Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
MICROCONTROLLER
2012
&
JULY 2012
2
CHAPTER 1
1.0 Introduction
The power factor of an ac electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power to the apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1. Real power is the
capacity of the electric load for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power
is the product of the current and voltage of the electric load. Due to energy stored in
the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave
shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power can be greater than
the real power. Low-power-factor loads increase losses in a power distribution system
In a purely resistive ac circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase, changing
polarity at the same instant in each cycle. Where reactive loads are present, such as
with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference
between the current and voltage waveforms. This stored energy returns to the source
and is not available to do work at the load. a circuit with a low power factor will have
thus higher currents to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a
Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements such as filament lamps and
cooking stoves have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive
elements such as lamp ballasts and motors, often have a power factor below 1.0.
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The significance of power factor lies in the fact that utility companies supply
customers with volt-amperes but bill them for watts. Power factors below 1.0 require
a utility to generate more than the minimum volt-amperes necessary to supply the real
power (watts). this increases generation and transmission costs. alternatively all
switchgear would be increased in size and cost to carry the extra current. hence the
The research field of study is Electrical and Electronic Engineering and the subject
General objective
The aim of this project is to find a good solution to high energy consumption by
power factor. The advantages of correcting power factor reduced demand charges,
increased load carrying capabilities in existing circuits, improved voltage and reduced
Specific Objectives
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In light of the above objective, specific objectives of the study are as follows:
transmission network.
Electrical power generators are design to produce quality, reliable and stable power to
consumers. It came to light that most of the loads in commercial use are inductive
loads that produce inductive reactance and if not immediately checked, contributes to
low power factor thereby increasing the amount of electrical energy that flows
through the electrical network from the generating station, example of industrial and
commercial loads are (inductive motors, furnaces, arc welding machines, etc.) and (air
Attempts are made over the years to improve the low factor close to unity using
reactance. Switching on and off of the capacitor banks for the compensation also
5
Therefore the need for improving the power factor using microcontroller to do the
switching of the capacitor banks on/off the system and also eliminate harmonic effect
in the system.
factor correction at the substations is that the reactive power present on the
Furthermore, the distribution system with its lower voltages and higher currents
already accounts for the majority of the losses on the system. In addition, more
thermal losses occur on the customer side of electric meter, within the customer
premises.
The increased low power factor due to inductive loads are alway estimated based on
transformers may operate below their capacity due to inductive loads with low power
factor in the system. An accurate and applicable method is needed to estimate the
effect of low power factor and harmonics on the power system that leads to
instability, unreliable and non quality power, hence this project is to minimise the
inductive component of the current and thereby reducing the losses in the system,
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minimising wasted energy and hence improving the efficiency of a generating plant,
The expected out come of this project is to measuring the power factor value and to improve
power factor using capacitor bank and reduce current draw by the load using microcontroller
and proper algorithm to turn on capacitor automatically, determine and trigger sufficient
power factor near to unity and remove harmonics in the system there by improving the
1.6.1 Safety
1.6.2 Economic
The project if implemented shall cut cost for the service provider.
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The project when completed will make the electrical transmission system
voltage.
The project when completed will free up transformer and distribution system
capacity.
1.6.3 Environmental
The device/components in the set up are not likely to pose any environmental
obstruction, free from dirt and fumes, free from touch by children, and be
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1.7 Layout of Thesis.
This report will be in five chapters.
The Chapter One, consisting of an introduction, the research field and subject area
the research, expected outcome and possible usage, safety, environmental and
Chapter Two contains the literature review of power facto correction Brief
description of the uses of automatic power factor capacitors and fixed versus
help improve power factor, reduce high current drawn form the system and
tariffs.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
Though correction of power factor is very old practice, we have considered the work
done in recent years in our Thesis. Many of the authors below have suggested and
prescribe many ways of power factor correction but this work concentrates on
Barsoum model:
We have considered the work done in the previous years, starting from 1988.
