A AIR-OIL [lto.TA 2.82 x llT- 119811
also fused to the glass plates, as did the end spacers. The model 1.01 x 10 5 THIS WORK ,.
OAW SYSTEM
was left overnight in the furnace to cool to room temperature. The
sides of the model (these are likely to have associated packing het-
erogeneities) were sawn off with a diamond wheel blade and then Jr
'- 1
. -THEORY" <: 10'7

sealed with epoxy resin. Finally, flow ports were drilled at each
end of the model. Variation in time of fusion and temperature could
be used to vary the degree of consolidation as judged from the
decrease in the porosity of the model. The prepared micromodels
of this type had dimensions of 10 x 20 cm [4 x 8 in.] and an overall
thickness of 0.45 cm [0.18 in.]
In the displacement experiments, air was used as the nonwetting
phase and a 50/50 mixture of styrene and xylene as the wetting
phase. Use of these liquids, which happened to be on hand, gave
a close match in refractive index with the glass; the distribution
of residual nonwetting-phase blobs could be observed directly and
recorded by photography or videotaping.
Model PV was determined from the difference in dry and liquid-
saturated weights of the model. Displacements at low capillary num-
ber were carried out with constant-rate syringe pumps. Constant-
pressure injection pumps were used to obtain capillary numbers up
to about 8 x 10 -4. Changes in fluid saturation within a model were
determined gravimetrically. Experiments were run with the plane
of the model in both horizontal and vertical positions.
Results and Discussion
Unconsolidated Bead Packs.
Buoyancy vs. Capillary Forces. Extensive investigation was made
of the effect of the ratio of gravity to capillary forces expressed
as the Bond number on entrapment using OA W systems. For bead
packs, it is convenient to express the Bond number as Apgr2 /a,
where Ap is the density difference. A summary of results and test
conditions is given in Table 1. These results largely reflect the ef-
fect of Bond number on residual oil, the capillary number being
low and constant for all displacement tests. Data for entrapment
of 0 phase and standard deviations are presented in Fig. 3. Also
shown are data for trapping of air by Soltrol at slightly higher
capillary number (2.82XlO- 5 ) and an estimate of results (based
on a correlation 12 of the combined effect of viscous and buoyan-
cy forces on trapping of gas) that would be given by the lower capil-
lary number (1.01 x 10 - 5 ). Standard deviations were approx-
imately proportional to the inverse of phase-density differences and
for the oill air system were therefore only about 1,4 of those shown
for the OAW system. It is concluded that the small increase in
residual oil of about 1 'h % PV is significant and may be associated
with the effect of nonwetting-phase viscosity on the outcome of
capillary instabilities, which occur no matter how slowly the over-
930
.,.t'
.
..&
I _,,'6
.0
'-
(f)
o o
Fig. 4-Comparison of the effect of Bond number on the
change in ROS: (a) experimental data for OAW systems and
(b) air/oil and OAW systems.
all displacement is conducted. Apart from the tendency for OAW
systems to retain somewhat higher residuals, there is close agree-
ment in the correlations obtained for trapping of gaseous and oleic
nonwetting phases.
The effect of Bond number on the magnitude of residual non-
wetting phase l2 was recently modeled by Wilkinson 13 by use of
a so-called invasion percolation approach. Predictions were made
for the reduction in ROS, S~r-Sor' as a function of Bond number
when the capillary number is very low (e.g., < 10- 7 ). In the pres-
ent work, the effect of Bond number at fixed capillary number con-
ditions on the ROS was determined (see Table 1) for OAW systems.
Comparisons of results with theory are shown in Fig. 4a and b.
When the mean values of Sor and S~r of the OAW systems are
used, the experimental results at a capillary number vfJ.la=
1.01 x 10- 5 follow the trend predicted by theory 13 (Fig. 4a). The
regression line gave a slope of - 0.78, which is in agreement with
the value of 0.77 predicted by theory. 13 However, the range of
Bond number values over which S~r-Sor values can be measured
with accuracy is very narrow, 0.03<NB <0.15. For N B < 10- 2 ,
the reduction in ROS is difficult to measure. For NB > 10- 1 , the
experimental results for trapping of air by oil deviate from the the-
oretical prediction. Thus, theory is supported by experiment for
values of Bond number 10 - 2 < N B < 10 -1 even for capillary num-
ber conditions that are higher than lO -7 by two orders of magni-
tude. Because of the many simplifications used in development of
the theory, however, it is possible that the agreement is fortuitous.
A further test of theory will follow once measurements of residual
saturation vs. Bond number become available for consolidated media
such as sandstones.
SPE Reservoir Engineering, August 1988
 200 TTTnj iii ii'''1 I ' i 111111 i i Ii jilll ,i i i lill

