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Notes Philosophical Research

THE MEANING OF RESEARCH

Research is rather simple. Essentially, it is nothing but a state of minda friendly welcoming attitude
toward change. Research, for practical men, is an effort to do things better and not to be caught
asleep at the switch. (20)

research is not merely a search for truth, but a prolonged, intensive, purposeful search. In the last
analysis, research per se constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of
critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and, at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypotheses.1

Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications
with reference to a given problem. The product, or findings, of a given piece of research should be an
authentic verifiable contribution to knowledge in the field studied. (20-21)

Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools,
instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would
be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analyzes these
critically, and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It involves original work instead of
mere exercise of personal opinion. (21)

Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly
or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of opinion, historical facts,
those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to questionnaires, experimental
data of any sort. (21)2

Research in this age and time means searching for a theory, for testing theory or for solving problem.
It means that a problem exists and has been identified and that the solution of the problem is
necessary. (2)

research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical


propositions about presumed relations among natural phenomena.3

Research, broadly defined, is systematic inquiry designed to further our knowledge and
understanding of a subject. Using this definition, nearly everything you do in college is research.
You seek to discover information about people, objects, and nature; to revise the information you
discover in the light of new information that comes to your attention; and to interpret you
experience and communicate that interpretation to others. (1) 4
1
Clifford Woody, The Values of Educational Research to the Classroom Teacher Journal of Educational Research
16 1927): 172-178 quoted in F. Whitney, The Elements of Research ( New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950), 20.
***All entries are taken verbatim unless otherwise indicated.
2
All definitions are found in F. Whitney, The Elements of Research (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950). Nota Bene: The
preceding entries with corresponding page numbers enclosed in parentheses are included in the citation unless indicated
by another reference.
3
Fred Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston, 1973) quoted in
Consuelo Sevilla, et al. An Introduction to Research (Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore, 1988), 2.
4
Christine A. Hult, Researching and Writing in the Humanities and Arts (Boston, USA: Allyn and Bacon, 1996).
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Notes Philosophical Research

Research is systematic when it follows steps or stages that begin with identification of the problem,
relating of this problem with existing theories, collection of data, analysis and interpretation of these
data, drawing of conclusions, and integration of these conclusions into the stream of knowledge. (2-
3)5

Research is a systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of certain phenomenon, which


involves accurate gathering, recording and critical analyzing, and interpreting of all facts about the
phenomenon. (3)

Philosophical Research based on the APA (American Philosophical Association) Statements of


Profession

"Research" has come to be employed in contemporary academic life as a generic term referring to
forms of inquiry pursued in all the many disciplines, from the natural sciences to the humanities. In
this broad sense of the term philosophers have been engaged in research throughout the entire
history of philosophy, and continue to be so engaged today, together with their scientific and
humanistic colleagues in the many other disciplines descended from philosophy in which the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy is still granted. Philosophys domain today, while no longer all-
encompassing, embraces a rich array of problems and issues as important as any of the human mind
has conceived.6

Philosophical research deals with issues of fundamental importance and places rigorous intellectual
demands upon those who pursue it. That is why it continues to attract some of the best minds of
every generation. The enhancement of our understanding of matters with which thinkers of great
intelligence and sophistication have long been wrestling, which do not admit of definitive resolution
and yet have far-reaching implications, is both challenging and central to the academic enterprise.
Research in philosophy must be viewed and assessed in relation to the kinds of issues with which it
deals; and it is the norms, standards and practices of the philosophical community that must be the
measure of the activity of philosophers in our academic institutions if it is to flourish in them. 7

Two Major Types of Research

Pure or theoretical research is conducted for the sake of knowing. Its main objective is to test or
arrive at a theory with the ultimate goal of establishing general principles. Whatever knowledge it
gains is not intended for any practical purposes such as improving the lot of the poor or solving a
social problem. The knowledge is gained so as to improve on what man already knows and thus to
expand the frontier of human understanding. (3)

Applied or practical research is to be done as to obtain knowledge for useful ends. (4) 8
5
Entries are found in Consuelo Sevilla, et al., An Introduction to Research (Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore,
1988).
6
APA Statement on the Profession Research in Philosophy [database online]; available from
http://www.apa.udel.edu/apa/governance/statements/research.html; 20 June 2003.
7
Ibid., online.
8
Venancio B. Ardales, Basic Concepts and Methods in Research (Quezon City, Philippines: Great Books, 1992.
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Notes Philosophical Research

Types of Philosophical Research

Primary Research requires either to work on original published or unpublished texts or to produce
information through surveys, polls, or interviews. (86)

Another sort of primary research is looking behind the published works at an authors unpublished
material. (87)

there is a primary research that takes one outside the field of philosophy when he ventures into
interdisciplinary courses or courses of professional ethics (87)

Secondary research makes use of secondary sources, that is, published accounts of primary materials.
(87)9

The Importance of Research

1. Research corrects perceptions as well as expands them.


2. Research gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack or have little knowledge about.
3. Research develops and evaluates concepts, practices and theories.
4. Research also develops and evaluates methods that test concepts, practices and theories.
5. Research obtains knowledge for practical purposes like solving problems on population
explosion, drug addiction, juvenile delinquency, and the like.
6. Research provides hard facts which serve as bases for planning, decision-making, project
implementation, monitoring and evaluation. 10