inexpensive adaptive power factor controller (APFC). The APFC was able to
compensate adaptively the reactive power of rapidly varying loads without adding
operation, the APFC had substantially modified to improve its reliability and
Ioannides and Papadopoulos proposed the speed and power factor of an adjustable
speed slip power recovery drive were controlled in order to optimize the operation.
converter. The function of the digital controller of the power converter was to provide
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the online speed and power factor regulation. (Ioannides and Papadopoulos 1991)
controller (PFC) for compensating the reactive power of rapidly varying loads by
switching capacitors sized in a binary ratio, with the help of zero voltage static
switches. Four types of control strategies were tried, viz., (1) unity step control
method, (2) binary search method, (3) successive approximation method, and (4)
look-up table method. Features like (a) independent control of current in each phase,
(b) reactive current sensing and capacitor switching in one cycle, (c) zero voltage
and (d) switch failure detection logic and their display, are all incorporated in the
Wolfle,W.H. investigates the use of variable inductance (the inductance varies with
current), which provides adequate harmonic reduction. Three types of inductors are
swinging inductor which has a stepped gap and a novel inductor construction with a
sloped air-gap (SAG). Results are presented for a 200 W power supply and it is shown
that the SAG inductor has the best performance in terms of harmonic response and
capacitor in a boost-type power factor control circuit. The ripple current was divided
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into two components, namely the low-frequency and the high-frequency components.
The root-mean-square value of the capacitor current was derived for both
correction that described the design and development of a three-phase power factor
sensing and measuring the power factor value from the load using PIC and sensors,
then using proper algorithm to determine and trigger sufficient switching capacitors in
(Barsoum 2007)
(PFC) for power distribution system and industrial power circuit applications. A PFC
integrated breaker-switched capacitor banks into a compact design with low cost
sensing elements and an intelligent control unit. The device provided more accurate
voltage control and power factor correction than traditional shunt capacitor bank
Ali et al. proposed a power factor controller (PFC) for a three-phase induction motor
implementation of a laboratory model for a PLC based PFC to improve the power
factor of a three-phase induction motor. During the online process a set of capacitors
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sized in a binary ratio would be switched on or off with the help of zero voltage static
control strategy relied on a look-up table and an expert system. (Ali et al. 2000)
was based on a modified C-dump converter configuration, where the energy recovery
stage acted as an active power factor controller for off-line operation. (Consoli et al.
2001)
medium voltage switchboard to meet the power quality challenge. They described
circuit breakers with magnetic actuators that were easy to justify economically and
yet results in low-harmonic operation over a universal input voltage range and loads
ranging from high-power operation in continuous conduction mode down to the near-
zero load. The controller is based on low-resolution A/D converters and digital pulse
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language core suitable for integration with other power control and power
compensator in a power electronic system operating with a very poor power factor
(and hence high THD) shows that the system then draws a leading current. A
conventional power electronic system with one of the traditional static VAR
compensators and the conventional power electronic system incorporated with the
proposed compensator are simulated and the simulation results are obtained. It is
shown that the proposed method offers only 0.7% THD, which also implies that the
perform power factor correction without exciting harmonic resonance under varying
demand conditions. Practical and robust control algorithms are proposed for the
on common low cost sensing devices and does not require additional measurements.
replace existing power factor correction controllers with little effort. (Shuffling 2012)
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2.1 Power Factor
Power factor is an energy concept that is related to power flow in electrical systems.
in electrical systems.
Real Power is the power that is actually converted into useful work for creating heat,
light and motion. Real power is measured in kilowatts (kW)q and is totalized by the
electric billing meter in kilowatt-hours (kWH). An example of real power is the useful
Reactive Power is the power used to sustain the electromagnetic field in inductive and
Total Power or Apparent power is the combination of real power and reactive power.
Power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of real power to total power, and is expressed
as a percentage (%).
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Or Power factor cos is defined as the ratio between the Active component IR and
the total value of the current I; is the phase angle between the voltage and the
current.
