Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn (c. 1501 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536 as
the second wife of King Henry VIII, and Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Henry's
marriage to Anne, and her subsequent execution by beheading, made her a key figure in
the political and religious upheaval that was the start of the English Reformation.
Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, and his wife, Lady
Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France, largely as a maid of
honour to Claude of France.
She returned to England in early 1522, to marry her Irish cousin James Butler, 9th Earl
of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken up by Cardinal Wolsey, and instead she
secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon.
Early in 1523 Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of the 5th Earl of
Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken by Cardinal Wolsey in January 1524 and
Anne was sent back home to Hever Castle. In February/March 1526, Henry VIII began
his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become
his mistress which her sister Mary had been. It soon became the one absorbing object
of Henry's desires to annul his marriage to Queen Catherine so he would be free to
marry Anne. When it became clear that Pope Clement VII would not annul the marriage,
the breaking of the power of the Catholic Church in England began. In 1532, Henry
granted Anne the Marquessate of Pembroke.
Henry and Anne married on 25 January 1533, after a secret marriage on 14 November
1532. On 23 May 1533, newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas
Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void; five days later, he
declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid. Shortly afterwards, the Pope decreed
sentences of excommunication against Henry and Cranmer. As a result of this marriage
and these excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and Rome
took place and the Church of England was brought under the King's control. Anne was
crowned Queen of England on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the
future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter rather than a son
but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had
three miscarriages, and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour. In order to
marry Jane Seymour, Henry had to find reasons for his marriage with Anne to end.
Henry had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May she was arrested
and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury of peers which
included Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her own uncle, Thomas Howard and
found guilty on 15 May. She was beheaded four days later. Modern historians view the
charges against her, which included adultery, incest, and plotting to kill the king, as
unconvincing. Some say that Anne was accused of witchcraft but the indictments make
no mention of this charge.
After the coronation of her daughter, Elizabeth, as queen, Anne was venerated as
a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of John
Foxe. Over the centuries, she has inspired, or been mentioned, in many artistic and
cultural works and thereby retained her hold on the popular imagination. She has been
called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had",for she
provided the occasion for Henry VIII to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and
declare his independence from the Holy See.
Anne Boleyn
There is some dispute over the year in which Anne was born most likely between 1501 and 1507. Anne's father
was the courtier and diplomat, Sir Thomas Boleyn and her mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of the Duke of
Norfolk.
Childhood
Anne spent some of her childhood and teenage years in Europe she was a lady-in-waiting to Archduchess
Margaret in the Netherlands. In 1514, Anne's father arranged for her to be a lady-in-waiting at the French court
to Queen Mary, King Henry VIII's younger sister. She later served Queen Claude of France for almost seven
years.
Henry VIII
On her return to England in 1522, Anne was appointed as lady-in-waiting to Henry VIII's wife Catherine of
Aragon. Anne's striking looks and sophisticated manners earned her many admirers at court and by 1523 she was
betrothed to Lord Henry Percy. However this relationship was cut short by Cardinal Thomas Wolsey.
Before pursuing Anne, Henry VIII had already had an affair with her sister, Mary. Henry showered Anne and her
family with titles and gifts. Anne's ambitious father was created Earl of Wiltshire and her brother, Lord George
Rochford, was appointed to the Royal Privy Chamber.
Henry VIII had grown tired of his wife, as she had not produced a male heir. He appealed to Pope Clement VII
for an annulment to his marriage so that he could marry Anne. The Pope refused to annul the marriage as he was
afraid to go against the will of Catherine's nephew Charles V, The Holy Roman Emperor.
Marriage
Although she resisted Henry VIII's advances, by 1533 Anne was pregnant with her first child. Henry was forced
into action. In January 1533 Henry VIII and Anne were married in a secret ceremony and Henry broke with the
Catholic Church. He passed the Act of Supremacy, declaring that he was the head of the English church. In June
1533 Anne was crowned Queen of England in a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey.
Henry and Anne's daughter Elizabeth (the future Queen Elizabeth I) was born in September 1533. Two more
