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UNIT AND DIMENSION

Physics describes the laws of nature. This description is quantitative and involves

measurement and comparison of physical quantities. to measure a physical

quantity we need some standard unit of that quantity.

An elephant is heavier than a cow but exactly how many times? This question can

be easily answered if we have chosen a standard mass calling it a unit mass. If the

elephant is 150 times the unit mass and the cow is 15 times, we know that the

elephant is 10 times heavier than the cow. If I have the knowledge of the unit

length and some one says that Gandhi Maidan is 10 times the unit length from

here, I will have the idea whether I should walk down to Gandhi Maidan or I

should walk down to Gandhi Maidan or I should ride a rickshaw or I should go by

a bus. Thus, the physical quantities are quantitatively expressed in terms of a unit

of that quantity. The measurement of the quantity is mentioned in two parts, the

first part gives how many times of the standard unit, and the second part gives

the name of the unit. Thus; suppose I have to study for 3 hours the numeric part

3 says that it is 3 times of the unit of time and the second part hour says that the

unit chosen here is an hour.

Unit of a physical quantity is the reference standard used to measure it.


Who Decides the Units?

How is a standard unit chosen for a physical quantity? The first thing is that it

should have international acceptance. Otherwise, everyone will choose his or her

own unit for the quantity and it will be difficult to communicate freely among the

persons distributed over the world. A body named Conference General des Poids

et measures or CGPM also as General conference on weight and Measures in

English has been given the authority to decide the units by international

agreement. It holds its meetings and any changes in standard units are

communicated through the publications of the conference.

Physical quantities:

The quantities which can be measured by an instrument and by means of which

we can describe the lows of physics are called physical quantities.

e.g. length, velocity, acceleration, force, time, pressure, mass, density etc.

Physical quantity = Numerical value unit

nu = const.

1
n
u
1 kg = 1000 gm
Physical quantities

Fundamental or Derived Supplementary

Basic Quantities Quantities

Quantities

Properties of Units:

(a) The unit should be well-defined.

(b) The unit should be of some suitable size.

(c) The unit should be easily reproducible.

(d) The unit should not change with time.

(e) The unit should not change with physical condition like pressure,
temperature etc.

(f) Unit should be of proper size.

There are a large number of physical quantities which are measured and every

quantity needs a definition of unit. However, not are the quantities are

independent to each other. As a simple example, if a unit of length is defined, a

unit of area is automatically obtained.

The fundamental quantities are those quantities which are independent to each
other and are other quantities may be expressed in terms of the fundamental

quantities.

Many different choices can be made for the fundamental quantities. For

example, one can take speed and time as fundamental quantities. Length is then

a derived quantity. One may also take length and time interval as the

fundamental quantities and then speed will be a derived quantity. Several

systems are in use over the world and in each system the fundamental quantities

are selected in a particular way.

The units defined for the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units

and those obtained for the derived quantities are called the derived units.

Fundamental quantities are also known as base quantities.

SI units:

In 1971 CGPM held its meeting and decided a system of units which is known as

the International System of Units. It is abbreviated as SI from the French name Le

system International d' Units, This system is widely used throughout the world.

In SI system, there are 7 fundamental quantities.

Table 1.1. Fundamental or Base quantities:

Quantity Name of the unit Symbol

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg

Time Second s

Electric current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of substance Mole mol

Luminous intensity Candela cd

Besides the seven fundamental units two supplementary units are defined. They

are the plane angle and solid angle. The unit for plane angle is radian with the

symbol rad and the unit for the solid angle is steradian with the symbol sr.

SI Prefixes:

The magnitudes of physical quantities vary over a wide range. The CGPM

recommended standard prefixes for certain powers of 10.

Table (1.2) Show these prefixes:

Table 1.2 : SI Prefixes

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

18 exa E

15 Peta P

12 tera T
9 giga G

6 mega M

3 kilo K

2 hecto h

1 deka da

1 deci d

2 centi c

3 milli m

6 micro

9 nano n

12 pico p

15 femto f

18 atto a

Dimension:

The dimension of a physical quantity are the powers raised to fundamental

quantities. The dimension of a physical quantity do not change with change of

system of units and a formula representing a physical quantity in term of

fundamental quantities is known as dimensional formula.