IB.O 18.0

160 160
r .. 97 microns
(],.. 6.6 dynes/em
14.0 r .. 162 microns 14.0 +-------+------ ..... ~
".17.0 dynes/em
,
12.0 12 0 't
\
TEST I mae
TEST Z 6064
TEST 3 + + +
10.0 10 a

B.O 8.0

6.0 60

40 40

2.0
2.0

0.0 0.0
000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 0.000001 000001 0.0001 0001 0.1 1.0
CAPILLARY NUMBER
CAPILLARY NUMBER
(b)
(0 )
20.0 20.0

18.0 18.0

16.0 16.0

r-115 microns
14.0 14.0
u= 11.8 dynes/em r - 70 microns
(J,.. 2.8 dynes/em

12.0 .. 12.0
TEST I BIDe -'
TEST 2 ...... + TEST I 000
10.0 <5 10.0
TEST 3 ,.",,, TEST 2 .. ++
...-'=>
8.0 0 8.0
in
w
6.0 '" 6.0

4.0 4.0

2.0 2.0

0.0 0.0
0.00001 0.01 0.1 1.0 0.000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.1 1.0
CAPILLARY NUMBER CAPILLARY NUMBER

(C) (d)

Fig. 5-Relatlonshlps between residual 011 saturation and capillary number for bead packs.

Viscous vs. Capillary Forces.
Mobilization of Residual Oil. Results obtained for four sizes of
beads at 1FT's ranging from 17.0 to 2.8 mN/m [17.0 to 2.8
dynes/cm] were obtained for mobilization of discontinuous oil (Fig.
5). Excellent reproducibility was obtained for a given system, as
can be seen from the data shown in Fifi' 5b, c, and d. These data
are also available in tabular form. I Plots of reduced ROS
(Sor/S*or' where S*or is the normal waterflood residual for a given
run) vs. capillary number, shown in Fig. 6, demonstrate that all
results could be closely correlated.
Attempts to measure capillary numbers for mobilization were
made previously with air as the nonwetting phase. 12 However,
from the dependence of residual gas saturation on volume throughput
and direct observation of a shock front marked by change from very
low to high gas saturation in the direction of displacement, it was
clear that results were severely affected by gas passing into solu-
tion at the upstream end of the column. Thus, at best, it was con-
cluded that these results corresponded to a lower limit for
mobilization caused by increase in capillary number.
The correlation between capillary number and reduced ROS ob-
tained with variation in bead size, 1FT, and viscosities provides
definitive experimental support for use of the capillary number as
a correlating group for tertiary oil recovery. The correlation should
be of value in assessing the behavior of systems of, for example,
much lower 1FT. Deviations from the correlation will likely pro-
vide an indication of significant changes in displacement mecha-
nism that might arise from the effects on microscopic flow behavior
of initial water saturation, viscosity and viscosity ratio, coalescence
rater" wettability, 1FT, swelling clays, and dispersable fines.
Mobilization and Entrapment. It is also of interest to compare
capillary numbers for prevention of entrapment with those deter-
mined for mobilization. Results for prevention of air entrapment
by oil (unlike results obtained for mobilization) are believed to be
generally reliable because close correlation of results was obtained
for a range of bead sizes and displacement rates. 12 Results of at-
tempts to check the previously obtained correlation for air/oil with
oleic/aqueous fluid pairs are presented in Fig. 7.
Although capillary numbers for initial reduction in oil saturation
agree with results for gas entrapment, it appears that generally higher
capillary numbers are required for prevention of entrapment of liquid
nonwetting phase. Wardlaw and McKellar l4 report even higher
capillary numbers for trapping at a given oil saturation in bead packs
where the initial water saturation was about 18 rather than 8 %. The
correlation between trapped gas saturation and a linear combina-
tion of Bond and capillary numbers 12 apparently does not hold for
trapping of oil. However, the results shown in Fig. 7 confirm that
recovery by prevention of trapping is much easier than mobiliza-
tion of either oil or air as the nonwetting phase.
Mobilization at Less-Than-Normal ROS. In further investigation
of the differences between mobilization and entrapment, displace-
ment of continuous oil was carried out at a capillary number of
4.5 X 10 -4, which established a reduced residual saturation of
7.4% (Sor/S*or=O.5). This value was anticipated from previous
relationships for entrapment. The capillary number was then raised
incrementally to determine the conditions required for additional
oil recovery. It can be seen from the results included in Fig. 7 that
the curve for subsequent mobilization falls below, but close to, the
range of values observed for mobilization beginning at normal water-

