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affect how well the student achieves in examine the disparity between
science classes (Anderman & Young, successful students and students who
1994). Results from the Third struggle in school (Pintrich, 2003).
International Mathematics and Science Essentially, teachers need to remember
Study (TIMSS) showed that students that liking science [is] correlated with
who liked learning science also did well achievement in science (Freedman,
in science classes (House, 2002). A 1997, p. 344). This information
students attitude toward science will illustrates the importance of researching
involve both his/her personal interest in ways to increase student motivation to
the subject and his/her level of learn science.
confidence in his/her ability to do well in Research on student motivation
science. Students who believe they will in science is especially needed at the
do well tend to put more effort into their secondary level. Research has shown
learning; they are engaged and willing to that interest in all academic subjects,
work hard and think critically. Students including science, tends to decline as
who are unconvinced of their ability to students enter and progress through
succeed will be less motivated to learn. middle school and high school
In short, students often create their own (Anderman & Young, 1994). Similarly,
self-fulfilling prophecy that will reflect as students get older, their motivation
their actual achievement (Pintrich, and sense of efficacy decline as well
2003). Because a students belief in (Pintrich, 2003). For science in
his/her own abilities is linked to the particular, the beginning of formal
students motivation, tracking systems in education coincides with a dissipation of
high schools may segregate students students natural curiosity about
with high and low motivation to learn. A scientific phenomena (Tuan, 2003).
study conducted by Nolen revealed that Research shows decreases in students
students in higher tracks tend to be intrinsic motivation to learn science and
more highly motivated. Tracking their positive attitudes toward the
systems could create entire classes of subject of science (Anderman &Young,
students with low levels of initial 1994). As students reach the secondary
motivation, which presents challenging level, they tend to take only the
situations for teachers (Nolen, 2003). minimum number of science courses
The situation is often exacerbated by required for graduation, and their
teacher bias toward high achieving achievement in those classes is below
students. Anderman and Young assert average (Anderman & Young, 1994).
that low-achieving students are treated Changes to more rigorous and less
differently because of teachers low varied assessments in middle school
expectations for their success. Teacher and high school, as well as increased
bias could result in these students being weight put on ability in general may
assigned more busywork involving only account for the lack of student
low-level thinking skills. This trend could motivation in science at higher
contribute to the discrepancy in academic levels (Anderman & Young,
motivation levels between high- 1994). Other factors could include the
achieving and low-achieving students change from a student-centered to a
(Anderman & Young, 1994). Motivation teacher-centered environment, the
must be considered when investigators increased emphasis on formal grades,
Hands-On Activities in Science 3
and the stifling of student self- be motivated by goals they set for
expression and choice (Guthrie, n.d.). themselves. He classifies goals into two
All of these changes from elementary typesmastery goals and performance
school to middle school/high school goals. Students with mastery goals are
correlate with the decline in student focused on learning and understanding
motivation (Guthrie, n.d.). Guthrie the information given to them. Students
asserts that motivation decreases at with performance goals want to show off
higher academic levels because their achievements in a competitive
practices that focus on social nature. Mastery goals have a more
comparison between children, too much positive effect toward a students
competition, and little attempt to intrinsic motivation to learn (Pintrich,
spark childrens interests in different 2003). Conversely, students with
topics can lead to declines in performance goals tend to be
competence beliefs, mastery extrinsically motivated (Guthrie, n.d.).
goals, and intrinsic motivation, and Nevertheless, in terms of achievement,
increases in extrinsic motivation both types of goals have positive effects
and performance goals. (Guthrie, n.d.) (Pintrich, 2003). Therefore, teachers
The decline in students interest should encourage students to set goals
to learn science in middle school and and challenge themselves. Doing so
high school makes the question what will help students to learn and to
motivates students? even more motivate themselves (Spitzer, 1996).
significant at higher levels of education. Student goal setting reflects
Educators will need to study this students desire to take an active role in
question carefully in order to incorporate their education and make choices about
motivation when designing teaching their own achievement. One model
strategies, assignments, and new used to describe motivation in current
curricula (Pintrich, 2003). Furthermore, research is Deci and Ryans self-
educators will need to remember that determination model. This model
different students may be motivated to involves interaction between three
learn for different reasons; therefore, different needs felt by all humans
teachers should vary their motivational autonomy, competence, and
and instructional strategies (Pintrich, relatedness. When a person has
2003). Thus, a multi-disciplinary autonomy, the person feels that he/she
approach should be used to study the is in control of his/her own actions.