TYPES OF UNITS

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS:

The units defined for the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.

1. Unit of mass = Kilogram (1 kilogram is defined as


the mass of a platinum
iridium cylinder kept in
National Bureau of weights
and measurements, paris)

2. Unit of length = Meter (Travelled distance by light


in vacuum in 1/299, 792,
458 second or it is equal to
1650763.73 wave length
emitting from Kr86)

3. Unit of Time = Sec. (The time interval in which


Cesium-133 atom vibrates
9,192,631,770 times)

4. Unit of Temperature = Kelvin (It is defined as the


(1/273.16) fraction of
thermo dynamic
temperature of triple
point of water.*)

5. Unit of current = Ampere (Amount of current which


produces a force of 2 10
7
N on per unit length acts
between two parallel wires
of infinite length and
negligible cross-section
area placed at 1 m
distance in vacuum)

6. Unit of luminious (Amount of

Intensity = Candela intensity on 1/60000 m 2


area at freezing point of
platinum 2042K at
pressure of 101325 N/m 2.)

7. Unit of quantity of (It is the amount of

Substance = mole a substance which has


same number of
elementry entities as in 12
gm of Carbon)

*Triple Point of Water is the temperature at which ice, water and water vapours

co-exist.

CLASSIFICATION OF UNITS SYSTEMS:

BASIC UNIT SYSTEMS:

Quantity Name of system


C.G.S. F.P.S. M.K.S. S.I.
Length centimeter foot meter meter (m)
Mass gram pounds kilogram kilogram (kg)
second (s)
Time second second second Kelvin (K)
Temperature ampere (A)
Electric candela (Cd)
Current mole (mol)
Luminious
Intensity
Amount of
Substance

In S.I. system there are two supplementary units.

Radian (rad) : Unit of plane angle.

Steradian (st) : Unit of solid angle.

S.I. PREFIXES

S.No. Perfix Symbol Power of 10


1. exa E 18
2. peta P 15
3. tera T 12
4. giga G 9
5. mega M 6
6. kilo K 3
7. hector h 2
8. deca da 1
9. deci d 1
10. centi c 2
11. milli m 3
12. micro 6
13. nano n 9
14. pico p 12
15. femto f 15
16. atto a 18

Ex. :

1 micro volt = 1V = 106 V

1 nano second = 1ns = 109 s

1 kilo-metre = 1km = 103 m

PRACTICAL UNITS OF LENGTH

1. Light year = 9.46 1015 m


2. Parsec = 3.084 1016 m
3. Fermi = 1015 m
4. Angstrom (A) = 1010 m
5. Micron/Micrometer = 106 m
6. Nano meter = 109 m
7. Picometer = 1012 m
8. Acto meter = 1018 m
9. Astro nomical unit (A.U.) = 1.496 1011 m
10. Otto meter = 1021 m

SOME IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS

S.No. Quantity Unit


1. Mass Solar mass = 2 1030-
Dalton = 1.66 1027 kg
Chander Shekhar = 1.4 times of
mass of sun
2. Pressure Pascal = 1 N/m2
Bar = 105 N/m2
3. Area barn = 1028 m2
4. Radio Activity Becquerel
5. Radiation doze for cancer Roentgen
6. Time Shake = 108 sec

DIMENSIONS IN MECHANICS
Quantities Dimensional eqn.
Distance
Displacement M0L1T0
Length/depth/thickness
Wavelength
Mass,
Inertia,
Intertial mass, M1L0T0
Gravitational mass
Speed,
Velocity, M0L1T1
Velocity of sound
Velocity of light
Acc. (a) M0L1T2
Acc. due to gravity (g)
Angular velocity,
Velocity gradient,
Decay constant ( ) M0L0T1
linear frequency
Activeness
Wave Number
Propagation constant (K) M0L1T0
Rydberg constant
Gravitational constant (G) M1L3T2
Force,
Weight M1L1T2
Tension
centripetal force
Work (W)
Energy (E)
Torque () M1L2T2
Moment of couple
Heat (H)
Linear Momentum (P)
Impulse M1L1T1
Surface Tension (T) M1L0T2
Pressure, (P)
Coefficient of Elasticity
Young Modulus (Y) M1L1T2
Bulk Modulus (K)
Stress
Plank Constant, (h)
Angular momentum (L) M1L2T1
Viscous coefficient () M1L1T1

DIMENSIONS IN HEAT

Quantities Dimensional eqn.