SPE Reservoir Engineering. August 1988 931

 1.0 ~
~0 "'I "'"

~
I "I
x '- i!o

"6'!J"~
1 . 0 1 - - < > - = : - - - - - - - -_ _
0.8

t,'!f. 0.'

C 0.8

0.6
r (J' 1<h 07

+-
Q 162fLm 17.0 diem 06
o
'" '"
0

0.4
0 J!5}Lm I! 8 diem to\X J!:? 0.5 - CORRELATION FOR
X 97JLm 6.6 diem o,xx MOBILIZATION {See fiQ.5)
04
x 000 TRAPPING OF CONTiNUOUS AIRI2
(;; 70JLm 28 dIem X
0,>< 0' (:]88 TRAPPtNG OF CONTINUOUS OIL
60 x
01<
Ql(
02 VI\"l\"l TRAPPING OF CONTINUOUS Oil AT
0.2 NC : 45 x 10-'4 FOLLOWEO BY

t 01
MOBILIZATION

o~ 10- 5 10- 4 10- 3

0 .. I 1 ,?,"f: ... 1
" ."
10. 6 10 5 10' 4 10- 3 10- 2 10- 1 I CAPILLARY NUMBER. ~
CAPILL ARY NUMBER .!...!!:
" Fig. 7-Normallzed residual 011 vs. capillary number for dis-
Fig. 6-Reduced residual saturation vs. capillary number for placement of continuous and discontinuous nonwettlng
results shown In Fig. 4. phase.

flood residual saturations (see Fig. 5). It appears that distributions Consolidated Beads.
associated with mobilization from reduced residual saturations given Sintered Cores. A variety of experimental difficulties were ex-
by displacement of continuous fluid are similar to those attained perienced in obtaining results for epoxy-encapsulated sintered cores.
after displacement of discontinuous fluid. The most plausible set of results obtained by this procedure is shown
Relotive Permeabilities. Relative permeabilities to the aqueous in Fig. 9. Even these are regarded as providing little more than
phase in 40/45- and 70/80-mesh bead packs at reduced ROS qualitative guidance on the effects of consolidation. However, all
achieved by mobilization are shown in Fig. 8. The results are seen results obtained with epoxy-encapsulated cylindrical cores formed
to be in fair agreement and fall within the range defined by 40 data from sintered beads indicated that consolidation caused a decrease
points obtained previously for displacement of continuous air by in capillary numbers required for mobilization (see Fig. 9). Also
oil. 12 Relative permeabilities at reduced residual saturation will be included in Fig. 9 is a general correlation for sandstones based on
determined to some extent by the manner in which residual oil is a correlation 4 with the capillary number expressed as kwAp/Lu.
distributed. The overlap of results given for saturations achieved A correlation of relative permeabilities at ROS and reduced
by mobilization compared with entrapment suggests that differences ROS,15 with 35% ROS, S~r' as a basis, was used to convert
in detailed structure and distribution caused by the manner in which kwAp/Lu values to vp./u. In general, results for cores formed from
residual nonwetting-phase saturation is achieved in bead packs are sintered beads fell between the widely separated correlations shown
minor with respect to their effect on permeability to the wetting in Fig. 9 for sandstones and bead packs. The results in sintered
phase. This is consistent with previous observations on strongly cores are in agreement with results of sintered micromodels present-
water-wet sandstones that the magnitude of oil saturation rather ed next.
than its distribution largely determines the wetting-phase permea- Sintered Micromodels. Three sets of results are shown in Fig.
bility.IS 10 for displacement of air by a xylene/styrene mixture from thin
layers of sintered beads. Initial wetting-phase saturations were about
10 to 12%. A well-defined residual air saturation of about 25%
1.0 could be established by flooding the model vertically from the bot-
tom. Once established, capillary numbers for mobilization were
>-
I- 0.9 measured with the model horizontal; they were about an order of
.J k rw d (MOBILIZATION)
aJ
<! 0.8
lJJ
X 70-80 MESH BEADS
~ 0 40-45 MESH BEADS 1.0
a: 0.7
lJJ
Cl. D.
0.6 k rw c (ENTRAPMENT)
lJJ
> x 08

