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Article history: Annual and monthly-based emission inventories in northern, central and north-eastern
Received 1 February 2016 provinces in Thailand, where agriculture and related agro-industries are very intensive,
Revised 21 February 2016 were estimated to evaluate the contribution of agricultural activity, including crop residue
Accepted 23 February 2016 burning, forest fires and related agro-industries on air quality monitored in corresponding
Available online 17 March 2016 provinces. The monthly-based emission inventories of air pollutants, or, particulate matter
(PM), NOx and SO2, for various agricultural crops were estimated based on information
Keywords: on the level of production of typical crops: rice, corn, sugarcane, cassava, soybeans and
Biomass burning potatoes using emission factors and other parameters related to country-specific values
Agricultural residue taking into account crop type and the local residue burning period. The estimated monthly
Agro-industry emission inventory was compared with air monitoring data obtained at monitoring stations
Emission inventory operated by the Pollution Control Department, Thailand (PCD) for validating the estimated
Air pollutants emission inventory. The agro-industry that has the greatest impact on the regions being
evaluated, is the sugar processing industry, which uses sugarcane as a raw material and
its residue as fuel for the boiler. The backward trajectory analysis of the air mass arriving at
the PCD station was calculated to confirm this influence. For the provinces being evaluated
which are located in the upper northern, lower northern and northeast in Thailand, agri-
cultural activities and forest fires were shown to be closely correlated to the ambient PM
concentration while their contribution to the production of gaseous pollutants is much less.
2016 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
Introduction burning affect, not only the environment, but also human
health. In developing countries, especially in the Southeast
Biomass burning refers to the burning of existing and dead Asia, open biomass burning is a common protocol for
vegetation including that in forests and agricultural areas. handling crops before and after harvesting: for controlling of
Biomass burning related to agricultural activities, such as crop residues and weeds in the field after harvesting is
crop residue burning represents an important source of air completed (Garivait et al., 2004; Tipayarat and Sajor, 2012).
pollutants in many countries, especially in developing coun- Thailand is an agricultural-based country and generates
tries (Levine et al., 1995; Badarinath et al., 2006; Zhang et al., massive amounts of agricultural waste and the economic
2011). Biomass burning contributes to more than 50% of the contribution of agriculture promises to increase remarkably in
global emission of black carbon into the atmosphere (Bond the future because of the increasing population as well as
et al., 2004), e.g., and particulate matters (PMs) from biomass growing trade and agro-industries (Kasem and Thapa, 2012).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2016.02.007
1001-0742/ 2016 The Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V.
86 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 859 7
According to the Forest Fire Control Division (FFCD) (2014), In this study, annual and monthly-based emission in-
the main reasons for forest fires are the collection of forest ventories in northern, central and north-eastern provinces
products by local residents, e.g., mushroom and bamboo (37%), in Thailand, where agriculture and related agro-industries
incidents (12%), agricultural land clearing before the next crop are quite intensive, were estimated, in order to evaluate the
cultivation (11%), hunting (11%), animal farming (4%), illegal contribution of agricultural activity including crop residue
logging (1%) and others (24%). Many of the recorded forest burning, forest fires and related agro-industries to the air
fires, therefore, are related to human activities, especially to quality monitored in the corresponding provinces. The
agricultural ones. This promises to result in a serious situation monthly-based emission inventories of air pollutants, or, PM,
regarding the ambient environment and health risks because NOx and SO2, for various agricultural crops were estimated
a significant amount of air pollutants are emitted from open based on information supplied from various provinces on the
burning in fields in agriculture and related forest fires. amounts of typical crops: rice, corn, sugarcane, cassava,
The emission from biomass burning related to agriculture soybean and potato that are produced using emission factors
is not only from open burning in fields but also from further and other parameters of country-specific values taking into
processing by agro-industries. Sugarcane is a typical example account crop type and the period for burning local residues.