Temperature M0 L0 T0 1
Latent heat M0 L2 T2 0
Specific heat M0 L2 T2 1
Coefficient of thermal expansion M0 L0 T0 1
Coefficient of thermal conductivity M1 L1 T3 1
Mechanical equivalent (J) M0 L0 T0
Stephen constant () M1 L0 T3 k4
Wien's constant (b) M0 L1 T0 1
Gas constant (R) M1 L2 T2 1 1
Boltz mann constant (K) M1 L2 T2 1
Solar Constant (S)
Intensity of Radiation
Energy flux M1 L0 T3
Pointing vector

EIMENSIONS IN ELECTRICTY

Quantities Dimensional eqn.


Charge (Q) A1 T1
Current (I) A1
Potential gradient
Electric field (E) M1 L1 T3 A1
Intensity of Electric field
Potential difference
Potential (V) M1 L2 T3 A1
Potential energy
Electromotive force
Electrical capacitance (C) M1 L2 T4 A2
Electric permittivity of free space ( 0) M1 L3 T4 A2
Resistance (R)
Reactance (X) M1 L2 T3 A2
Impedance (Z)
Electrical conductance
Admittance M1 L-2 T3 A2
Susceptance
Electrical flux ( ) M1 L3 T3 A1
Specific Resistance (K) M1 L3 T3 A2

DIMENSION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

Quantities Dimensional eqn.


Magnetic field
Magnetic induction M1 L0 T2 A1
Permeability of magnet () M1 L1 T2 A2
Momentum of magnet (M)
Bohr magneton (B) M0 L2 T0 A1
Self inductance (L)
Mutual inductance (M) M1 L2 T3 A2
DIMENSION LESS QUANTITIES

S.No. Quantities
1. Efficiency ()
2. Coefficient of amplification ()
3. Q-factor
4. Form-Factor
5. Power coefficient
6. Relative Electric Permitivity
7. Refractive index ()
8. Mec. coefficient of heat (J)
9. Poison ratio
10. Strain
11. Angular displacement
12. Angle / Solid angle

NOTE:

Dimension less quantity may have unit. But unitless quantities are
dimensionless.

Ex. angle dimensionless but it has unit radian.

THE PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSION

The dimension of physical quantity on the left hand side of dimensional equation
should equal to the net dimensions of all physical quantities on the right hand

side of it.

Ex. If in the form x = 3yz 2, x and z represent electrical capacitances and

magnetic induction the calculate dimensional equation of y.

Sol. By the principal of homogeneity of dimension

Dimension equation of x = Dimension equation of (3yz2)

M1 L2 T4 A2

= Dimension equation of (y) (M1 L0 T2 A1)2

Dimension of (y)

= M3 L2 T8 A4

Force = mass acceleration

velocity
= mass
time

length
= mass time
time

= mass length (time)2

Thus, the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, I in length and 2 in time. The

dimensions in all other base quantities Disc Zero.

Important views related to Dimensions:

(i) Pure number and Pure ratio are dimensionless.


Ex.: 1, 2, , ex, log x, sin , cos etc. and refractive index.

(ii) Dimensionless quantity may have unit

Ex.: Angle and solid angle.

(iii) The method of dimensions can not be applied to desire the formula if a
physical quantity depends on more than three physical quantities.

(iv) For a given physical quantity there will be only one dimensional formula
of energy but for a given dimensional formula there can be several
physical quantities.

Work

ML2 T2 Energy

Torque

1
Ex# Calculate the dimensional formula from the equation E = mv2
2
E = mass (velocity)2

1
is a number and has no dimensions.
2
2
L
[E] = M
T

= ML2 T2

Uses of Dimension:

(1) To check the accuracy of various formula or equation.


