Yale University, School of Architecture

Brussels' Ideal Figures: Fremdkrper as Symbolic Forms of the Project of Liberalism

Author(s): Alexander D'Hooghe and Neeraj Bhatia
Source: Perspecta, Vol. 39, Re_Urbanism: Transforming Capitals (2007), pp. 71-77
Published by: The MIT Press on behalf of Perspecta.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40482262
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Brussels'
Ideal Figures
Fremdkrperas
SymbolicFormsofthe
Projectof Liberalism
AlexanderD'Hooghe and
NeerajBhatia

Overthelastdecade,Brusselshas redesignedsubstantial partsofitspublic

space network: widersidewalks,pseudo-nineteenth-century street furniture,
traffic
impediments, etc.Thisprojectharbors a deep-seated desire tore-create
thecityas a normalized bourgeoistown - without identity
proletariats, crises,or
excessivebureaucracy, butwithall theprotection mechanisms invented bythe
welfarestate.Thesemechanisms all
comprise technological advances minus any
visiblesignsofmodernlife.Theunderlying dreamhereerasesmatters ofconflicts
from theform Itrewrites
ofthecity. bothhistory and thepresenttoculminate ina
timeless -
stasis an endlessre-livingofEurope'snineteenth-century bourgeois
Among
city. the localbureaucracy and decision-makers, thisproject was wel-
comewithconsiderable of
consensus.Still,a vocalminorityarchitects, artists,
and intellectualsvociferously this
opposed project, embracing instead a more
recentversionofthecity:itsmid-century modernism, a seriesof large, brutaland
attimessublimeprojects scattered
throughout thehistoricalcity. Platforms and
and
towersinconcrete glassgleam inthe skies as ruinsofan optimism longgone.
Each faction reviledtheothersromantic idealsbecause theyweremutually ex-
clusive.Mostimportant, each campbelievedthattheirs was theright solution,
and theexecution oftheirmasterplanhad toamounttothesuppression and ef-
fectivedestruction oftheothersbeliefsystem.

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 The Fremdkrper
ofBrussels.

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 Brussels

Thenotion ofidealform was bannedfrom destiny.Infact, itisthisconstant Utopian largestneo-gothic cathedralinEurope.The