Reactive
Total Power (S) measured in kVAH
Power (Q)
Measured in
kVAR
unity as possible.
electric loads that create a power factor that is less than one (1). Power factor
the stability and efficiency of the transmission network or, correction may be installed
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An electrical load that operates on alternating current requires apparent power, which
consists of real power and reactive power. Real power is the power actually consumed
by the load. Reactive power is repeatedly demanded by the load and returned to the
power source, and it is the cyclical effect that occurs when alternating current passes
through a load that contains a reactive component. The presence of reactive power
causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, so the electric load has a
The reactive power increases the current flowing between the power source and the
load, which increases the power losses through transmission and distribution lines.
This results in operational and financial losses for power companies. Therefore,
power companies require their customers, especially those with large loads, to
maintain their power factors above a specified amount especially around ally 0.90 or
interest in the power factor of loads because power factors affect efficiencies and
costs for both the electrical power industry and the consumers. In addition to the
increased operating costs, reactive power can require the use of wiring, switches,
circuit breakers, transformers and transmission lines with higher current capacities.
power transmission system to unity (1) through various methods. Simple methods
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include switching in or out banks of capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the
For example, the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected
synchronous motor connect across the supply. The power factor of the motor is varied
by adjusting the field excitation and be made to behave like a capacitor when over
current.
1. Passive.
2. Active
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to
design a filter that passes current only at line frequency 50Hz. This filter reduces the
harmonic current, which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear
load. At this point the power factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or
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A passive PFC requires an inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but
costs less.
banks. It is not as effective as active PFC. Passive PFCs are typically more power
An "active power factor corrector" (active PFC) is a power electronic system that
controls the amount of power drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as
close as possible to unity. In most applications, the active PFC controls the input
current of the load so that the current waveform is proportional to the mains voltage
waveform (a sine wave). The purpose of making the power factor as close to unity (1)
as possible is to make the load circuitry that is power factor corrected appear purely
resistive (apparent power equal to real power). In this case, the voltage and current are
in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This enables the most efficient
delivery of electrical power from the power company to the consumer. Some types of
active PFC are: Boost, Buck and Buck-boost. Active power factor correctors can be
single-stage or multi-stage. Active PFC is the most effective and can produce a PFC
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2.2.3 Advantages of Power Factor Correction
There are several advantages in utilizing power factor correction capacitors. These
include:
3. improved voltage
The load draws greater current for the same value of the useful power.
A simple example showing the current required by a single phase electric motor is
given below:
If the power factor of the motor is increased to 0.9 the current drawn by the motor
shall be:
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Current (I2) = Power (kW) __ = 10000 = 46.3 Amp.
Thus, as the power factor decreases the current required for the same value of
active, or useful, power increases. The result is that the capacity of the equipment
and assoceries, like the switchgear, cables, transformers, etc., will have to be
increased to cater for the higher current in the circuit. All this adds to the cost.
2
Further, the greater current causes increased power loss or I R losses in the
circuits. Also due to higher current, the conductor temperature rises and hence the
Also, with the increased current the voltage drop increases; thereby the voltage at the
supply point is reduced. For different loads it causes voltage drop resulting in:
b. Less current is drawn by the heating devices so that the operating temperature
drops. This results in increased consumption for the same rise of temperature
c. The induction motors slow down and therefore draw more current to produce a
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2.3.1 The advantages of an improved power factor
a) Reduction in system losses, and the losses in the cables, lines, and feeder circuits
b) Improved system voltages, thus enable maintaining rated voltage to motors, pumps
and other equipment. The voltage drop in supply conductors is a resistive loss, and
wastes power heating the conductors. Improving the power factor, especially at the
motor terminals, can improve the efficiency by reducing the line current and the line
losses.
for the same KW, thus permitting additional loading without immediate expansion.