Principle of dimensional homogeneity:

The dimensions of each and every term on L.H.S. of the equation must be same

as that of each and every term on R.H.S.

NOTE:

If a formula is physically correct, it has to be dimensionally correct but, if a

formula is dimensionally correct, it is not necessary that it is also physically

correct.

Ex# Check the validity of the equation

1 2
x ut at
2
where x is the distance travelled by a particle in time t which starts at a speed u

and has on acceleration a along the direction of motion.

Sol. L.H.S.

Dimension of x = L

R.H.S.

Dimension of ut = LT1 T = L

1 2
Dimension of at = LT1 T2 = L
2

Dimensions of L.H.S. = Dimensions of R.H.S.

Formula is dimensionally correct.


(2) To convert the value of a physical quantity from one system of units to
another system of units.

Magnitude of a physical quantity always remains constant it will not


change if we express it in some other unit

So, Q = nu = constant

1
n
u
where,

n = number

u = unit

If n then u

and n then u

i.e. 1 kg = 1000 gm

kg is a bigger unit than gram.

Let number and unit of a physical quantity in 1st and 2nd system of units are n 1,

u1 and n1, u2 respectively and Dimension of a physical quantity in mass, length

and time are a, b and c respectively.

Q = Ma Lb Tc

II System

I System
n1 u1 = n2 u2

n1 M1a Lb1 T1c n2 M2a Lb2 T2c

a b c
M L T
n2 n1 1 1 1
M2 L2 T2

Nm2
Ex# The value of circurtational constant in MKS system is 6.67 10
1 .
kg2

Convert this value into CaS units.

I SystemII System

n1 = 6.67 1011 n2 = ?

M1 kgM2 gm

L1 mL2 gm

T1 secT2 sec

G = M1 L3 T2

G = 1, b = 3, c = 2
1 3 2
kg m sec
n2 = n1
gm cm sec
1 3
gm m
= n1
kg cm

11 1
= 6.67 10 100 100 100
1000
= 6.67 108 CGS units

(3) To derive a new formula.

Let a physical quantity depends on the another quantities P, Q and R

then

E Pa Qb Rc

E = K Pa Qb Rc (i)

Now consider dimensional formula of each quantity on both sides


a b c
Mx Ly Tz = M 1 L 1 T 1 M 2 L 1 T 2 M 3 L 3 T 3
x y z x y z x y z

ax bx cx ay by cy az az az
=M 1 2 3 L 1 2 3 T 1 2 3

Now comparing the powers on both sides

ax1 + bx2 + cx3 = x (2)

ay1 + by2 + cy3 = y (3)

az1 + bz2 + cz3 = z (4)

Let after solving eqn. (2), (3) and (4), we get value of a, b and c are m, n and o

respectively then formula is

E = KPm Qn Ro

Ex# The time period of a simple pendulum depends on its length (l) and

acceleration due to gravity (g). Deduce the formula.

T lx gy
T = K lx gy

M0 L0 T1 = KLx [LT2]y

= KLx+y T2y

x+y=0

and 2y = 1

1
y=
2

1
x
2
1 1

T K l g 2 2

l
TK
g

n2 n1
Ex. In the formula; N = D , D = diffusion coefficient, n1 and n2 is
x
2 x1

number of molecules in unit volume along x1 and x2. Which represents

distances where N is number of molecules passing through per unit area per

unit time calculate dimensional equation of D.

Sol. By Homogeneity theory of Dimension

Dimension of (N)
Dimension of n2 n1
= Dimension of D
Dimension of x2 x1

1 L3
= Dimension of D
L2 T L

L
Dimension of 'D' =
L3 L2 T

L2
= L2 T 1
T

USES OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

Following are the uses of dimensional equations.

(i) Conversion of one system of units in to another.

(ii) Checking the accuracy of various formula of equation.

(iii) Derivation of Formula.