ourdiscipline after thedemiseofmodernism. intention thathas ultimately ledtoa totali- project was onlycompleted after World WarII
Thesimplified equationbetweenutopiaand tariansynthesis. Arguably, each cityhas due toslowconstruction and massivebudget
totalitarianism ledusona pathtothecelebra- un-adapted, atypical, and sizableelements increases.Bythattimewhathad started as
tionoftheeveryday and thecommon man. thatcouldneverconform totheproperurban a neo-gothic footprint had transformed into
However, todays deep-seateddiscontent structure.Suchforms containa subversive a neo-Byzantine monstrosity erectedoutof
withglobalization suggests thata deepsense ambition thatthreatens theself-conception of armedconcrete and brick. Ornamentation
ofalienation hasinfiltrated everyday life. thesurrounding city:theyare itsFremdkr- hadbecomeincredibly austere,reducedto
Therefore, a celebration oftheeveryday isno per.Citieswitha strong self-conception are a seriesofprefabricated moldswithhighly
longertenableas massalienation leadsto heldtogether, suchas inParis,bya mikadoof repetitiveand abstract patterns. Intriguingly,
ever- widercallsforsectarianism andtotali- boulevards thatsuggesta unified urbanfab- although architecture was assimilated into
tarianism. The"everyday" andits"common ric;or,as inManhattan, organizedbya grid a differingmyth, urbanistically, theoverall
man"havereversed their oncecritical role, whereineach citizen can locatehisorher projectstillsitsas a Fremdkrper within Brus-
slidingdownward intoan avalancheofmass ownplaceinan opensystem ofexchange; sels.Howcan we be so surethatthebasilica
anxiety. Anincreasing number ofpeopleare or,as inMoscow's1935GeneralPlan,often isinfacta Fremdkrper? Letus quickly exam-
unableifnotunwilling toreadandinternalize digestand integrate whatotherwise might inethecharacteristics oftheurbanproject.
thesignsof(Western) capitalism. Howcanan havebecomeFremdkrper intotheir urban Thebasilicaissituated attheperipheral end
urbandesignproject addressthisdistrust and structure. Exactly sucha synthesis islack- ofthecity's majesticnorth-south greenaxis,
destructive massenergywithout succumbing inginBrussels, theFremdkrper ofwhich monumentalizing itspositionatthecity's then
toeither relativism ortotalitarianism? wereneverassimilated intoa comprehen- edge.Thebasilicastandsamidan islandof
Theurbanstructure ofBrussels reads sivemasterplan,as thecityitself was never lushgreenery thatdigsintothecityfabric like
likea collection ofFremdkrper or"foreign continually subjectedtoa powerful national a dagger.A boundary clearlymarksthisform
bodies."1Freudusedthistermtodenotea centerofcommand. Instead,we havea se- and isfurther clarified withtree-lined edges.
traumatic experience thatwas neverincor- riesofforeign bodies,each a recording of Thesizablevolumecouldeasilyconsume
poratedintoconsciousmemory becauseits theambitions and beliefsystems atthetime eightofthesurrounding blocks.Furthermore,
contents weredangeroustotheself-concep- ofitsorigination without a totalizing integra- thebasilica,taking theform oftheRoman
tionoftheego aroundwhichthismemory ex- tion.Therein liesitspromise. Theabsenceof crossand stepping upthrough thelayering
ists.A Fremdkrper isbydefinition deniedby a strong nationalstateallowsus tosee the ofdomes,completely overshadows thescale
itsownerbutnevertheless remainspresent presenceoftheUtopian intent, recorded in ofthesurrounding fabric.Theimportance of
as a strange, illegibleform intherepository a symbolic urbanform butliberated from its thebasilicaisemphasizedthrough a radial
ofmemory. Itpresents itselfinitsabsence:the totalitarian association. setofpathsand theframing oftreesalongthe
painful recognition ofitsexistence shatters axisthatmarkitas thecenter, a notion which
thesynthesis thattheego hadconstructed Brussels'Fremdkrper: an Aesthetic culminates ontheinterior inthemassive
aboutitself. ThispaperexaminesBrussels as Although individual Fremdkrper posittheir dome.A longpubliccorridor isconcentrated
a seriesofFremdkrper inordertoextract a ownspecific myth through their formal struc- infrontofthebasilica,allowingforpilgrim-
modelwe couldcallan assemblageofpr- ture,thereareelements within thisstructure age and gathering whileplacingparticular
figurations thatcomprise a superimposition thataresharedindependently oftheir uto- import ontheiconicfront faade.Ultimately,
ofconflicting microcosms, each ofwhichcon- pias.Thesecanbe summarized as follows: thebasilicastandsas thesymbolic marker for
tains,explains, and summarizes a totalcon- havinga legibleboundary, differing scale, themyth ofelevationthrough religion.Butas
ceptfortheentirety ofsociety and isfulfilled clearinternal organization (form, paths,or myths go,thisonehadvanishedbythetime
through itsexhaustive execution. Simultane- space),recognizable form (iconic), and,fi- themonument approachedcompletion: For
ously inBrussels, however, such ambition is strict
nally, separation from the surrounding today the basilica offers few religious ser-
stoppedinitstracks byadjacentschemes.Im- fabric. Thepresenceofsuchcharacteristics vices,rendering itsscalecompletely aliento
portantly, thismodelhas internally resolved revealstheunderlying tension betweenthe thesociety inwhichitssits.Catholicism isbut
thedangerfora slidetowardtotalitarianism Fremdkrper andthesurrounding urban a memory ofan abandonedmyth inBrussels,
contained within each particular piece,while structure.Each project asserts a myth about yetitsFremdkrper formallypersists within
notsurrendering thestrength and clarityof society,whether through religion, economics, thecurrent city.
form. Thismodel,withitsformalistic conse- oraristocracy,
politics, butmostoften these
quences,infactdemonstrates an uncanny myths aredisliked ordespisedbya consider- ThePalaceofJustice was also commissioned
analogytothepolitical utopiaofliberalism. able amountofitscitizens. However, itisthese byKingLeopold IIand financed through the
myths thatmoldthegeneralcharacteristics pillagingoftheCongo,a Belgium colony
Fremdkrper vs. theImperialPrinciple oftheFremdkrper intospecific schemes. whichfundedmanyoftheking'soutlandish
ofUrbanAssimilation Brussels intheearly1990sissaturated with Theking's
projects. visionforBrussels- to
MostEuropeancapitalsoperateduntil suchbodies.Letus fora moment examine findsevenhillsinitstopography and have
recently as thefigureheads ofimperialist fourdifferent Fremdkrper inBrussels that each toppedbya vastmonumental power
nationalstates,manifesting theContinent s arerootedindiffering myths: religion, democ- centerofthesupposedBelgianEmpire
continuous driveforunification undercentral racy, capitalism, andpolitical unity. (church, executive
justice, branch,king,
command. Through integrating olderand parliament, - neverfully
etc.) transpired,but
moredevianthistorical forms as wellas new TheKoekelberg Basilicaisoneofthelargest theplandidleavebehindtwoprojects that
extensions within thecapital'soverarching churches intheworld.KingLeopoldIIfirst occupiedstrategic placesintheurbanstruc-
logic,a synthesis was formed ateach histori- commissioned thecomplexinthelatenine- ture.Thebiggerirony isthedissolutionofany
cal juncture - a myth ofitsownorigins and teenth century withtheintent ofcreating the remaining sentiments forBelgian national-