pregnancies ended in miscarriage, in the summer of 1534 and in January 1536. When Henry discovered the
second baby had been a boy, he became convinced the marriage was cursed. Henry was still desperate for a male
heir and he blamed Anne for this misfortune. He took on Annes lady-in-waiting Jane Seymour as his mistress
and looked for a way to end his marriage.
Downfall
In April 1536, Sir Francis Weston, William Brereton, Mark Smeaton, Sir Henry Norris and Anne's brother Lord
Rochford were arrested on suspicion of having had relations with the Queen.
Anne was investigated by a secret commission which included her father, her uncle the Duke of Norfolk
and Thomas Cromwell. On 2 May 1536 Anne was arrested on charges of adultery with five men including her
own brother, Lord George Rochford. At the trial, presided over by the Duke of Norfolk, Anne was accused of
adultery and witchcraft. She was convicted and imprisoned in the Tower of London.
Death
On 19th May Anne was led from her quarters to Tower Green where, spared the axe, she was granted the 'mercy'
of beheading by a French swordsman. Anne was the first English queen to be publicly executed. Rather than
deny her guilt, she used her final moments to deliver a speech praising King Henry VIII, stating that, "a more
merciful prince was there never: and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign lord."
On the morning of 19 May 1536, Anne Boleyn climbed the scaffold erected on Tower
Green, within the walls of the Tower of London. She gave a speech praising the
goodness and mercy of the king, and asked those gathered to pray for her. Then she
removed her fine, ermine-trimmed gown, and knelt down and the expensive French
executioner that Henry VIII had ordered swung his sword and divided her neck at a
blow.
Her death is so familiar to us that it is hard to imagine how shocking it would have
been: the queen of England executed on charges of adultery, incest and conspiring
the kings death. And not just any queen: this was the woman for whom Henry VIII
had abandoned his wife of nearly 24 years, waited seven long years to wed, and even
revolutionised his countrys church. Yet just three years later her head was off and
the reason for her death remains one of the great mysteries of English history.
To this day, historians cannot agree why she had to die. Had Henry and Annes
relationship gone into terminal decline, prompting Henry to invent the charges
against his wife? Was Thomas Cromwell responsible for Annes demise? Or was she
indeed guilty of the charges laid against her? Evidence is limited but there is
enough to appear to support several very different conclusions.
There are a number of undisputed facts relating to Annes fall. On Sunday 30 April
1536 Mark Smeaton, a musician from the queens household, was arrested; he was
then interrogated at Cromwells house in Stepney. On the same evening the king
postponed a trip with Anne to Calais, planned for 2 May.
The next day, 1 May, Smeaton was moved to the Tower. Henry attended the May Day
jousts at Greenwich but left abruptly on horseback with a small group of intimates.
These included Sir Henry Norris, a personal body servant and one of his closest
friends, whom he questioned throughout the journey. At dawn the next day Norris
was taken to the Tower. Anne and her brother George, Lord Rochford, were also
arrested.
On 4 and 5 May, more courtiers from the kings privy chamber William Brereton,
Richard Page, Francis Weston, Thomas Wyatt and Francis Bryan were arrested.
The latter was questioned and released, but the others were imprisoned in the Tower.
On 10 May, a grand jury indicted all of the accused, apart from Page and Wyatt.
On 12 May, Smeaton, Brereton, Weston and Norris were tried and found guilty of
adultery with the queen, and of conspiring the kings death. On 15 May, Anne and
Rochford were tried within the Tower by a court of 26 peers presided over by their
uncle, the Duke of Norfolk. Both were found guilty of high treason. On 17 May
Archbishop Thomas Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne null, and by
19 May, all six convicted had been executed. Later that day, Cranmer issued a
dispensation allowing Henry and Jane Seymour to marry; they were betrothed on 20
May and married 10 days later.
What could explain this rapid and surprising turn of events? The first theory, argued
by Boleyn biographer and scholar GW Bernard, is simply that Anne was guilty of the
charges against her. Yet even he is equivocal, suggesting the Scottish legal verdict of
not proven he concludes that, though the evidence is insufficient to prove
definitively that Anne and those accused with her were guilty, neither does it prove
their innocence.
Annes guilt was, naturally, the official line. Writing to the bishop of Winchester,
Stephen Gardiner, Cromwell stated with certainty before Annes trial that the
queens incontinent living was so rank and common that the ladies of her privy
chamber could not conceal it.
The key piece of evidence was undoubtedly the confession by the first man accused,
Smeaton, that he had had sexual intercourse with the queen three times. Though it
was probably obtained under torture (the accounts vary), he never retracted his
confession. Unlikely as it was to be true, it catapulted the investigation to a different,
far more serious level. All subsequent evidence was tainted with a presumption of
guilt. Henry VIIIs intimate questioning of Norris, and his promise of pardon in case
he would utter the truth, must be understood in this light: whatever Norris said, or
refused to say, it reinforced Henrys conviction of his guilt.