Because of this, inductive loads require both real and reactive power to operate. The
power factor of inductive loads is referred to as lagging, or less than 100%, based
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In most commercial and industrial facilities, a majority of the electrical equipment
heaters and cooking ovens. Inductive loads include fluorescent lights, AC induction
Load PF %
Fluorescent Lights
2.5 Capacitor
component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors
vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated
by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric
field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and
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negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal
This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early
means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small
amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a
breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance
and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of
power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in
electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for
Capacitors also require reactive power to operate. However, capacitors and inductors
have an opposite affect on reactive power. The power factors for capacitors are
leading. Therefore capacitors are installed to counteract the effect of reactive power
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2.5.1 Power Factor capacitors
Power factor capacitors may conveniently be switched on and off with individual
motors. This assures that the capacitor is energized only during the times when the
motor is energized - when you need power factor correction. For this type of
application, typically a Fixed Capacitor Bank is used. This is the simplest and most
economical form of power factor correction. Depending on the manner in which you
connect the capacitor, you may or may not need to include fuses
Harmonics will reduce the life of power factor capacitors. Whenever there are
harmonic producing loads on the power system, the capacitor bank should include a
no harmonic energy exists. Instead of the capacitor protection reactor we intend using
demand for power factor improving capacitors also changes frequently. In order to
assure that the proper amount of power factor capacitor kVARs are always connected
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Some sensors detecting current and voltage signals;
An intelligent unit that compares the measured power factor with the desired
one and operates the connection and disconnection of the capacitor banks with
polarity at the same instant in each cycle. Where reactive loads are present, such as
with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference
between the current and voltage waveforms. This stored energy returns to the source
and is not available to do work at that load. A circuit with low power factor will have
a higher current to transfer a given quality of real power than a circuit with a high
power factor.
In order to get the current reading with the oscilloscope for the diagram for pure
A resistor with a negligible value was introduced in the circuit and the current value
was measured across it. This assumption was made using ohms law:
Ohms law:
V=IR but Rs value is negligible therefore V=I, This assumption was used to get the
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Figure 2.1 Show pure resistive load circuit
Figure 2.2: The waveform for pure resistive load, Voltage and current are in phase.
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Figure 2.3. Show pure inductive load circuit.
Figure 2.4: The wave form for pure inductive load, the current lags the voltage by
90C.
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Figure 2.5 Show pure capacitive load circuit.
Figure 2.6 The wave form for pure capacitive load, current leads the voltage by 90C.
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2.7 Power factor Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are whole
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g.
50Hz or 60 Hz).
frequency, will be designated as the 5th harmonic or as the harmonic of 5th order (5 x
50 Hz).
Any signal component having a frequency which is not an integer multiple of the
electricity utilization and the use of electronic power conditioning modules. Using
switching power supplies to control loads and to reduce power consumption results in
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2.7.1 Potential Sources of Harmonics
Converters.
Electrical arc-furnaces.
of the iron.
All equipment with built-in switching devices or with internal loads with non-
Additional acoustic noise from motors and other apparatus, reducing the
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efficiency of motors.
Telephone interference.
High harmonic amplitudes may not only cause malfunctions, additional losses
and overheating, but also overload the power distribution network and
Audio equipment;
Equipment not specified in one of the three other classes shall be considered as
Class A equipment.
Class D: Equipment having a specified power < 600W of the following types:
Television receivers.
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2.8 Fixed Versus Automatic Capacitors
Fixed capacitor banks are always on at all times, regardless of the load in the facility,
electrical system. An automatic capacitor is much more expensive per kVAr than a
fixed system. 100 kVAr of fixed capacitors will save as much power factor penalties
reduces the voltage drop across a transformer, which results in a higher voltage in the
a % voltage rise on the system (if there are no other loads on the system). The more
kVAr connected, the higher the voltage rise. This voltage rise is counter acted by the
increase of load in the facility. Typically, in the night and on weekends, utility voltage
are higher than normal, and facilities that are not normally loaded during these times,
could experience a higher than normal voltage rise if too much capacitance is
connected to their system. Based on this, we generally limit fixed capacitors to 10% to
capacitor bank if the amount of kVAr exceeds 20% of the KVA size of the
transformer.
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CHAPTER 3
3.0 Methodology
The aim is to monitor the power factor continuously and in the event of change in
power factor, which usually result in the demand of higher current a correction action
capacitors value through switching process. The overall system requires only one PIC
Research approach and strategy are about organizing research activity embodying
data collection in ways that are most likely to achieve the research objective. Making
decision about research approach, strategy and design is fundamental to both the
viewpoint reinforcing the research and the contributions that the research is likely to
make. These in turns influence the actual research methods that are used to investigate
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It is important to note that the research is going to be based on this two main
approach and strategy which are qualitative and quantitative research.