in Thailand. In the central, northern and north-eastern parts The estimated monthly emission inventory was compared
of Thailand, sugarcane is the leading commercial crop, which with air monitoring data obtained at monitoring stations
is used in agro-industry as a raw material for producing sugar operated by PCD, Thailand for the validation of estimated
and the level of production has been rapidly increasing by emission inventory. As the most influential agro-industry in
more than 100% during the last 10 years (Office of the Cane the regions of interest, the emission inventory related to a
and Sugar Board (OCSB), 2014). This can be attributed to the sugar factory which uses sugarcane as the raw material and
need for renewable energy such as bioethanol and gasohol its residue as boiler fuel was estimated in order to evaluate
that is promoted by the Thai government. Most of the sugar- their contribution. This was done, in order to verify the con-
cane is processed in sugar factories to produce two main tribution of crop residue burning and forest fires from the
products, namely, sugar and molasses. Sugarcane residue, distribution of crops and transportation by air mass flow, the
after the squeezing process, or, bagasse, is used as a fuel for 24-hr backward trajectory of air mass arriving at an elevation
boilers to produce the energy needed to operate a sugarcane of 50 m from the average ground level at the PCD station
plant. Since boiler emissions cannot be controlled in many corresponding to monitored data was calculated for selected
cases and because emission control devices are often inade- periods.
quate, a large amount of air pollutants may be released during
the production of sugar. However, the issue of how it affects
the status of the ambient pollutants has not been fully
1. Methods
evaluated.
As a tool to evaluating the above described emission of
1.1. Estimation of the amount of pollutants emitted
air pollutants from biomass burning in agricultural activities,
forest fires and agro-industries and their contribution to
1.1.1. Crop residue burning
the status of the environment, the emission inventory (EI) is
The amount of emissions from agricultural open burning was
useful and is used as a standard method (Intergovernmental
estimated for each crop based on literature values (Table 1).
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2006; Miller et al., 2006). Most
Emissions of air pollutants from crop residue burning were
of the EI has been developed for primary pollutants such as
calculated from the following equation (Streets et al., 2003).
particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) (US EPA, 2010).
E crop M EF 1
There are several databases such as Global Emission Inven-
tory Activity (Graedel et al., 1993), Transport and Chemical
Evolution over the Pacific (TRACE-P) (Streets et al., 2003) and where E (g) is the emission of each pollutant, M (kg) is the
Regional Emission inventory in Asia (REAS) (Ohara et al., total amount of burned biomass, EF (g/kgdry mass) is the emis-
2007). These databases can also be used for Thailand and EIs sion factor of each air pollutant emitted from crop residue
have been reported by governmental sectors such as the burning obtained from the country-specific value and avail-
Pollution Control Department in Thailand (Pollution Control able reported data (Table 2). M is defined as the amount of
Department (PCD), 1994) as well as by researchers (Kim Oanh burned crop based on total crop production data:
et al., 2011; Cheewaphongphan and Garivait, 2013). How-
ever, even when these available databases are used, detailed MPND F 2
information such as a monthly-based inventory is very base
limited or quite uncertain. Such information is important where, P (kg) is the annual crop production, which was ob-
in terms of evaluating the emission linked to agricultural tained from the Office of Agricultural Economics in Thailand
activities that are actually related to the harvesting and open (OAE) and available for each province in Thailand (Office of
burning periods, which differ from province to province in Agricultural Economics (OAE), 2015). N is the residue to crop
Thailand. It is also important to determine the relation be- ratio, D is the fraction of dry matter, is the fraction burned in
tween the emission inventory and status of the ambient the field, and F is the crop-specific burn efficiency ratio, where
environment such as the monthly averaged concentration of these values from literature shown in Table 1 were used in the
air pollutants. flowing discussion.
J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 8 59 7 87
Table 1 Summary of the specific of each coefficient used for the emission inventory in agricultural residue burning.
Parameter Agricultural crop
Gg = Giga-gram; N, D, and F values represent to the fraction. a Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE) (2007);
b
Sornpoon et al. (2014); c Yang et al. (2008); d Streets et al. (2003); e Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2006); f Department of
Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE) (2003); g Energy for Environment Foundation (EFE) (2009); h Sajjakulnukit et al. (2005);
i
Pollution Control Department (PCD) (2005).