Other evidence for Annes guilt is unclear the trial documents do not survive. Her
indictment, however, states that Anne did falsely and traitoroysly procure by base
conversations and kisses, touchings, gifts and other infamous incitations, divers of
the kings daily and familiar servants to be her adulterers and concubines, so that
several yielded to her vile provocations. She even, it charges, procured and incited
her own natural brother to violate her, alluring him with her tongue in the said
Georges mouth, and the said Georges tongue in hers. Yet, as another Boleyn
biographer Eric Ives noted, three-quarters of the specific accusations of adulterous
liaisons made in the indictment can be discredited, even 500 years later.
True wedded wife
Certainly, Anne maintained her innocence. During her imprisonment Sir William
Kingston, constable of the Tower, reported Annes remarks to Cromwell. His first
letter details Annes ardent declaration of innocence: I am as clear from the
company of man, as for sin as I am clear from you, and the kings true wedded
wife.
A few days later, Anne comforted herself that she would have justice: She said if any
man accuse me I can say but nay, and they can bring no witness. Crucially, the night
before her execution, she swore on peril of her souls damnation, before and
after receiving the Eucharist, that she was innocent a serious act in that religious
age.
Anne was not alone in professing her innocence. As Sir Edward Baynton put it: No
man will confess any thing against her, but only Mark of any actual thing. And even
Eustace Chapuys, ambassador for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and Annes
arch-enemy, would finally conclude that everyone besides Smeaton was condemned
upon presumption and certain indications, without valid proof or confession.
Another set of historians have favoured the explanation that Anne was the victim of a
conspiracy by Thomas Cromwell and a court faction involving the Seymours. This
rests upon a view of Henry as a pliable king whose courtiers could bounce him into
action and tip him by a crisis into rejecting Anne. But why should Anne and
Cromwell, erstwhile allies of a reformist bent, fall out? Differences of opinion are
thought to have arisen over the use of funds from the dissolution of the monasteries,
as well as matters of foreign policy seemingly slender motives for destroying a
queen.
It has been suggested that Cromwells court faction intended to replace Anne with
Jane Seymour. Chapuys mentioned Jane in a letter of 10 February 1536, reporting
that Henry had sent her a gift of a purse full of sovereigns, accompanied by a letter.
She did not open the letter, which Ives speculated contained a summons to the
royal bed. Instead, she kissed it and returned it, asking the messenger to tell the king
that there was no treasure in this world that she valued as much as her honour, and
that if the king wanted to give her a present, she begged it might be at such a time as
God would be pleased to send her some advantageous marriage.
Such a calculated reply is reminiscent of Anne during the days of her courtship with
Henry. In response to Janes coyness, Henrys love for her was said to have
marvellously increased. Yet she was described as a lady whom the king serves a
telling word implying that he sought her as his courtly love mistress. There is little
evidence that, before Anne was accused of adultery, Henry had planned to make Jane
his wife. Marriage to Jane was, surely, a symptom and a product of Annes downfall,
not a cause.
The pivotal piece of evidence for a conspiracy is a remark made by Cromwell to
Chapuys after Annes death. In a letter to Charles V, Chapuys wrote that Cromwell
had told him il se mist a fantasier et conspirer le dict affaire, which has been
translated as he set himself to devise and conspire the said affair, suggesting that
Cromwell plotted against Anne.
Crucially, however, this phrase is often used out of context. The previous sentence
states that he himself [Cromwell] had been authorised and commissioned by the
king to prosecute and bring to an end the mistresss trial, to do which he had taken
considerable trouble. If we accept this account, it is impossible to dismiss Henry VIII
from the picture Cromwell claimed not to be acting alone.
It has been proposed, therefore, that Henry asked Cromwell to get rid of Anne. David
Starkey suggested that Annes proud and abrasive character soon became intolerable
to her husband. JJ Scarisbrick, author of the authoritative volume Henry VIII,
agreed: What had once been devastating infatuation turned into bloodthirsty
loathing, for reasons we will never completely know.
Lovers quarrels
Evidence for this view is taken from the writings of the ever-hopeful Chapuys. As a
Catholic and a supporter of Catherine of Aragon, he referred to Anne as the
concubine or the she-devil, and had made bitter assertions about the doomed state
of Henry and Annes relationship even at the height of their happiness in late summer
1533. But Chapuys himself recognised that Henry and Anne had always been prone to
lovers quarrels, and that the kings character was very changeable.
True, Henry and Anne were direct with each other: they got angry, shouted and
became jealous. But they were also frequently described as being merry together; it
was an epithet still being applied to them during the autumn of 1535 and one that
was appended to their marriage more often than to any of Henrys other unions.
Bernard has described theirs as a tumultuous relationship of sunshine and storms.
Some have proposed that the miscarriage of a male foetus suffered by Anne in