question of what piques a students When students are given more
interest (Pintrich, 2003). Educators do autonomy to make choices about their
have resources available to consult in education, they will be more motivated
this area; research has already been to learn (Pintrich, 2003). An implication
done. Tuan identified several principles of self-determination theory is that
involved with motivation in science teachers can design lessons that allow
education in his action research study in for students to make choices about their
2003. He maintains that student goal- learning, which will increase student
setting is extremely important to engagement (Pintrich, 2003). A sense
motivation (Tuan, Chin, & Tsai, 2003). of personal control is strongly correlated
Pintrichs research supports Tuans to intrinsic motivation, engagement,
claim; Pintrich states that students will interest in learning, and academic
Hands-On Activities in Science 4
should carefully consider what teaching Portes, & Ochs, 2003, p. 41). Zady
strategies they use, because their supports her generalized statement with
teaching style can have a significant her research on this topic. She
effect on student motivation in science conducted research to compare student
classes. achievement in activity settings versus
A particularly interesting research text lecture settings. Students in a
finding to be considered by teachers is classroom where hands-on activities
that there is a lot of corroborating were used as instructional strategies
evidence supporting the argument that displayed evidence of understanding the
laboratory experiments and hands-on material of the lesson. Students in the
activities stimulate students motivation text/lecture class were less engaged,
to learn science (House, 2002). misbehaved, inattentive, and more
Research by Tuan and Chin showed passive (Zady et al., 2003, p. 50). In
that students react positively toward another observation done during the
participating in group discussions and Zady study, the observer and students
laboratory activities (Tuan et al., 2003). walked into a classroom to see
Research in this area showed that directions for an Egg Drop Activity on
students motivation in learning science the board. The observer reported that
was enhanced if the teacher made the students asked the teacher about
science concepts related to daily life, the project with interest and enthusiasm.
provided hands-on activities for students The teacher announced that the activity
to manipulate, and created the was for the previous class; their class
opportunities for group discussion on would be reviewing instead. The
the content (Tuan et al., 2003, p. 5). students were uncooperative for the rest
When students are provided with hands- of the class (Zady et al., 2003). Zady
on activities in science, their motivation attributes student enjoyment of
is increased. In another study, medical laboratory and hands-on activities to the
students from Boston University School change of pace provided by the varied
of Medicine led an instructional program activities. The activities also make the
to give high school students the subject relevant to practical situations,
opportunity to work in a lab. Results and they are an opportunity for students
showed that the students interest in to work with their classmates (Zady et
medicine increased (House, 2002). The al., 2003).
types of activities incorporated into Other studies show results similar
science lesson plans will affect student to the study by Zady. An investigation
achievement as well as their motivation. conducted by Anderson revealed that
The Third International Mathematics and hands-on science activities motivated
Science Study (TIMSS) revealed that students to read their science texts and
levels of science achievement could be helped them understand what they read.
correlated to the type of activities done When hands-on activities are used in
in science classes, with laboratory conjunction with a text, students show
investigations increasing achievement greater comprehension than when
(House, 2002). In general, studies of hands-on activities are not used
activities-based science instruction (Guthrie, n.d.). Researcher Freedman
continue to show higher student conducted an extensive study on a ninth
achievement and engagement (Zady, grade physical science class in a large,
Hands-On Activities in Science 7
urban high school. In his study, hands- never incorporated (Stohr-Hunt, 1996).
on laboratory activities were seen to be However, Stohr-Hunt warns that simply
positively correlated with higher using any hands-on activity is not
achievement and motivation in science. sufficient to achieve the desired results
Freedman tested two groups of students found in her survey. The activity must
in different sections of the same class. be meaningful, relevant, and
The treatment group was given the appropriately timed. The teacher must
opportunity to participate in laboratory provide scaffolding for students
activities, the control group was not. throughout the activity and help them
The group with laboratory instruction understand the concepts being explored
tested higher on achievement post-tests (Stohr-Hunt, 1996). Further research
and indicated more positive attitudes on may help to guide teachers as they
surveys (Freedman, 1997). Results of develop ways to incorporate hands-on
post-testing and end of the year surveys activities into science curricula.
given in Freedmans study show a
correlation between the positive Methods
attitudes of the treatment group and The first step in this project was
their higher test scores (Freedman, to gather information about what
1997). Freedman also took qualitative motivates students to learn. Twenty-
observations of the two groups nine ninth grade students at Dayton
throughout the year. He observed high Early College Academy (DECA) were
levels of engagement and fewer asked to complete academic interest
discipline problems while the treatment surveys. The survey asked students to
group participated in the hands-on identify their favorite subject and explain
laboratory activities (Freedman, 1997). why they liked that subject. The survey
He suggests that laboratory activities also asked the students to suggest ways
make science exciting for students, that a teacher can make an
which increases their motivation to learn uninteresting subject more interesting.