Table 2 Summary of emission factors for each pollutant (unit: g/kgdry mass).
Pollutants Rice Corn Cassava Sugarcane Soybean Potato Forest
a b c d c c
PM10 9.10 8.72 3.90 5.65 3.90 3.90 26.19e
PM2.5 8.30a 8.72b 3.90c 4.12d 3.90c 3.90c 26.19e
SO2 0.48f 0.40c 0.40c 0.40c 0.40c 0.40c 0.57c
NOx 3.43g 3.05g 1.70h 2.60i 1.70h 1.70h 2.45c
a
Kim Oanh et al. (2011); b Kanokkanjana (2010); c Andreae and Merlet (2001); d Zhang et al. (2013); e Chaiyo and Garivait (2014); f Streets et al.
(2003); g Cao et al. (2008); h Sahai et al. (2007); i Dennis et al. (2002).
88 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 859 7
where E (mass per time) is the emission rate, EFuncontrolled 2013), pre-harvest burning accounts for 82% while
and EFcontrolled are the emission factors respectively without post-harvest burning in the agro-industry as a boiler fuel
and with pollution control devices. ER is the efficiency of contributes the remaining 18%. Hence, the pre-harvest
removal of a pollution control device, which is different with burning of sugarcane was accounted for as the open burning
agro-industry types. A is the emission rate (activity unit per during the harvesting period from December to April. The
time). Note that EFuncontrolled is equivalent to EFcontrolled when emission from post-harvest burning, which is mainly from
ER = 0. provincial sugar factories, was estimated as described in the
Emission control devices used in sugar factories were agro-industry section.
reviewed in the Environmental Impact Assessment Reports Unlike other crops, rice is cultivated year round and
and all of the sugar factories use multi-cyclones to remove consists of two different periods of cultivation, or, major
particulate matter before releasing smoke produced by the and second rice: the major rice is mainly cultivated in the wet
burning of the residue (bagasse) into the atmosphere, where season between May and October and harvested in the dry
the dust removal efficiency is estimated as 60%. Because of season from November to February. The second rice is grown
that, very few sugar factories use emission control facilities from November to April in the following year and harvested
for NOx and SO2 and hence there is a lack of reliable data in the rainy season from May to October. As a result, rice
(Office of Natural Resource and Environment Policy and residue is burned throughout the year. However, the burning
Planning (ONEP), 2015), these gaseous pollutants were assumed period for rice residues is different region by region. Because
to be freely emitted. Sugar mills use bagasse every day during of this, the period of rice residue burning was based on a
the sugar season and the number of operating days varies questionnaire survey (see Fig. 1) (Cheewaphongphan and
between 120 and 240 days (140 days on average). In provinces Garivait, 2013) was used to calculate the amount of pollutants
of concern, the sugar mills operated during DecemberApril emitted.
(OCSB, 2014). Hotspot data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) active fire product (MOD14), pro-
1.2. Estimation of monthly-based emission inventory and their vided for Thailand by the Forest Fire Control Division in
spatial distribution Thailand (FFCD), were used to calculate the area that is
burned by forest fires. These data were obtained by on board
As shown in Table 3, the monthly-based emission from NASA's Aqua and Terra satellites with a resolution of 1 km
agricultural activities was estimated according to data related 1 km (NASA/University of Maryland, 2002). In the present
to the amount of material produced and the harvesting study, the hotspot data designated as nominal-confidence fire
procedure used for each crop. Data for the amount of corn, (30%80%) and high-confidence fire (81%100%) were used
cassava potato, and soybean that are produced, were obtained (Forest Fire Control Division (FFCD), 2014). In 2014, fire hotspot
from a calendar prepared by (Office of Agricultural Economics data in the forest area were categorized as 96.57% for nominal
(OAE), 2015). The monthly emission of pollutants originating and high confidence fire so that the fire hotspot from MODIS
from these crops was directly calculated by Eq. (1) with the can be used to describe spatial and temporal forest fire
monthly-based production amount of M for each crop taking hot spots in Thailand (Junpen et al., 2011; Kim Oanh and
into consideration that these crops are burned just after Leelasakultum, 2011).