January 1536 led inexorably to her downfall. Did it cause Henry to believe that Anne
would never be able to bear him an heir, and thus to consider the marriage doomed?
Certainly, the king was reported to have shown great disappointment and sorrow.
Chapuys wrote that Henry, during his visit to Annes chamber after the tragedy, said
very little except: I see that God will not give me male children.
Henry then left Anne at Greenwich to convalesce while he went to Whitehall to mark
the feast day of St Matthew. Chapuys, rather maliciously, interpreted this as showing
that Henry had abandoned Anne, whereas in former times he could hardly be one
hour without her. Clearly, the miscarriage was a great blow to both Henry and Anne
yet another four months were to pass before Annes death, so demonstrating a
direct link between the events would be problematic.
Another story, reported third-hand by Chapuys, quotes Henry as telling an
unidentified courtier that he had married Anne seduced and constrained by
sortilges. That last word translates as sorcery, spells, charms, and has given rise to
the suggestion that Anne Boleyn dabbled in witchcraft. Though this is regularly cited
as one of the charges of which she was found guilty, it is not mentioned in the
indictment.
Ives, though, pointed out that the primary English meaning of sortilges at this time
was divination, a translation that changes the meaning of Henrys comment. It could
imply that he was induced to marry Anne by premarital prophecies that she would
bear sons, or could refer simply to Henrys earlier infatuation or bewitchment by
Anne.
The idea that Henry had been seduced by witchcraft has become attached to
another theory, which holds that the real reason for Annes ruin was that the foetus
miscarried in January 1536 was deformed. According to Tudor specialist Retha
Warnicke, the delivery of a shapeless mass of flesh proved in Henrys mind that
Anne was both a witch and adulterously promiscuous. But this description comes
from a Catholic propagandist, Nicholas Sander, writing 50 years later; there is no
contemporary evidence to sustain this salacious theory.
Diplomatic coup
An event in April 1536 suggests that, just weeks before Anne was executed, Henry was
still committed to his marriage. In the early months of 1536, Henry was increasing
the pressure on Charles V to recognise Anne as his wife. On 18 April he invited
Chapuys to the court. Events that day were very deliberately staged: the ambassador
attended mass and, as Henry and Anne descended from the royal pew to the chapel,
she stopped and bowed to Chapuys.
Etiquette dictated that he return the gesture a significant diplomatic coup, because
it implied recognition by the ambassador and, by extension, his emperor. It would, as
Bernard has argued, have been extraordinarily capricious of Henry to seek to have
Anne recognised as his wife if he already harboured intentions of ridding himself of
her soon after.
So was it not guilt, nor a court coup, nor Henrys hatred of Anne that led to her
downfall but, rather, a terrible combination of malicious gossip and her own
indiscretions?
A poetic account written in June 1536 by Lancelot de Carles, secretary to the French
ambassador, relates that one of Annes ladies-in-waiting, Elizabeth Browne, was
accused of loose living. She made light of her own guilt by stating that it was little in
her case in comparison with that of the queen. These words reached Cromwell who,
according to de Carles, reported them to Henry; the king blanched and, very
reluctantly, ordered him to investigate.
This certainly aligns with Cromwells own retelling of the events. De Carles adds a
crucial, though unsubstantiated, clause, Henry telling Cromwell that if it turns out
that your report, which I do not wish to believe, is untrue, you will receive pain of
death in place of [the accused]. So Cromwell may have had reason to find evidence of
Annes guilt.
Given that Anne was accused of conspiring the kings death (the only charge that
actually constituted treason consensual adultery was not covered by the treason law
of 1352), it seems likely that the evidence used to demonstrate her guilt was a
conversation she recalled and William Kingston reported with Norris.
Anne had asked Norris why he did not go through with his marriage. He had replied
that he wold tary a time, leading her to taunt him with the fateful words you loke
for ded mens showys; for yf owth cam to the King but good, you would loke to have
me. Norriss flustered response that yf he should have any such thought, he wold
hys hed war of provoked her to retort that she could undo him if she would, and
ther with thay felle yowt (there with they fell out.)
It might seem that this overstepped the normal boundaries of courtly love talk only a
little. But the Treasons Act of 1534 held that even imagining the death of the king was
treasonous, so Annes conversation with Norris was charged, reckless and, arguably,
fatal useful ammunition if Cromwell were looking for dirt. Was it, as Greg Walker
(author of Writing Under Tyranny) has suggested, not what Anne did but what she
said that made her appear guilty?
When it comes to Anne Boleyns fall, historians give their best guess answers on the
basis of the available evidence which is too sparse to be conclusive. For my part, it
is the final cock-up theory that convinces me. I believe that Anne was innocent, but
caught out by her careless words. Henry was convinced by the charges against her; it
was a devastating blow from which he never recovered. For Anne, of course, the
consequences were far more terrible.