CONVERSION OF ONE SYSTEM OF UNITS INTO ANOTHER:

Let the numerical values are n1 and n2 of a given quantity Q in two unit system

and the units are

U1 = M1a Lb1 T1c

and U2 = M2a Lb2 T2c

in two systems respectively)


Therefore, By the principle nu = constant

n2 u2 = n1 u1

n2 M2a Lb2 T2c n1 M1a Lb1 T1c

n1 M1a Lb1 T1c


n2
M2a Lb2 T2c

a b c
M L T
n2 1 1 1 n1
M2 L2 T2

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY

The dimensions of both sides in an equation are same.

1 2
Ex. s = ut gt
2
[L] = [LT1 . T] + [LT2 . T2]

[L] = [L] + [L]

DEFECTS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

1. While deriving a formula the proportionality constant cannot be found.

2. The formula for a physical quantity depending on more than three other
physical quantities cannot be derived. It can be checked only.
3. The equations of the type v = u + at cannot be derived. They can be
checked only.

4. The equations containing trigonometrical functions (sin , cos , etc.),


logarithmic functions (log x, log x 3 etc.) and exponential functions (ex,
2
ex etc.) cannot be derived. They can be checked only.

ORDER OF MAGNITUDE

In physics, we come across quantities which vary over a wide range. To express

such widely varying numbers, one uses the powers of ten method.

In this method, each number is expressed as a 10 b where 1 < a < 10 and b is a

positive or negative integer.

Thus, the diameter of the sun is expressed as 1.39 109 m. To get an

approximate idea of the number, one may round the number a to 1 if it is less

than or equal to 3.16 and to 10 if it is greater than 3.16. The number can then be

expressed approximately as 10b. We then get the order of magnitude of that

number. Thus, the diameter of the sun is of the order of 10 9 m. More precisely,

the exponent of 10 in such a representation is called the order of magnitude of

that quantity. The order of magnitude of 10 9 is 9.

The Structure of the World:

Man has always been interested to find how the world is structured. After

extensive experimental work people arrived at the conclusion that the world is
made up of just three types of ultimate particles, the proton, the neutron and the

electron. All objects which we have around us, are aggregation of atoms and

molecules. The molecules are composed of atoms and the atoms have at their

heart a nuclear containing protons and neutrons. Electrons move around this

nucleus in special arrangements. It is the number of protons, neutrons and

electrons in an atom that decides all the properties and behavior of a material.

Ch.-1. Introduction to Physics:

What is Physics?

Mathematics applied to Physics.

Ch.-2. Units and Dimensions, Dimensional Analysis Units:

Definition of Base Units

Dimensions, uses of dimensions

Order of magnitude

The structure of the world.

Ch.-3. Measurements

Least count, significant figures.

Methods of measurement and error analysis for Physical quantities


pertaining to the following experiments.

Experiments based on using Vernier Callipers and screw gauge


(micrometer).
Determination of g using simple pendulum Young modulus by scarles method

specific heat of a liquid using Celorimeter focal length of a Concave mirror and a

convex lens using uv method speed of sound using resonance column verification

of ohm's law using voltmeter and ammeter specific resistance of the material of

the wire using bridge and P.O. box.

Work and power:

Lifting m/c.

Significant figures:

Measurements made by any instrument are not absolutely correct. The degree of

accuracy or precision is shown by the significant figures upto which the

measurement has been recorded.

Let us say, the length of an object is 14.5 cm. It shows that the measurement has

1
been made to the nearest of th of a centimetre which shows that figures 1
10
to 4 are absolutely correct and figure 5 is reasonably correct.

If the length recorded is 14.52 cm, then it shows that the measurement has been

1
made correctly upto th of a centimeter. In this case, the figures 1, 4 and 5
100

are absolutely correct while the figure 2 is approximate.

Thus, significant figures are the number of digits upto which we are sure about

their accuracy. In other words, significant figures are those digits in a number
that are known with certainty plus one more digit that is uncertain.

For example, 14.5 cm has three significant digits and the measurement 14.52 cm

has four significant digits. Significant figures do not change if we measure a

physical quantity in different units.

For example, 14.5 cm = 0.145 m

= 14.5 102 m

Now 14.5 cm and 14.5 102 m both have three significant figures.