A qualitative evaluation shall be utilized for this research project lever aging
understand and explain social phenomena to collect substantive and relevant data.
This interviews and observation shall be conducted with practicing workers from the
approach is valuable here due to the varying experience of the workers in the power
industries.
natural phenomena. Examples of quantitative methods now well accepted in the social
concerned with the design measurement and sample. The strategy employs the use of
follows the practices and norms of natural scientific model and particularly,
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Quantitative research is therefore, objective in nature and based on testing a
hypothesis or theory composed of variable.
There are mainly four types of quantitative research namely, correlation, descriptive,
experimental and causal comparative. So this research adopted the descriptive type
But our project work is not quantitative in nature since it is a simulation design of a
for the use of National Instrument Multisim 11.0 electronic workbench simulation
software, which have almost the electronic components we needed in testing the
The method form a methodical and rigorous framework, these phase enable the
research to understand and interpret the data and move from description explanation
into the data of providing solution to the problem, this method is transparent and
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As in any other empirical study, the investigation needed theories which provide the
framework for the systematic analysis and accumulation of the existing stock of
National instrument Multisim 11.0,an electronic workbench was used as the mode of
analysis
3.2 Microcontroller
effectiveness, which have additional parts that allow them to control external devices,
which is loaded in this program memory. Under control of this program, data is
received from external devices (Inputs), manipulated and then data is sent to external
output devices. A typical microcontroller contains all the memory and I/O interfaces
that the first one is easy to implement into electronic system with a minimum of
external support chips. The idea is that the microcontroller will be placed in the
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device to control, hooked up to power and any information it needs. A traditional P
will not allow doing this. It requires all of these tasks to be handled by other chips.
For example, some number of RAM memory chips must be added. The amount of
memory provided is more flexible in the traditional approach, but at least a few
external memory chips must be provided, and additionally requires that many
connections must made to pass the data back and forth to them with external bus.
Switching drivers
Voltage, Phase angle
Current step ADC calculation
down and control
arrangement Capacitor bank
PIC 16F84A
Block diagram of PIC based PFC is shown in figure 3.1. Whole system may be
divided into four stages. First stage is concern with the conversion of incoming
voltage and current into the PIC level voltage (e.g. 5V). Here we have to use the step
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Figure 3.2 Showing PIC based PFC Picture
Second stage is concerned with conversion of analogue to digital signal. This is done
by use of PIC. In this stage the phase angle between current and voltage is calculated
and it is continuously displayed on LCD as shown in figure 3.3. The digital voltage
and current signal so acquired are processed in the PIC with the help of appropriate
algorithm software. On the basis of phase angle, PIC controls the switching drivers
PIC 16F84A suits well to perform these tasks because of its following features: The
flash type program memory with 13 I/Os. Its maximum operation clock is 20 MHz
where 1 command has fix width of 14 bits with an operating voltage 5.0V.
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Figure 3.3: Continuously monitor on LCD
3.4 Relay
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another
open or close one or many sets of contacts. Because a relay is able to control an
output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad
sense, to be a form of an electrical amplifier. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts.
The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and they are
double throw (changeover) switches. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used
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high current application, it is used to reduce arcing. The relay is shown in Figure.3.4
Figure.3.4 Relay
to switch ON the PIC 16F84A and relays. The type of the voltage regulator is LM
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3.6 Architecture of PIC 16F84A
The figure below shows the internal architecture of a PIC 16F84A chip.
The basic building block of PIC 16F84A is based on Harvard architecture. This
microcontroller also has many advanced features as mentioned in the previous post.
Here you can see the basic internal architecture and memory organisation of PIC
16F84A.