Timeline: The rise and fall of Anne Boleyn

1501 (or possibly 1507): The birth
Anne is born at Blickling, Norfolk, to Thomas Boleyn and his wife, Elizabeth
(daughter of Thomas Howard, later second Duke of Norfolk). Historians debate
whether Anne was born in 1501 or 1507; the former is more plausible
1513: The first post
Anne is appointed a maid-of-honour at the court of Margaret, archduchess of Austria;
she later leaves to serve Mary, queen of France, wife of Louis XII (and Henry VIIIs
sister). After Louis death, Anne remains at the court of the new French queen,
Claude, for seven years
1521: The repatriation
Anne is recalled to England by her father
1 March 1522: The court appearance
Anne makes her first recorded appearance at Henry VIIIs court, playing the part of
Perseverance in a Shrove Tuesday pageant. At that time, Henry was having an affair
with Annes sister, Mary
c1526: The object of love
Henry VIII falls in love with Anne. A letter from him, dated to 1527, states that for
more than one year Henry had been struck by the dart of love and asks Anne to
give herself body and heart to him
1532/33: The royal wedding
Anne marries Henry. The official wedding is held in January 1533, but they are
probably married secretly at Dover in October 1532. Henrys marriage to Catherine of
Aragon is not annulled until May 1533
7 September 1533: The birth
Anne gives birth to a daughter, Elizabeth
29 January 1536: The miscarriage
Anne miscarries a male foetus
2 May 1536: The accusations
Anne is arrested and taken to the Tower, along with her brother George Boleyn, Lord
Rochford
19 May 1536: The execution
Anne is beheaded on Tower Green within the Tower of London
Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII, served as queen
of England in the 1530s. She was executed on charges of incest,
witchcraft, adultery and conspiracy against the king.
QUOTES

I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak anything of that,

whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray God save the king
and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful
prince was there never: and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and
sovereign lord.

Anne Boleyn

Synopsis
Anne Boleyn was born circa 1501, likely in Bickling (Norfolk), England. She was the second
wife of King Henry VIIIa scandalous marriage, given that he had been denied an annulment
from his first wife by the Roman Church, and that his mistress was Anne's sister, Mary.
Thusly, King Henry VIII broke from the Church to marry Anne. She gave birth to a daughter,
but could not conceive a son. On May 19, 1536, Anne Boleyn was executed on false charges
of incest, witchcraft, adultery and conspiracy against the king. Her daughter, Elizabeth,
emerged as one of England's greatest queens. Anne Boleyn died on May 19, 1536, in London,
England.

Early Life
Anne Boleyn was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, who would later become earl of
Wiltshire and Ormonde, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard. After living in France for a
time during her youth, Anne returned to England in 1522 and soon established a residence at
King Henry VIII's court as maid of honor to Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII's queen consort
at the time.

By the mid-1520s, Anne Boleyn had become one of the most admired ladies of the court,
attracting the attention of many men, among them Henry Percy, the 6th Earl of
Northumberland. When Henry VIII caught wind of Lord Henry Percys desired marriage with
Anne, he ordered against it. Around this same timewhether it was before or after Percy's
interest in Anne had developed is uncertainthe king himself fell in love with the young
maid. What is known is that Anne's sister, Mary Boleyn, one of the king's mistresses, had
introduced her to Henry VIII, and that the king wrote love letters to Anne circa 1525.