1 SigmundFreud,BeyondthePleasure Principle,
trans.JamesStrachey (New York:Norton,1961);Moses
and Monotheism,trans.KatherineJones(New York:
Vintage,1958).

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KoekelbergBasilica

ism.Whatresults isanother myth thatnever Justice Palace stilltowers overtheremnants myth ofmodernism rests:theemancipa-
reachedfruition butlefttracesofitsintention. oftheneighborhood fabric. tionoftheindividual onthefreespace of
Just sucha trace,theFremdkrper ofthe theplatform,enablingfreedom through the
JusticePalace isa massive,impenetrable A morecontemporary exampleofa Frem- opennessofchoice.Beneath, an oversized
blockenvelopedinopenspace.Similartothe dkrper istheAdministration City, head- parking garageseparatestheproject from
basilica,theproject marksa centeraround quarters forthenationaladministration of theurbangrid,save foran exitrampfrom
theidea ofjustice. Theinternal organization theBelgiangovernment. Builtduringthe an adjacenturbanhighway. Today, thena-
comprises linearbuildings thatsymmetri- 1960s, Administration Cityconsists ofa mas- tionaladministration has soldthecomplex
callyinterlock toform theboundary edge siveconcrete platform withelegantslabs toa private
developerwhoistearing down
and crosstodenotethecenter. Insection,the and towers, builtontopofthemedievalcity. segments and re-cladding theproject with
JusticePalace stepsup likea ziggurat atthis Theoversized platform provides a legible postmodernistlingo.Despiteprivatization
crossing and istoppedwitha dome.Again, boundary, marking thelimitsoftheproject and there-cladding and removaloffringe
thetowering building becomesan unavoid- justas thesurrounding fabricmarksthelimits elements, theclarityoftheinitialmyth and
able symbol intheBrussels skyline.The oftheirblocks.Fivetowers restonthisslab, thelargeamounts ofconcrete requiredfor
building s internal structure functionsinand anchoring theproject whileshadowingthe itsmaterialization
haveprevailedwithin this
ofitself
without providinganyconcessions to surrounding city.Infact, thelargestofthe Fremdkrper.
thesurrounding fabric.Threeofthefouren- towers isan elegantmodernist slivercontain-
trancesdo notalignwithsurrounding streets, ingtheelevating myths ofmodernism. The Thelastprojectofparticularinterestisthe
nordoesthebuilding correspond inscaleor complexactsas an instrument forelevation. EuropeanParliament. Designedduringthe
material tothecity's fabric.Thelargestpublic Themodernist buildings do notconform in 1980sbya groupoflocalarchitecture firms
gathering space isdedicatedtothefront en- scaleormaterial tothesurroundings, making fora consortium oflocalbankingand insur-
try,furthermonumentalizing thecentralaxis. themselves legiblethrough theirdifference. ance offices,theprojectwas pushedthrough
Whatresults isan independent islandposit- Theinternal structure oftheproject does withtheaid oftheBelgiangovernment. This
ingthesupremacy ofthelawoverthecom- notoperatethrough marking thecenteras supportbythegovernment was ina bidto
monfolk. Thissupremacy isembeddedin theprevious twobutrather through fram- strengthenBrussels'statusas thecapital
itsorigination wherein thepalace hadbeen ingand producing interstitial
space onthe ofEurope.Forthisutopiatotranspire, itef-
purposely constructed overtop a popular platform.Thus,publicspace isnotprecisely fectively requiredthedestruction ofhalfa
neighborhood, erasingitsfabric and instill- positioned infront ofthebuilding toenhance neighborhood. Insteadofincorporating the
inga myth oforder. Today, although many itshierarchy;instead,itemergesbetween eighteenth-centuryblockstructure intothe
sentiments ofthissupremacy havefaded,the thebuildings. Itishere,ultimately, thatthe scheme,megastructures wereformed and