Rules for significant figures:

(1) All non-zero digits are significant figures.

Example :

Number Significant figures


17 2
178 3
1782 4
17825 5

(2) All zeros occurring between non-zero digits are significant figures.

Example :

Number Significant figures


401 3
4012 4
40056 5
400006 6

(3) All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not significant figures:

Example :

Number Significant figures


20 1
210 2
2130 3
20350 4

(4) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit
are not significant figures:

Example :

Number Significant figures


0.04 1
0.004 1
0.0045 2
0.0456 3
0.0004564 4
(5) All zeros to the right of a decimal point and to the right of a non-zero
digit are significant figures:

Example :

Number Significant figures


0.20 2
0.230 3
0.2370 4

Rounding off the measurements:

The following rules are applied in order to rounding off the measurements:

(i) If the digit to be dropped in a number is less than 5, then the preceding
digit remains unchanged. For example, the number 8.64 is rounded off
to 8.6.

(ii) If the digit to be dropped in a number is greater than 5, then the


preceding digit is raised by 1. For example, the number 8.66 is rounded
off to 8.7.

(iii) If the digit to be dropped in a number is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then


the preceding digit remains unchanged if it is even.

For example,

(i) the number 8.65 is rounded off to 8.6,

(ii) the number 8.650 is rounded off to 8.6.


(iv) If the digit to be dropped in a number is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then
the preceding digit is raised by I if it is odd.

For example,

(i) the number 8.75 is rounded off to 8.8,

(ii) the number 8.750 is rounded off to 8.8.

SIGNIFICIENT FIGURES

The numbers of figure required to specify a certain measurement perfectly are

called significant figure.

The last figure of a measurement is always doubtful, but is included in the

number of significant figure.

Example: If length of pencil measured by vernier callipers is 9.48 cm, the number

of significant fig. in the measurement is 3.

RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGRUES

(i) If a measurement contains no decimal point, the number of final zeros


are ambiguous and are not counted in significant fig. i.e. all non zero
digits are significant.

e.g. In 3320 no. of significant figures = 3

(ii) The power of 10 and the zeros on left hand side of a measurement are
not counted while counting the number of significant fig.
e.g. 5 103 significant fig. 1

(iii) the zeros after a decimal are counted as to significant fig.,

e.g. 1.60 has three significant fig.

(iv) The zeros appearing in between the non zero digits are counted as
significant figures,

e.g. In 2.07, there are three significant figures.

(v) The zeros appearing to the left of a non zero digit are not counted in
significant figures,

e.g. 0.0702 has only three significant figure (702)

(vi) When the position of decimal point changes, then the number of
significant figures does not change,

i.e. 1.942, 194.2 all have four significant figures.

(vii) The limit and accuracy of a measuring instrument is equal to the least
count of the instrument.

(viii) In the sum and difference of measurements, the result contains the
minimum number of decimal places in the component measurements.

Ex. The length of string of simple pendulum is 101.4 cm and diameter of bob is
2.64 cm. What is th effective length of simple pendulum up to required
significant figures.

Sol. 0 r
Here 0 101.4 cm,

2.64
r= 1.32 cm
2
101.4 1.32 102.72 cm

Since we take least number of decimal figures in a measurement which is 1 in 0

Hence Effective length = 102.7 cm.

(ix) In the product and quotient of measurements, the result contains the
minimum number of significant figures in the component
measurements.

Ex. The length, breadth and thickness of a block are given by = 12 cm, b = 6
cm, t = 2.45 cm.

What is the volume of the block according to the idea of significant figures.

Sol. Volume = blt

= 6 12 2.45 = 176.4

= 1.764 104 cm3

The minimum number of significant figures is 1 in thickness.