I-
<t
...J
lJJ
0.5 - - FROM REF. II
(WIDE RANGE OF
X
0.7

0.6
Sor
.
SANDSTONE
CORRE LAT I ON
~ 0.35

a: BEAD SIZES)
0.4

1 ~I'~ 05

-"'~
0,3 "'''' 04

<; 0,2 03

u
-; 0,1
0.2

oX 0.1

0
50 60 70 80 90 100 10- 6

% WETTING PHASE SATURATION CAPI LLARY NUMBER. v:;

Fig. 8-Relatlve permeability to wetting phase at reduced Fig. 9-Moblllzatlon of residual oil-capillary number corre-
residual saturations after displacement of discontinuous. lations for bead packs and sandstones and data for slntered
krw,d' and continuous. krw,c' nonwettlng phase. beads.

932 SPE Reservoir Engineering, August 1988

magnitude lower than those for mobilization in unconsolidated
beads. Photographs showing the distribution of air at S~r and at
low values of Sor are presented in Fig. 11 . Air blobs shown in Fig.
10 are dark, apart from white areas of reflected light. Curves for
entrapment were higher than those measured for unconsolidated
beads (cf. Figs. 7 and 10) but were still distinctly lower than the
mobilization curves determined for the model (see Fig. 10).
With the model in a horizontal position, the non wetting phase
remained connected over comparatively long distances and the re-
tained nonwetting phase did not yield a well-defined residual, S~r'
Decrease in retained nonwetting phase was observed over the com-
plete range of tested capillary number conditions (see Fig. 10).
MOB ILI ZAT ION ( Model Ve r tico l l
The effect of sintering on capillary number relationships for the o

flow cell .was generally consistent, at least qualitatively, with that

described for sintered cores.
o

2
Concluding Remarks
Numerous laboratory studies of oil recovery processes have been
.~

conducted with packings of spheres or close-sized sands . The con- CA P llLr, R'I' NUI.lOER. ~u