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Palace ofJustice

surrounded byremnants oftheold,which tobe theexception. Thehistorical cityfabric, cumscribed zone.Eachsuchpre-figuration

werelaterfragmented bymuscular urban whichinLondonorParisforms an urban isactively contradicted bytheadjacentones.
highways. Theproject, richinpo-moorna- background, inBrussels isreducedtoa mere Infact, each successiveonewas erectedin
ment, has alreadybecomeforbotheliteand accidentbetweenotherdisrupted fragments. ordertocontradict otherexisting figures and
popularaudiencesan emblemforall that Thistheoretical framework turnsupside proveitsownsupremacy. Withsuchan inter-
was wrongaboutBelgium and Europe.Situ-down:theFremdkrper becomethenorm. pretation, theseFremdkrper comeawfully
atedontwooversized blocks, theparliamentInsteadoffigures markedona background closetothedefinition ofthesymbol inthe
comprises a massiveovalstructure and, ofan integrated cityfabric, a multitude of nineteenth-century aesthetics ofGermanRo-
alongsideit,an evenlargerlinearcomplexof suchcontradictory figures is thebackground. manticism. FromSchelling toRobert Vischer
buildings.Aninteriorized publicstreetstruc-
Eachoftheseprojects nowpresents, through and Wilhelm Worringer, thesymbol isde-
turesthelatter,
creating a private,miniatureitsownform, itsownwishful dream,a differ- finedas an idealaesthetic category, onethat
citywithinBrussels thatisfedbytherailway ingfinalambition forthetotality ofthecity. contains itsmeaningwithin itsowncomplete
stationbelow.Thecentral axisoftheoval ThemapofBrussels lookslikea montage - thecontent
structure and theform arecom-
perpendicularly intersects themidpoint ofcontradicting
ofthe pieces:a seriesof closely pletelyidentical;the meaning is embedded
linearmegastructure, linking thetwobuild- packed,self-enclosed statements, bumping, within theform, and thatiswhythesymbol
ingsintoan overallcomplex. Intriguingly, rubbing, pushing, and shearingagainsteach operatesas an almostpre-linguistic diagram
although themyth ofthisnewFremdkrper otherontheunderlying flowofmyths touted orschema.Inthem, a myth materializes and
has quicklyvanished - as a parliament itis the
throughout city's These
history. projects becomes recognizable as an ideogram that
onlytenyearsold- itisstillimpregnated areconsciousofthetotalitarian
onto streak con- captures, describes, and summarizes itsen-
theurbanstructure, revealing theidealsat tainedwithin theirUtopian statement. They tirenarrative withinitsownformal structure.
thetimeofitsconception. originatefrom a completely exaggerated Importantly, Germansymbol theory was not
visionaboutcultural dominance, a ruthless meanttobe a scienceoflinguistics; itwas
Thesearebutfourofthirty orso examples victoryofthecommissioner's vantagepoint fundamentally a normative aesthetic theory
ofa Fremdkrper inBrussels. Curiously,the overall others:theinstallment ofhisutopia ofthesublime, forwhichtheyet-to-be-real-
foreignbodiesareso abundantand insuch isthehegemonic one.Theirambition isnot izedcategory ofthesymbol was definedas
closeproximity inthecitythattheremaining realizedbya complete reconfiguration ofthe theclosest approximation. Brussels' Frem-
interstitial
tissueitself
also fallsapartintoa entire forwe aresimply
city, witness totheir dkrper approximate thisromantic ideal.
seriesofisolatedbodies.Thedensity ofthe phase,butthisphaseisalreadya micro- Thus,each figure
first accessesinitsownwaythe
Fremdkrper destroys theverynotion ofa cosmofa totalplan.Inessence,a totalproject sublime. Eachofthemhas an ideogrammatic
"normalized" citytowhichtheyaresupposed isprefigured ina limited and discretely cir- orderthat, whileradically different foreach,