Vernier Callipers and Screw Gauge:

The metre scale which commonly used in practice is the simplest instrument for

measuring length.
By metre scale we can measure upto 1 mm because the length of the smallest

division made on the scale is 1 mm. In order to measure still smaller lengths

1 1
accurately upto th or th of a millimeter, the instruments
10 100

commonly used in laboratory are:

1. Vernier Callipers

2. Screw Gauge

Vernier Callipers:

1
It is used to measure accurately upto th of millimeter. Vernier Callipers
10

comprises of two scales, Wz, main scale S and vernier scale V which is called

auxiliary scale. The main scale is fixed but the vernier scale is movable. The

divisions of vernier scale are usually a little smaller in size than the smallest

division on the main scale. It also has two jaws, one attached with the main scale

and the other with the vernier scale. The purpose of jaws are to grip the object

between them. Vernier has a strip, which slides along with vernier scale, over the

main scale. The strip is used to measure the depth of hollow object.

Vernier Constant (VC):


Suppose the size of one main scale division is S and that of one vernier scale

division is V units. Also suppose that length of n vernier division is equal to the

length of (n 1) division of main scale. Thus, we have

(n 1)S = nV

or nS S = nV

S
or S V =
n
The quantity (S V) is called vernier constant (VC).

Least Count:

The smallest value of a physical quantity which can be measured accurately with

an instrument is called the least count (L.C.) of the instrument.

For vernier calipers, its least count is equal to its venier constant. Thus

S
Least count = S V =
n
wherer, S = size of one main scale division

V = size of one vernier scale division

n = No. of division on vernier scale

Length of one division of main scale


=
No. of divisions on vernier scale

Length of the object = main scale reading + n (LC)

n = vernier division exactly coinciding with some main scale division.


Determination of zero error:

When jaws of the vernier are made touch other and the zero mark of the vernier

scale coincide with the zero mark of the main scale, there will no zero error in the

instrument. However, in practice it is never so. Due to wear and tear of the jaws

and due to some manufacturing defect, the zero mark of the main scale and

vernier scale may not coincide, it gives rise to an error, is called zero error. It may

be positive or negative zero error.

Positive and negative zero error:

When the zero mark of the vernier scale lies towards the right side of the zero of

the main scale when the jaws are in contact, the measured length will be greater

than the actual length. Because of this fact the zero error is called positive zero

error. On the other hand, when zero mark of the vernier scale lies towards the

left side of the zero of the main scale when jaws in contact with each other, the

length of the object measured by the instrument will be less than the actual

length of the object. Because of this reason is called negative zero error.

True reading = Observed reading Zero error with proper sign.

Correction for positive zero error:

When its jaws are in contact with each other, suppose 3rd

vernier division coincides with the any of the divisions of main scale. They we

have
Zero error = + [0.00 cm + 3(L.C.)]

= + [0.00 + 3 0.01 cm]

= + 0.03 cm

Correct reading = Observed reading (0.03 cm)

Figure for negative error:

Screw Gauge: It is used to measure small lengths like diameter of a wire or

thickness of sheet etc. It consists of a U' shaped metal frame as shown in fig.

A main scale which graduate in millimeter or half a millimeter. The main scale

also called pitch scale.

Pitch: It is defined as the linear distance moved by the screw forward or

backward when one complete rotation is given to the circular cap.

Least count (L.C.)

Pitch
=
Total number of divisions on the circula r scale
Ex. In Four complete revolution of the cap, the distance travelled on the pitch

scale is 2 mm. If there are 50 divisions on the circular scale, then calculate the

least count of the screw gauge.

2mm
Pitch = 0.5 mm
4

0.05
L.C. = mm 0.01 mm
50
Zero error:

When the studs P and Q of the screw gauge are brought in contact without apply

induce pressure and if the zero of the circular scale coincides with the reference

line, then there is no zero error, otherwise there will be zero error.

Positive zero error:

In this case, the zero of the circular scale lies below the reference line as the gap

between studs P and Q reduces to zero.

Suppose the zero line of the circular scale is 4 division below the reference line. In
other words, the 4th division of the head scale is in line with the line of
graduation.

Zero error = + 4 (L.C.)

= + 4 (0.01 cm)

= + 0.04 cm

Zero correction = zero error

Negative zero error:

When zero of the circular scale lies above the reference line when the gap
between the studs P and Q become zero.

Zero error = 3 0.01 mm

= 0.03 mm

Zero correction = + 0.03 mm.

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