venience of using these media is sometimes offset by possible loss

of relevance to practical situations because of differences in be-
havior between unconsolidated media and sedimentary rocks.
One complex but important difference is the change in the size
distribution of blobs that accompanies mobilization . 16 Wardlaw
and McKellar l4 showed that trapped blobs in bead packs break into
singlet blobs before recovery. This extreme reduction in blob length
is a major contributing factor in the comparatively high capillary
numbers observed for mobilization from bead packs. Considera-
tion of the distribution of throat and pore body sizes given by ran-
dom packings of equal spheres!7 shows that an upper limit of
N c '" 10- 2 for complete recovery of residual oil is reasonable. For
sandstones exhibiting a range of blob sizes at S~" partial breakup
of larger blobs with increase in the number of smaller-sized blobs
has also been observed, but the effect is much less dramatic than
that exhibited by bead packs. IS
The space effectively available for oil blob movement without
collision and possible coalescence probably has considerable in-
fluence on change in blob-size distributions with capillary number.
For bead packs, residual saturations are only about 15 %, and the
initial wetting-phase saturation might typically range from 6 to 20%,
depending on how it was established. Therefore, the ratio of what
can be regarded as effectively available space for oil movement
to residual saturation, S~r' is greater than 5 to 1. For a sandstone
Fig. 10-Capillary number relationships for entrapment and
mobilization of air by organic liquid In slntered 35/40mesh
beads.
such as Berea, ROS is typically about 35 %, and the retained water
saturation after oil flooding about 30 %, giving a ratio of total space
for oil movement to ROS of only 2 to I. Thus , maintenance of a
significant population of multipore body blobs by coalescence is
more likely, particularly at early stages of oil recovery . Models,
often based on the properties of sphere packs, have been used to
explain entrapment and mobilization phenomena. 6-9,12, 14, 16,17,19
Consideration of how these theoretical treatments relate to results
of the present work is not straightforward and is beyond the scope
of this paper. However, the results presented, particularly those
showing that capillary numbers for recovery of residual oil from
bead packs are generally much higher than those for sandstones,
will aid in the evaluation of displacement tests performed in differ-
ent types of media.
Conclusions
1. Relationships between Bond number and trapped O-phase satu-
ration were in close agreement with a correlation obtained for en-

~ ~
0 . 1 mm O.lmm

(a)

Fig. 11-Dlstrlbution of residual nonwettlng phase (air) in a pack of 35/40mesh slntered beads at low and high capillary numbers.

SPE Reservoir Engineering. August 1988 933

trapment with air as nonwetting phase. The reduction in ROS with
Bond number in unconsolidated bead packs is satisfactorily pre-
dicted by the theory of invasion percolation.
2. Results for mobilization of trapped 0 phase from bead packs
were closely correlated by capillary number, vp./a, for variations
in permeability, 1FT, and viscosity.
3. Capillary numbers for mobilization of 0 phase in bead packs
were about 25 times higher than capillary numbers determined for
entrapment of gas by oil in bead packs. Less difference was found
for entrapment of 0 phase by brine.
4. Relative permeabilities for bead packs were largely indepen-
dent of whether the residual saturation was achieved by mobiliza-
tion or entrapment or whether the trapped phase was gas or oil.
5. Capillary numbers for mobilization of oil from bead packs were
generally more than an order of magnitude greater than those for
sandstones.
6. Consolidation of glass beads by sintering caused capillary num-
bers for mobilization to decrease and those for entrapment to in-
crease. The net effect was that results more nearly approached those
obtained for consolidated sandstones.
Nomenclature
g = acceleration of gravity, m/s2 [ft/sec 2]
krw = relative permeability to water
k rw .c = relative permeability to water for initially continuous
{lil
k rw .d = relative permeability to water for initially
discontinuous oil
kw = absolute permeability to water, p.m 2
L = length, m [ft]
NB = Bond number
Nc = capillary number, vp./a or kw!1p/La
(vp./a=krwkw!1p/La)
!1p = pressure difference, mN/m 2 [psi]
r = sphere radius, p.m
Sor = reduced ROS, %PV
S~r = waterflood ROS, %PV
v = velocity, m/s [ft/sec]
p. = viscosity, mPa' s [poise]
p = density, g/cm 3
a = interfacial (or surface) tension, mN/m [dynes/cm]
Acknowledgments
Phase behavior and physical property measurements were carried
out by Lindley Paul and the displacement measurements by Vijaya
Dandge, Sandra Nordman, and Mary Paneral. Funding was provid-
ed by the U.S. DOE Contract No. DE-AS19-80BC1031O and the
New Mexico Research and Development Inst., Project No.
2-70-3304.
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934
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51 Metric Conversion Factors
cp x 1.0* E-03 Pa's
dynes/cm x 1.0* E+OO mN/m
in. x 2.54* E+OO cm
'Conversion factor is exact. SPERE
Original SPE manuscript received for review Sept. 22. 1985. Paper accepted for publica
tion Dec. 4. 1986. Revised manuscript received Jan. 4. 1988. Paper (SPE 14423) first
presented at the 1985 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Las Ve
gas. Sept. 22-25.
SPE Reservoir Engineering, August 1988