the subject (Freedman, 1997). Many students indicated that hands-on
Freedmans study supports findings activities could be used to increase their
from several research projects interest in a particular subject. This
conducted in the 1970s and 1980s result led to the development of the next
which also found hands-on laboratory step.
instruction to be correlated with student The second step of the project
interest in science (Freedman, 1997). was to examine the effect of hands-on
In the year before Freedmans activities on student understanding and
study, Stohr-Hunt analyzed the impact of motivation. A 3-day lesson on the topic
the frequency of hands-on activity of meiosis was presented to a class of
integration in science curricula on 11 students at DECA. DECA is an
student achievement. Her results alternative high school located on the
reinforce the results of other studies; campus of the University of Dayton. It is
students in classes where hands-on an urban high school consisting
activities are an integral part of the primarily of African American students.
curriculum scored significantly higher on DECA is unique in that each student has
post-tests than students in classes a personalized learning plan (PLP). The
where hands-on activities are rarely or PLP identifies the students academic
Hands-On Activities in Science 8
interest ratings for the activity portion of students indicated that they chose their
the lesson are also shown in Figure 5. favorite subject based on the fact that it
Five students gave the activity a rating was fun. Three students responded that
of 5. Four students rated the lecture as making a subject fun was a good way
a 4, and 2 students rated it at a 3. for a teacher to make a boring subject
more interesting. Clearly, the element of
fun can play a significant role in
capturing a students interest. Research
also shows that teachers have a
profound effect of their students
motivation to learn (Anderman and
Young, 1994). Anderman and Youngs
emphasis on the role of the teacher is
supported by the evidence generated by
the surveys. Four students, when
answering a free response question,
attributed their interest in their favorite
Student comments explaining their subject to a good teacher of that
ratings provide qualitative data pertinent subject. Teachers can and do capture
to the complete understanding of the student interest and motivate students
results of this study. Lectures and to learn. Another interesting response
activities are quite different lesson to the second question involved the
styles; student comments reflect the students ability in their favorite subject.
differences. Many students indicated Six students chose their favorite subject
that they did like the lecture because it because they were good at that subject.
was clear and logically organized. This result supports the research on the
Positive comments for the activity effect of student ability on motivation.
included statements that it was fun and Research has shown that when
interesting, and that it helped the students have confidence in their ability
students understand the process better. to succeed in a class, they will be more
motivated to work in the class, and they
will achieve at higher levels (Pintrich,
Discussion 2003).
The academic interest survey was a The fourth question on the survey
useful tool in the determination of what asked students to suggest ways that
captivates a students interest. The first teachers can make a boring subject
two questions yielded extremely more interesting. The question was
interesting results. The reasons given open-ended; the students were not
by students to explain their choice of a given choices and thus could respond
favorite subject support previous with any answer. Nine out of 29
research conducted on the topic of students gave the same answer; they
motivation. Spitzer (1996) cites the lack indicated that hands-on activities could
of the incorporation of fun as a help to make a subject interesting. This
contributing factor to the lack of student result supports earlier research
motivation in academic classrooms. His conducted to examine the effect of
theory is supported by the fact that on hands-on activities on student
the academic interest surveys, four
Hands-On Activities in Science 11
References
Anderman, E. M., & Young, A. J. (1994). Motivation and strategy use in science:
Individual differences and classroom effects. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 31, 811-831. Freedman, M. P. (1997). Relationship among laboratory
instruction, attitude toward science, and achievement in science knowledge.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 34, 343-357.
Guthrie, J. T. (n.d.). Contexts for engagement and motivation in reading. Handbook of
Reading Research, Vol. 3. Retrieved March 10, 2006, from
http://www.readingonline.org/articles/handbook/guthrie/index.html#importance
House, D. J. (2002). The motivational effects of specific teaching activities and
computer use for science learning: Findings from the Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). International Journal of Instructional
Media, 29, 423-439.
Nolen, S. B. (2003). Learning environment, motivation, and achievement in high school
science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40, 347-368.
Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student
motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology,
95, 667-686.
Spitzer, D. R. (1996). Motivation: The neglected factor in instructional design.
Educational Technology, 36(3), 45-49).
Stohr-Hunt, P. M. (1996). An analysis of frequency of hands-on experience and science
achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 101-109.
Tuan, H.-L., Chin, C.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2003, March). Promoting students motivation in
learning physical scienceAn action research approach. Paper presented at the
National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Philadelphia. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 475481)
Zady, M. F., Portes, P.R., & Ochs, V.D. (2003). Examining classroom interactions related
to difference in students science achievement. Science Education, 87, 40-63.
Hands-On Activities in Science 13
Appendix 1
2. When did you first become interested in that subject? What made you become interested in it?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Which of the following statements is more true for you? (Circle the letter).