harvest (Kanokkanjana and Garivait, 2010; Kanabkaew and
Kim Oanh, 2011). 1.3. Monitoring data of air pollutants
Monthly sugarcane production in each province was
obtained from the OCSB in Thailand, where the OCSB reports For a comparison between the estimated monthly-based
the daily amount of sugarcane both that burned in the field emission inventory and air pollutant data monitored at the
and unburned directly sent to sugar factories during the corresponding locations, air pollutant data available from the
sugar season (Decemberearly April)(OCSB, 2014). Sugarcane Pollution Control Department (PCD) of Thailand were used.
residues are burned both in the field and by the There are 66 air quality monitoring (AQM) stations operated
agro-industries. Sugarcane is usually burned before the by the PCD in Thailand, nearly half of which, or, 28 stations
harvest to remove sharp foliage, insects, and snakes so that are located in the Bangkok metropolitan region (PCD, 2014).
stems are more easy collected by workers (Kanokkanjana and The AQM stations selected in each area are listed in Table 4
Garivait, 2012). According to a previous report (Sornpoon, and their locations are shown in Fig. 2: two stations in Chiang
Corn 4.42 2.82 2.15 1.69 0.34 0.92 2.52 15.11 23.25 18.24 16.39 13.81
Cassava 18.72 18.09 15.06 6.86 3.02 2.00 2.79 3.12 3.85 3.87 7.00 14.48
Sugarcane 27.47 24.42 21.32 4.76 0.28 1.84 19.91
Soybean 0.16 1.55 35.09 34.95 0.37 0.53 7.33 5.67 4.84 6.31 1.94
Potato 10.61 25.76 33.00 10.31 0.80 2.06 8.78 1.67 1.22 2.75 3.05
Monthly crop production in percent (%); blank cell mean no crop production in this month.
J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 8 59 7 89
Fig. 1 Percentage of rice residue burning by burning period in each region in Thailand.
Fig. 4 Distribution of each pollutant by province in Thailand, 2014, (a) PM10, (b) PM2.5, (c) NOx and (d)SO2.
pollutants, especially during the dry season from February to agriculture, agro-industry and forest fires. The correlation is
April. The contribution from rice and the burning of other not so clear as the corresponding values for particulate matter
residues reaches a maximum in December although it is and these results were similar in other provinces. This may
still much lower than that from forest fires in the dry season. be so because other sources such as motor vehicles and oil
However, this is not the case in other provinces (Fig. 5ce). burning industries make comparable or even larger contribu-
In these provinces, crop residue burning makes the largest tions. Fig. 9b shows monitored SO2 concentration in relation
contribution and the emission from the sugar-industry as- to its emission inventory for Khon Kean. The correlation is
sumes importance during the sugarcane harvesting season very poor compared to PMs since major sources of SO2 are oil
while forest fires have a slight influence. The behavior of PM10 burning industries (Vongmahadlek et al., 2008).
concentration appears to be associated with the total emis- The above results refer to the fact that particulate matter
sion inventory. is the most influential air pollutant emitted from biomass
As shown in Fig. 6, there are clear correlations between the burning in agricultural activities and forest fires, and it has a
total emission inventory and the monthly averaged PM10 in significant effect on air quality in Thailand, especially in the
every province. This is the same for PM2.5 as shown in Fig. 7 case of forest fires.