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3.6.1 PIC 16F84A features:
- All instructions are single cycle (1s) except for program branches
Peripheral Features
- Power-On Reset
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CMOS Technology
- 18-pin DIP
memory. It is made up of CMOS and low power consumption. High speed RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) is being adapted in the CPU side. Maximum
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e) Data EEPROM of 64 byte
Inside 18 pin package of pic16f84a integrated together with CPU, ROM, RAM and
I/O. The I/O terminal that is necessary for running important computer functions are
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3.6.5: Pin Description
Pin Description
Pin Number Description
1 RA2 - Port A
2 RA3 - Port A
3 RA4/TOCK1 - Port A
4 MCLR - Master clear input (active low)
5 Vss - Ground
6 RB0/INT - Port B
7 RB1 - Port B
8 RB2 - Port B
9 RB3 - Port B
10 RB4 - Port B
11 RB5 - Port B
12 RB6 - Port B
13 RB7 - Port B
14 Vdd - Positive Power Supply
15 OSC2/CLKOUT - Oscillator Output
16 OSC1/CLKIN - Oscillator Input
17 RA0 - Port A
18 RA1 - Port A
Description cription
voltage overload, the self healing effect takes place. If the self healing process does
not operate (e.g. because of voltage, current or thermal overload) the cover plate,
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which is designed as an overload valve, is raised and ruptures the internal connecting
wires to the coils, so that the capacitor is separated from the mains.
D1
1N 4001GP
Power supply circuit diagram is shown in figure 3.7, which is used by the
programming voltage (VPP) pin and VDD pin. A 5V power supply circuit using LM
7805 IC. LM7805 is a famous positive voltage regulator IC comes in three terminals
that provides 5V DC output. This IC has many built in features like internal current
limiting, thermal shut down, operating area protection etc. Transformer in this circuit
become hot during the operation so it is essential to use a good heat sink.
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3.9 Clock generator oscillator
Even though the microcontroller has built in oscillator, it cannot operate without
external components which stabilize its operation and determine its frequency
(operating speed of the microcontroller). Owing to the fact that it is almost impossible
to make oscillator which operates sterilely over a wide frequency range, the
microcontroller must know which crystal is connected in order that it can adjust the
operation of its internal electronics to it. That is why all programs used for chip
In case a quartz crystal is used for frequency stabilization, the built in oscillator
and voltage power supply as well. This frequency is normally labelled on the
microcontroller package. Apart from the crystal, in this case the capacitors C1 and C2
must be also connected as per scheme below. Their capacitance is not of great
importance, therefore, the values provided in the table 2.1 should be considered as a
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Figure 3.8: Quartz resonator circuit Table 3.1: capacitor with
frequency.
working mode by bringing up Vpp pin to 13.5V, and supply voltage VDD has to be
stabilized between 4.5 to 5.0V. Program memory can be programmed serially using
two data/ clock pins which must previously be separated from device lines, so that
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3.9.3 LCD and its connection with PIC
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of
electric power. LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital
watches and pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment.
An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This
display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements. Small
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double-layer STN (DSTN) technologythe latter of which addresses a colour-
added by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the display has a single
electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column addresses.
This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because the pixel must retain
its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the
number of pixels increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Very slow
response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs.
(Scheffer, 1984)
Generally used capacitors for power factor controller are: LKT type power factor
Capacitor Modules.
elements. The unique construction of this product prevents leakage even if the casing
is punctured.
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3.9.6 C and CB type capacitor modules
The C and CB Type capacitor modules are designed for local correction of individual
loads, such as single motors, starters or control gear, where Power Factor Correction
is more appropriately located at the source. This project seeks to improve a power
factor of 0.75 to 0.95. The CB Series Incorporates an integral Circuit Breaker for
These automatic modules are designed to fit into existing switchgear, control panels
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contactors, which reduces the effect of current inrush to a minimum. Highly reliable,
low loss capacitors with self healing properties. Safety protection system built into
each capacitor element. SBA type capacitor modules is shown in figure 3.9
Static Power Factor Correction modules for placement within an existing control
panel, switchgear cubicle or Power Factor Correction unit. These modules can be
independently switched, if required, via customers own control gear. Highly reliable,
Safety protection system incorporated into each capacitor element. SBC type
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