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Administration
City

alsocontains aboutan idealfu-

a statement stepintothepitfalls ofrelativism and still theend,theFremdkrper do noteffectively
tureanda desireddestinyfortheentire
city. formulate and
powerful antagonizing Uto- realizeorinstall
a different re-
socio-political
Thesebodiesdo notwanttoobscure,include, pianfigures. Itssymbolic form istheassem- gime,buttheydo infactspeakofa promise,
orcompromise inanyway;rather,theyare blageofconflicting pre-figurations. What ofsucha model.Thisprom-
a pre-figuration
extremelyclearabouttheworldview embed- aretheprinciples, then,oftheassemblage iseremainscaught,lockedup ineverything
dedinthem.Theyarethatworldview. ofpre-figurations? First,thesebodieshave from theoverallplantothearchitectural
boundaries; theyareconsciously finite details.Thischangesthedeployment ofuto-
A SymbolicFormofLiberalism rather thantotalizing. Preciselybecauseof urbanism
pia inarchitectural from realiza-
Projects withUtopian overtones havetradi- their (inadvertently) exclusionary nature, tiontohomage.
tionally channeleddistrust and destructive theyarelegibleas symbols. Theirfailure
massenergy. Nevertheless, Adornoand toachievehegemony acrosstheterritoryis FormalismsoftheLiberalProject
Horkheimer's2 basiccritique oftheUtopian whatguaranteestheir strengthas a sym- ThissurrealcityofBrussels presentsus with
stillstands:uponitsexecution, utopiainexo- bolicform. Without a boundary, theywould IsaiahBerlin's "agonizedpluralism."This
rablyregresses intoitsopposites,totalitari- not even be legible as entities.
Second, each modelcouldbe totheidealsofliberaldemoc-
anismand myth. Dramatically speaking, Fremdkrper is,initsessence,a civiccom- racywhatBorisIofan'sSovietPalace was to
sinceeveryurbandesignproject isbased plex,comprising a pieceofinfrastructure, Stalinism. lastmention
Berlin's inarchitecture
ona particular beliefsystem, (anideal)that publicspace,and oneorseveralbuildings. and urbantheory camethrough ColinRowe
isrolledoutovera segment ofsociety,every Theproject isneveran objectbuta combi- and FredKoetter's a thinly
CollageCity,
urbandesignproject carriesa totalitarian nationofelements, creating whatJ.L.Sert veiledargument againstmodernism. His
seed.Moreover, thatseed istheessenceofits referred toas the"civiccomplex." Assuch, deployment inthecurrentcontext,however,
existence. Without an ideal,a designproject each composition proclaims itsownvision isinfactbased ona redeployment oftheide-
wouldbe identical totheperceivedstatus fortheentire city,yetiscomplete within alisticlineageinmodernism. Berlin's
liberal
quo and cease toexistas a recognizable itself.
Third,as a finite figure,each ofthem philosophy isoftensummarized withthefol-
entity.Thevictory ofanysingleideal- for leavesplenty ofroomforothers - infact, lowingquotation:
instance, ina master plan forthe -
city ulti- itcallsfor and
differing conflicting ideals.
mately implies the erasure ofopposing belief The large urban structure becomes thatof Itmaybe thattheideal o freedomto
systems and therefore realizesthetotalitarianan assemblageofciviccomplexes. Fourth, choose ends withoutclaimingeternal
intent contained within urbandesigns. formalism, therepresentation ofa complete validityforthem,and thepluralism
Brussels us insight
offers intohowa society worldview through a singleand concise ofvalues connectedwiththis,is only
aspiring tobe openand pluralist neednot urbandesignproject, isoftheessence.In thelate fruitofourdecliningcapital-

Dialecticof
2 TheodorAdorno& Max Hoikheimer,
trans.JohnCumming(New York:Herder
Enlightenment,
and Herder1972).