In one of the king's letters, he wrote: "If you ... give yourself up, heart, body and soul to me ...
I will take you for my only mistress, rejecting from thought and affection all others save
yourself, to serve only you." Anne replied with rejection, however, explaining that she aimed
to be married and not be a mistress: "Your wife I cannot be, both in respect of mine own
unworthiness, and also because you have a queen already. Your mistress I will not be."
Anne's response surprised Henry VIII, who is believed to have had several mistresses at that
time, reportedly entering into these adulterous relationships because he badly wanted a son,
and Catherine of Aragon had not borne a male child. (Queen Catherine would not bear a son
that survived infancy throughout the duration of their marriage, from 1509 to 1533; the
couple's first child to survive infancy, Princess Mary, was born in 1516.) But Henry was
desperate to have Anne, so he quickly configured a way to officially abandon his marriage
with Catherine. In his petition for annulment to the pope, he cited an excerpt from the Book of
Leviticus stating that a man who takes his brother's wife shall remain childless, and claimed
that he and Catherine (who was his brother's widow) would never have a son who survived
infancy because their marriage was a condemnation in the eyes of God.

Queen of England
Following a six-year debate, during which time Henry and Anne had courted discreetly, Anne
discovered that she was pregnant in early 1533. Without the blessing of the pope, on January
25, 1533, Henry and Anne quickly married in a secret ceremony led by Thomas Cranmer,
archbishop of Canterbury. The following June, a lavish coronation ceremony was held in
honor of the new queen. On September 7, 1533, Queen Anne gave birth to a daughter,
Elizabeth I, who would be Henry VIII's only child with Anne Boleyn to survive infancy.
(Anne would conceive twice more, in 1534 and 1536, with each delivery producing a stillborn
baby.) In 1534, Archbishop Cranmer decreed Henry's marriage to Catherine Aragon invalid
because she was the king's sister-in-law. Henry subsequently broke England away from Rome
by setting up the Church of England. Catherine would pass away two years later, in 1536.

While Queen Anne's public persona was that of sexually promiscuous status seekerdue in
no small part to the public's long-held allegiance to Catherine of Aragonher efforts to play
the traditional role of queen during her reign were both valid and sincere, focusing on
improvements for the poor. Anne was also renowned at court for her stylish wardrobe, much
of which followed French fashion trends of the time. England would never warm up to Queen
Anne, however. She would remain disliked, by and large, for the rest of her short life.

But if Anne was less than prepared for her new role as queen, she was extremely unprepared
for her new role as the king's wife. A year into their union, Henry VIII pursued and engaged
in sexual relationships with two of Anne's maids-of-honor, Madge Shelton and Jane Seymour.
Unlike Queen Catherine before her, who knew of her husband's infidelity but was able to turn
the other cheek, Anne was enraged by Henry's promiscuity and became increasingly jealous.
As he had with Catherine, Henry blamed his adulterous behavior on his mission to have a son
and heir to the throne, and became increasingly frustrated by his wife's questions about his
whereabouts and subsequent reactions. Permeated by resentment and hostility, the marriage
quickly fell apart.

Execution and Legacy

After Anne gave birth to a stillborn male child in January 1536, Henry VIII decided that it
was time to take hold of his legacy. He quickly settled on taking Jane Seymour as his future
wife and sought out the annulment of his marriage to Anne. He then had Anne detained at the
Tower of London on several false charges, among them adultery, incest and conspiracy. It is
believed that Thomas Cromwell, Chief Minister to the King and Annes former friend, plotted
her downfall.
"I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to
pray for me. O Lord have mercy on me, to God I commend my soul."
Anne Boleyn went to trial on May 15, 1536. In court, she remained levelheaded and
articulate, calmly and clearly denying all of the charges against her. Four days later, on May
19, 1536, Anne was unanimously convicted by a court of peers, and Henry's marriage to Anne
was annulled and declared invalid. That same day, Anne was taken to the Tower Green in
London, England, for her execution, by a French swordsman. There, on the scaffolds, she
delivered a speech: "I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak anything of that,
whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray God save the king and send him long
to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was there never: and to me he was
ever a good, a gentle and sovereign lord," she said, adding, "I take my leave of the world and
of you all, and I heartily desire you all to pray for me. O Lord have mercy on me, to God I
commend my soul."

Her ermine mantle was removed and Anne removed her headdress. She kneeled down and
was blindfolded. With one swift motion, she was beheaded. Her head and body was buried in
an unmarked grave. Within 24 hours of Anne's execution, Henry VIII and Jane Seymour were
formally wed. The daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, Elizabeth I, would later emerge
as one of England's most revered queens.
 hat was it that drew the king to Anne Boleyn and made him renounce his wife of 24 years? It was
not her beauty, but her wit and grace that attracted the attention of the king and many other men. She
was sophisticated, knowledgeable about the ways of court life, and knew how to manipulate a situation
to get what she wanted. And she wanted to be queen.