4. What can a teacher do to make a subject you are not interested in more interesting to you?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Hands-On Activities in Science 14
Appendix 2
Name:__________________
Mitosis/Meiosis Test
Please mark each of the following statements as true or false. Please write out the entire word
(true or false). Do not simply write the letter t or f. Thank you!
______2. A duplicated chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids which are attached to
each other at the centromere.
______3. During metaphase of mitosis, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.
______7. Meiosis results in the production of four daughter cells which are all identical to the
original cell.
______10. During prophase of mitosis, homologous chromosomes join together to form tetrads.
Hands-On Activities in Science 15
Appendix 3
Name: _______________________
Activity: Meiosis
***You will be working in groups of three or four, but each of you must complete your own
worksheet!
Meiosis
1. Begin with a cell with two chromosomes. These chromosomes are a pair of homologous
chromosomes. Both homologous chromosomes contain genes that code for the same traits (for
example, red blood cell shape). The chromosome may contain different alleles for each trait.
Alleles are different forms of the same gene. For example, you will begin with one of the
homologous chromosomes that contains the allele that codes for normal red blood cells (S),
while the other contains the allele that codes for sickle-shaped cells (s).
Your cell begins in interphase, before the cells DNA has been replicated. Draw a picture of
your cell:
2. During what part of interphase does the cell replicate its DNA? Demonstrate DNA
replication with your chromosomes (as demonstrated by Ms. Vogt). You should now have two
duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids which are
attached to each other at the centromere. Draw what your cell looks like now. Label the sister
chromatids and the centromeres.
Hands-On Activities in Science 16
3. Next your cell begins the process of meiosis. Meiosis occurs in two parts: Meiosis I and
Meiosis II. Meiosis I consists of the four phases: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and
Telophase I. Meiosis two consists of the four phases: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II,
and Telophase II. We will begin with Prophase I:
Prophase I: During prophase one, the pair of homologous chromosome join together to form a
tetrad. Crossing over can occur. ***The formation of tetrads and crossing over do not occur
during mitosis!*** As in prophase I of mitosis, the nuclear membrane breaks down and the
mitotic spindle begins to form. Draw a picture of your cell during Prophase I. Include the
mitotic spindle in your drawing, and label everything!
Metaphase I: During Metaphase I, the pair of homologous chromosomes line up together in the
middle of the cell. Draw a picture of your cell during Metaphase I:
Hands-On Activities in Science 17
Anaphase I: During Anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes come apart. Draw a picture of
your cell during Anaphase I:
Telophase I: During Telophase I, the homologous chromosomes migrate to the poles of the cell,
and the cell begins to pinch in two (cytokinesis). Draw a picture of the two cells that result from
Telophase I and cytokinesis:
Hands-On Activities in Science 18
Meiosis is not done yet! Each of the two cells above will now divide again. Each will progress
through the stages of Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II. These phases are
very similar to the phases of mitosis. Model each of these stages with your pipe-cleaner
chromosomes. You do not need to draw each phase, but do draw the four final resultant cells:
How do these resultant cells compare to your original cell? Are they the same or different than
the original cell? How are they different?
4. The purpose of Meiosis is to produce gametes (sex cells) and to reduce the number of
chromosomes per cell by half. For example, most human cells contain 46 chromosomes, but
meiosis produces human sperm and eggs cells that have only 23 chromosomes. Why is it
important that meiosis reduce the number of chromosomes by half? What would happen if it
didnt?
Hands-On Activities in Science 19
5. Fill in the following chart by putting checkmarks in the boxes that apply to mitosis and/or
meiosis:
Mitosis Meiosis
DNA must replicate in
interphase before process can
occur
Crossing over can occur
Homologous chromosomes
form tetrads
Results in four daughter cells,
different from the parent cell
Results in two daughter cells,
identical to each other and to
the original parent
6. Using the chart as a guide, list one similarity and four differences between mitosis and
meiosis:
Hands-On Activities in Science 20
Appendix 4
1. During advisory time of Wednesday and Thursday of this week, we have worked to
understand the process of meiosis. Ms. Vogt applied two different methods of teaching: on
Wednesday she lectured about meiosis, and on Thursday she led you in an activity about meiosis.
Which method helped you to learn the process of meiosis better? Why? What specific aspects of
the lesson (either lecture or activity) helped you to learn?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2. On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate how interesting you found Ms. Vogts lecture on Wednesday.
(1 = boring, 5 = very interesting). Circle your answer:
1 2 3 4 5
______________________________________________________________________________
4. On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate how interesting you found the activity on Thursday
(1 = boring, 5 = very interesting). Circle your answer:
1 2 3 4 5
______________________________________________________________________________
6. If you were a science teacher, how would you teach your students about mitosis and meiosis?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________