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EuropeanParliament

istcivilization:
an idealwhichremote rather thanactuallyletting itachieveits culture
tothenormagainstwhichother
ages and primitive societieshavenot tyrannical status, liberalism savestheidea expressions becomedeviant.Aesthetically
recognized,andonewhichposterity ofdemocracy. Progressive examplesinclude speaking, formalism isrelatedtoa reading
willregardwithcuriosity, evensympa- rulesofaffirmative action,strengthening ofform as itsowncontent, independent of
thy,butlittlecomprehension .... "To therepresentation ofwomenand minorities; outsidereferences, as inGermansymbol
realizetherelativevalidity o one's conservative onesincludetheBritish Russianformalism,
theory, orAmerican
convictions/' said an admirablewriter UpperHouseas a chamberofParliament architecturalmodernism.5 Ina sense,both
ofourtime[Schumpeter], "andyetto wherehistorical upperclassesare formalisms treattheform as itsownideal
standforthemunflinchingly is what represented abovetheir numerical weight. content, irrespective ofthedegreetowhichit
distinguishes a civilizedman from a Representation thussupersedesdemocracy actuallyrepresents theworldofphenomena;
barbarian."3 itself
as thefoundational principle ofa theform (orrepresentation) ofthepublic
liberalconceptofthepublicsphere.The isindependent from itsactualstatistical
Berlin's
modelisthatofa pluralism of parliament servesas a figure thatcrystallizes composition.Thiscrystallization ofa vast,
absoluteconvictions.Thisisexactly the a liberalvisionoftheentire bodyofthe sprawling cultureintoa singlesymbolic form
modelofBrussels' Fremdkrper. Without publicand indeedofsociety as a layered requirestheintroduction ofa highdegree
absoluteconvictionwithin theconstituent cakeofdifferent interests.Forthatreason, offormalism. Theform ofthepublicthatis
bodies,thereisnoproject. Buttheanalogy- theliberalfigure oftheparliament reduces crafted
hereisitsowncontent, namelythe
goesfurther.A liberalpoliticalphilosophy democracy toa mereritual, butthisreduction idealofliberalism itself.
distrusts
pure,directdemocracy, and isnecessarytosave theidea ofdemocracy, WhatmakesBrussels an intriguingtem-
so didBerlin.
Directdemocracy leads byprotecting itagainstitsownauthoritarian plateistheassemblageofFremdkrper
tothelegitimacy ofmajority rule,or impulse. Thefundamental consistency representing absoluteconvictions ofdiffering
Majoritarianism.4Thisis,in fact,nothing betweenrepresentation as a political constituencies throughout thecity'shistory.
lessthanthetyranny ofthemajority of conceptofliberalism and representation Asan assemblage,itconveysitsUtopian in-
theurbanfabric. Againstthistyranny as an aesthetic project intheartsistobe tentwithout reachingtotalitarian synthesis.
liberalism
positsa plurality ofpowercenters, foundintheunderlying notion offormalism. Thecontinual tension intheurbanstructure
and inordertoachievethisiteffectively Politically
speaking, formalism isassociated issomething tobe embracedas an idealof
institutionalizes
and formalizes thisplurality. withtherepresentation ofcitizens and a liberalpolitical
aesthetic. Asthisprecious
Inthisargument, democracy isreplacedby community ininstitutions,whileinformality is invention oftheEnlightenment isincreas-
representation.Byformalizing democracy associatedwithgrass-roots democracy direct inglyendangered, itisofcrucialimportance
and staginga representation ofthedemos, democracy, and theelevation ofeveryday tostandup forit.

3Isaiah Berlin,TwoConceptsofLiberty,(1958). S Similarly,

theriseoftheinformal societyin theSixtiesin
4TrevorPateman inMajoritarianism: An Argumentfrom oppositiontosociety'sformalstructure correspondstoa
Rousseau and Condorcet,In Cogito,vol. 2,no. 3 (1988),29 similarevolutioninarchitecturalurbanism,eloquently
-31. expressedby BernardRudofsky in his 1964Architecture
withoutArchitects.

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