n 1523, while serving in Queen Catherine's household, Anne met Henry, Lord Percy, heir to the Earl of
Northumberland. Though already engaged to the daughter of the Earl of Shrewsbury, Percy quickly fell
for Anne and secretly put himself under contract to marry her. When Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the king's
powerful factotum, heard of the precontract, he rushed to the king with the news. Henry, whose
permission was required for all aristocratic marriages, was angered at not being consulted and asked
Wolsey to break the engagement. Anne, who never knew of the king's involvement, never forgave
Wolsey's interference and when she became Henry's mistress she would seek her revenge by ousting
Wolsey from power.

nne had initially caught the king's

eye in 1525 after his affair ended with
her older sister, Mary Boleyn. By the
spring of 1526 Henry was completely
captivated and begging Anne to be his
mistress. His passion for Anne is
evident in the love letters he wrote to
his beloved -- 17 of which survive in
the Vatican. In one letter, Henry
promises Anne "if you... give yourself
up, heart, body and soul to me... I
will take you for my only mistress,
rejecting from thought
and affection all others save yourself, to
serve only you." The king, accustomed to
easy conquests, was surprised at Anne's
rejection: "Your wife I cannot be, both in
respect of mine own unworthiness, and
also because you have a queen already.
Your mistress I will not be." Anne made
her point: it was to be marriage or
nothing.
Anne knew that Henry was desperate to
have her, but more importantly to have a
male heir. Henry's queen, Catherine of
Aragon was past her childbearing years.
The king, therefore, set out on a
campaign to have his marriage declared
invalid. Thanks to Catherine and her
powerful allies, it would not be an easy
task. All throughout the long divorce
proceedings, Henry treated Anne as if
she were his queen, giving her
extravagant presents and even a title of
her own -- Marquess of Pembroke. But
Anne would not yield to Henry fully until
it was certain she would be queen. Only
in 1532 when the king's divorce was
imminent did Henry and she consummate
their relationship -- a full six years after
their romance began. On January 25,
1533 Henry and Anne were secretly
married and in June, Henry would honor
her with a lavish coronation ceremony.
 nne was crowned on June 1, 1533 at Westminster Abbey. But it was not entirely a
day of triumph. On the eve of her coronation, Henry VIII's second wife had ridden in a
magnificent procession from the Tower of London to Westminister, while Londoners, who still favored
Catherine of Aragon, cried "HA! HA!" in parody of the king and queen's initials.

Though commonly seen as a parvenue who had stolen Catherine of Aragon's rightful place, Queen Anne
made every effort to play the traditional role of queen. She gave alms to the poor, provided for widows,
and even sewed shirts and smocks for the needy. She was also a patron of the arts and scholars.
Erasmus, the theologian and humanist scholar, would dedicate books to her. At court, Anne was a
trendsetter -- her French-inspired clothes and headdresses would be eagerly copied.

The public hated Anne not just because they viewed her as an adulteress, but because they thought

she was a heretic, influenced by

Martin Luther's teachings. Even
though she had pushed for the
break with Rome in order for
Henry to obtain a divorce and
marry her, Anne was genuinely
interested in church reform. She
obtained translations of anti-
clerical works such as
"Supplication of the Beggars" by
Simon Fish, printed in Antwerp in
1524, but smuggled into England.
She shared this book along with
William Tyndale's "The Obedience
of a Christian Man" with Henry. In
his book, Tyndale advocated
secular rule over papal power. The
king was impressed and deemed it
"a book for me and all kings to
read." Anne's
Top far right: Bishop Cranmer by Gerlach
Flicke
influence over the king would lead Henry
to declare himself the Supreme Head of
the Church of England as well as dissolve
monasteries. Anne also helped promote
the pro-reform churchmen Thomas
Cranmer and Hugh Latimer to bishops.
Even before she became queen, Anne
had exercised influence over the king.
The queen had never forgotten Cardinal
Wolsey's role in ending her chances for
marriage with Lord Henry Percy. She also
doubted Wolsey's ability and sincerity in
attempting to get the Pope to deem the
king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon
invalid. Anne's campaign against Wolsey,
once Henry's most trusted servant, would
lead to his fall from power. Other
longtime advisors who refused to take
the oath of the Act of Succession that
recognized the king's second marriage
were executed. John Fisher, Bishop of
Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, the
king's former friend and adviser, were
both beheaded at Anne's urging.
 t the time of Anne's marriage to
King Henry, she was already three Elizabeth would go
months pregnant. Although the king on to become one
married Anne for love, the new queen of England's
knew that her status was contingent greatest monarchs
on her ability to bear the king a son -- as Elizabeth I.
the deed at which Catherine of Aragon Although Anne
had failed. When Anne gave birth in would conceive
1533, the king was disappointed but twice more, both
still had hopes that Anne would bear her pregnancies
him a son. Letters announcing the ended in stillbirth -- in 1534 and 1536.
birth of a prince, prepared before
hand had to be altered with an The baby stillborn in January 1536 was a
additional "s" before being sent boy and it was then the dismayed king
abroad. Ironically, the baby Princess cried, "I see God will not give me male
children." The king now doubted Anne's
ability to bear him sons. It was time to
look elsewhere for his heir and the
prospect of Anne's maid-of-honor Jane
Seymour beckoned.