Philosophical investigation should not be thought of as a basic method of research. It is a place, a


level of value, where reflective thinking is going on. Its separate treatment is justified by its supreme
importance. The viewpoints, the attitudes, and the philosophies of individuals and of social groups
and nations shape their earthly destinies. (248)

. It is the function philosophical research to point out the supreme value of reflective thinking on
the level of the largest generalizations of widest import, to give information about the methods and
techniques of philosophical reasoning, and to stimulate to whatever ordered research is possible on
this level of reflection. (249)

One reason why the philosophical element in research is of supreme importance is that the thing to
be done, human conduct, is determined in terms of the largest value that is discovered in any
situation of possible activity. (249)11

THE GENERAL PROCESS OF RESEARCH

9
Anthony J, Graybosch, et al., The Philosophy Student Writers Manual (Upper Saddle, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
1998).
10
Ardales, Basic Concepts, 10.
11
F. Whitney, The Elements of Research (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950).
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Notes Philosophical Research

Preparation. The preparation stage of the research process involves the first awareness in
researchers that a problem or a question exists that needs systematic inquiry. Researchers formulate
the problem and begin to explore it. As they attempt to articulate the exact dimensions and
parameters of a particular problem, they use language or symbols of their thoughts or the data itself.
By stating the problem in a number of ways, looking at it from various angles, trying to define its
distinctive characteristics, and attempting possible solutions, researchers come define for
themselves the subtleties of the problem.

Incubation. The incubation stage usually follows the preparation stage and includes a period of
intense subconscious activity that is hard to describe or define. Because it is so indistinct, people
tend to discount it as unimportant, but the experience of many researchers shows that it is crucial to
allow an idea to brew and simmer in the subconscious if a creative solution is to be reached.

Illumination. In the illumination stage, as with the hatching chick, there is an imaginative
breakthrough. The idea begins to surface out of its concealing shell, perhaps a little at a time. Or the
researcher leaps to a hypothesis, a possible solution to the problem that seems intuitively to fit. The
illumination of a hypothesis can come suddenly or gradually, after laborious effort or after an ordinary
event that triggers the researchers thinking along new lines. We must remember, though, that the
hypothesis comes only after the researcher has investigated the problem thoroughly.

Verification. Once a researcher has arrived at a hypothesis, he or she must systematically test it to
discern whether it adequately accounts for all occurrences. 12 While in the sciences,
verification takes place in the form of testing or experimenting the hypothesis. In
philosophy, however, verification takes place in considering the consistency of ones
arguments and examining these arguments for possible fallacies.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Locating a Problem Situation. Many students of philosophy become more concerned about research
problems when they are about to write their thesis as a final requirement for their graduate degrees.
Most often, they become at a loss in finding problems to research on or they feel discouraged due to
the enormity, rather, the broadness of the topic that they like to study. While others may initially
have the research problem, however, the arduous task to face is to move on in the conduct of the
study since the research problem being held is oftentimes too broad and terms used are unclear.
Still, others have finding the problem as a primary problem.

At the outset, what is important in conducting a study is to have a problem---- a clear problem. Most
researchers, based on their experience, are likely to believe the basic principle that a clear problem
is halfway through the solution. Thus, locating a problem and stating it clear is always a key to a
good research activity.

What are the possible sources of research problems? Most neophytes in the field of philosophical
research prefer lofty and grand philosophical problems. They often end up mouthpieces of long
forgotten philosophers. This is not to say that such endeavor is not commendable. But why must a

12
Christine A. Hult, Researching and Writing in the Humanities and Arts (Boston, USA: Allyn and Bacon, 1996), 2-3.
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Notes Philosophical Research

philosopher look for a problem far beyond when she can choose a problem just within her reach?
The best source of a problem is the researcher herself and her experience. The problem that confronts
a society around the researcher is one of the sources for a research problem.

One stereotype that a budding student of philosophy must encounter and debunk is the notion that
philosophy is unable to contribute to the betterment of society. This can be addressed by a research
in philosophy responsive to the problem experienced by the researcher herself. The case of the
development of philosophical counseling is of this sort. Gerd B. Achenbach and Ran Lahav,
considered pioneers of modern philosophical counseling, 13 were able to develop philosophical
counseling due to the inadequacy of the psychotherapeutic method and/or the presuppositions
found in psychotherapy.14 Lest one forgets, Socrates critique of the Greek polytheism, Platos
formulation of the ideal state, and Aristotles logical method are but responses to the Greeks
unreflected religious practices, the Greek civil war and the Sophists and Skeptics errant reasoning,
respectively. These show the advancement in philosophy and development in philosophical
understanding as products of the studies made by different philosophers who are beset by the
problems around them.