for Chiang Mai and Khon Kaen, where PM2.5 has also been
monitored. The tendency in PM10 is consistent with those 2.3. Air mass trajectories
in 2012 and 2013, as shown in Fig. 8ab, indicating that
the emission from agricultural activities including the agro- As described above, the number of monitoring stations
industry and forest fires dominates the behavior of ambient may not be sufficient to permit a detailed evaluation of the
particulate matter and other sources have much less influ- influence of emission sources. As a result, the distribution
ence. This may be similar in other provinces where intensive of sources may have an effect in some cases. This may be
agricultural activities are ongoing, while being of much less the case regarding forest fires in Chiang Mai province since
influence of agricultural activities than traffic and industries many of the hotspots of forest fires were located west and
in Bangkok. southwest of the PCD stations at a distance in March 2014 as
shown in Fig. 10 (Royal Forest Department, 2014). As can be
2.2.2. NOx and SO2 seen from Fig. 11, air mass movement reaching the corre-
Fig. 9a shows the correlation between the monthly averaged sponding PCD station from the southwest direction that
NO2 concentration monitored at the PCD station in Khon passed over a dense hot spot area was significant. This may
Kaen and the emission inventory from biomass burning from explain the transportation of smoke particles from the forest
92 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 859 7
Fig. 5 Monthlybased average PM10 and monthly emission inventory from crop residues and agro-industry in (a) Chiang Mai-1
(Suburban), 2014, (b) Chiang Mai-2 (Urban), 2014, c) Nakhon Sawan, 2014, (d) Khon Kaen, 2014 and (e) Nakhon Ratchasima,
2014.
area to Chiang Mai city area, leading to the largest concentra- influences to Thailand but also those from Thailand to other
tion of PM in March, in spite of the fact that the PCD stations countries. Therefore, this issue will be the subject of a future
are located in Chiang Mai. study.
The influence of the long-range transportation of air pollut-
ants emitted in surrounding countries such as Myanmar, Laos
and China in northern Thailand, need to be considered for an 3. Conclusions
accurate evaluation. These influences are not discussed here.
This is mainly because of difficulties associated with obtaining Annual and monthly-based emission inventories were esti-
information on the emission inventory and events in these mated to discuss the contribution of agricultural activity
countries. However, it is important to discuss not only the including crop residue burning, forest fires and related agro-
J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 8 59 7 93
Fig. 6 Correlation between the total emission inventory and monthly averaged PM10 concentration (a) Chiang Mai-1
(Sub-urban), 2014, (b) Chiang Mai-2 (Urban), 2014, (c) Nakhon Sawan, 2014, (d) Khon Kaen, 2014 and (e) Nakhon Ratchasima,
2014.
industries to the air quality monitored in corresponding supplied from various provinces regarding the production
provinces in Thailand. The monthly-based emission invento- amount of typical crops. The estimated monthly emission
ries of air pollutants, or, particulate matter (PM), NOx and inventory was compared with air monitoring data obtained at
SO2, for various crops were estimated based on information monitoring stations operated by the Pollution Control
94 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 859 7
Fig. 7 Correlation between the total emission inventory and monthly averaged PM2.5 concentration (a) Chiang Mai-2 (Urban),
2014 and (b) Khon Kaen, 2014.
Department, Thailand (PCD) for the validation of estimated sugar factories which use sugarcane as a raw material and its
emission inventory. As the most influential agro-industry in residue as fuel for producing energy was estimated in an
the regions of interest, the emission inventory related to the attempt to assess the magnitude of the contribution. In the
Fig. 8 Correlation between the total emission inventory and monthly averaged PM10 concentration (a) Chiang Mai-1
(Sub-urban), 2012, (b) Chiang Mai-1 (Sub-urban), 2013, (c) Nakhon Ratchasima, 2012 (d) Nakhon Ratchasima, 2013.
J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 8 59 7 95
Fig. 9 Correlation between the total emission inventory and monthly averaged gaseous pollutant production in Khon Kaen
(a) NOx and (b) SO2.
upper northern provinces (Chiang Mai), forest fires were residues and pre-harvest open burning of sugarcane as well
found to be the largest contributor, while in the lower as burning sugarcane residues in sugar industries were found
northern (Nakhon Sawan) and northeast (Khon Kaen and to dominate the PM concentration. In Thailand, the emission
Nakhon Ratchasima) provinces, the open burning of rice inventory of agricultural activities including agro-industry as
Fig. 10 Hotspots in the Chiang Mai Forest Area, March, 2014 (available at: http://www.forest.go.th/wildfire/hotspot/
Hotspot_index.php).
96 J O U RN A L OF E N V I RO N ME N TA L SC IE N CE S 5 2 (2 0 1 7) 859 7
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