ELIZABETH I (1533 - 1603)

After Anne and Henry's marriage was

ruled invalid, Elizabeth, like her older
half-sister Mary, was declared a bastard.
Stripped of her title, she was called,
simply, Lady Elizabeth. Although
Elizabeth was only two years old at the
time,she noted the difference and asked
Sir John Shelton,

who was in charge of her household, "how hath it, yesterday Lady Princess, and today but Lady
Elizabeth?" From then on and especially after the birth of Edward VI, Elizabeth was increasingly
neglected. Henry's last wife, Catherine Parr, however, provided a comfortable and tranquil
household for Elizabeth. But it all ended when Parr's new husband Thomas Seymour gave Elizabeth
too much attention. After Parr died, Seymour unsuccessfully proposed to Elizabeth.

When Elizabeth's half-brother, Edward VI, died in 1553 and named Lady Jane Grey as his successor,
Elizabeth supported her older half-sister, Mary, in her fight to become queen. But during Mary's reign,
Elizabeth was imprisoned for two months and only saved herself by outwardly conforming to the Catholic
faith.

Upon Mary's death in 1558, Elizabeth, at the age of 24, became queen of England. She inherited a
bankrupt country, torn by religious strife and weakened by war with France. But by the time Elizabeth
died at the age of 70, England was a united nation and a major European power with an impressive
navy. During Elizabeth's 45-year reign, literature flourished with the works of Shakespeare and Marlowe
and exploration of the New World progressed with Francis Drake and Walter Raleigh. Elizabeth's death in
1603 marked the end of the Tudor dynasty.

fter several days of investigations, Lord Privy Seal Thomas Cromwell had the materials needed to oust
Anne Boleyn (see King vs. Queen). With the king's approval, Cromwell and the Duke of Norfolk, the
queen's uncle, placed Anne under arrest and escorted her to the Tower of London. With evidence
obtained from interviews, Anne was charged with adultery and conspiracy to murder the king.

At the Tower, Anne was lodged in the rooms she had used during her coronation festivities just three
years earlier. She was attended by four women who were to report everything she said or did to
Cromwell. Anne was in hysterics -- laughing one moment and crying the next.

Two weeks later, Anne's trial took place at the Great Hall of the Tower of London. Special stands were
erected to accommodate the 2,000 people expected to attend. Her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, presided
as the court's High Steward. No longer in hysterics, Anne answered her accusers calmly and remained
composed even while her death sentence was read by her uncle. Her brother, Lord Rochford, was tried
next and ably defended himself against his wife's charges of incest. Rochford might have been acquitted
were it not for the fact that he read out loud his wife's testimony that Queen Anne had told her that the
king was impotent -- long a subject of speculation. Two days after the trial, Anne watched from a window
at the Bell Tower while her brother Lord Rochford, Privy Council members Sir Henry Norris, Sir Francis
Weston, William Brereton and musician Mark Smeaton were beheaded on Tower Hill.

That same day, at the king's instigation, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, declared Anne's marriage to
Henry invalid. The ruling struck a considerable hole in the Crown's case. If Anne's marriage had been
invalid, she could not have committed adultery as Henry's wife. Nevertheless, plans for Anne's execution
continued. As a favor to his wife, the king sent for the hangman of Calais, who used a sword for
executions instead of an axe -- bringing a faster, neater end. When Anne learned of the pick for
executioner, she reportedly laughed heartily, glad since she had "a little neck." On Friday, May 19, 1536
before a crowd of 2,000 - 3,000 spectators, Anne was led to the scaffolds on Tower Green. She calmly
delivered a speech in which she accepted her fate and asked all present to pray for the king, "the best
prince on the face of the earth." (see In Her Own Words) She then took off her French hood and knelt
before the beheading block. Moments later, she was dead.