Another convenient source for locating research problems is the research literature such as
periodicals, magazines, theses, dissertations, etc. This kind of source is convenient because most
periodicals are terse and they leave some topics open for further researches. Most authors
recommend topics for further investigation. Theses and dissertations are of this type, too. In fact,
these research outputs have in their last chapter a section on recommendations, which are in fact an
exhortation to conduct research activities not covered by the thesis or dissertation.

Philosophical symposia, conventions or meetings are also sources of research problems. Critical
interactions from philosophers are oftentimes enlightening and intellectually stimulating. These
discussions most often reveal enlightening avenues for research. In most cases, topics which remain
uncovered are explored in the free play of ideas.

Experts, who keep abreast with the rising issues in their chosen field, are also sources for research
topics. They can offer expert opinion on some unresolved problems. For neophyte researchers,
experts can guide the direction of their researches.

Stating a Problem. As stated earlier, the key to a successful research is the clarity of the research
problem, that is, when the problem is clear the work is already half-done. 15 This is because
the statement of the problem is the way that will guide the research process. In fact, the
whole research effort is directed towards finding solutions to problems that are validly
posed in the statement of the problem.

In stating the research problem there are several criteria that must be borne in mind. One is clarity. It
is always a requirement as in any research endeavor. In this case, however, stating the problem must
be clear. On the one hand, the variables---this is another thing that needs clarification--- must be
clear. The statement of the problem must present the relation of two or more variables. On the

13
Socrates is considered the pioneer of philosophical counseling by virtue of his midwifery in philosophy. Cf. Ran
Lahav, What is Philosophical Counselling? Journal of Applied Philosophy 13 (1996): 260.
14
Cf. Ibid., 261-62.
15
See also Henri Bergson, Creative Mind: Introduction to Metaphysics.
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Notes Philosophical Research

other hand, the statement of the problem must embody the purpose of research, that is, it must
include the purpose of the study.

How is the problem stated? Usually, the problem is stated using interrogative sentences. Here, the
framing of the questions must be in such a manner that important variables are included. In addition,
the questions must not be answerable by yes or no, agree or disagree, etc. These
dichotomous questions, so-called because they can only be answered in two ways, must be avoided.
Also, the questions must not be laden with valuations, that is, must not include forms of valuations
like best, poor, ought, etc. Further, the questions must not be too broad in scope. Limit the
scope of your questions. (See Appendix A)

It goes without saying that statement of the problems may also be stated in declarative form.
(See Appendix B)

Evaluating the Problem. When one has successfully stated the problem, the next step is the
evaluation of the problem. In evaluating the problem there are a lot of things to consider.

Foremost in evaluating the research problem is whether the variables are clear and the statement is
succinct enough to reveal the relations between variables.

Practicability is another one. In relation to the problem itself, the scope must not be too big so as
not to consume time and effort far beyond research schedule. If the research has a large scope, even
if it may not be broad, then the odds that it may not be accomplished within a certain time frame is
greater.
Research-ability must also be another criterion. No matter how well stated the problem is for as long
as the available means of validating and gathering the data are inadequate, then the whole endeavor
would be a waste. As philosophical researchers, the bulk of the data is most often taken from books
of original authors. Thus, if one will study the Levinas philosophy while the available materials are
secondary, the most logical result is that the study will less likely to be validated due to the lack of
originality.
Competence is another matter to be considered. As a researcher, one must be totally honest in
examining whether the chosen problem falls within the province of his competence. The question on
whether the researcher can undertake such research problem must be settled with an affirmative
note. In addition, the researcher ought to remember his personal interest in undertaking the
research. Lest, some researchers in the graduate programs are not able to finish their researches
because their interest on the topic waned.

Means. Notwithstanding the problem of time, another matter to be considered is whether the stated
problem within the means of the researcher. While philosophical researches may really not that
money consuming, one may not notice that most of his resources are spent unknowingly on
photocopies of journals found in the library; or, spent in procuring expensive original books. This
aspect must also be considered.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Another important phase in the research process is conducting a review of related literature. In our
ordinary usage, this phase is referred also as theoretical background, or related studies. In some
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Notes Philosophical Research

specific fields, review of related literature is separated from review of related studies. The former
covers materials that are published and contain opinions or arguments of experts in the field while
the latter concerns with the examination of research reports or studies conducted related to the
researchers problem. In the case of philosophical research, however, the theoretical background is
the review of related literature.

Review of related literature, as it suggests, involves locating, reading and evaluating basic and
applied literature including reports on observation and opinion which are related to the researchers
subject.16 The researcher bears in mind that research, in this case, the search for truth is not the
monopoly of anyone. This means that the search for truth, the conduct of research, must be open
for scrutiny and validation of the researchers in the field. Thus, a researcher is expected to keep
abreast with the researches going on and conducted related to his stated problem. The review of the
related literature will serve for the researchers purpose.

What then are the purposes of the review? The review aids the researcher in finding out the state of
knowledge in the field he would like to study. In some cases, the review helps the researcher know
the studies conducted. Indeed, it would be foolish to repeat the study conducted unless one
attempts to validate the veracity of the same. The review saves great amount of time and energy for
the researcher since when he or she finds out that a study was already conducted then he or she
need not pursue the same.

Through the review of related literature, the researcher might be able to gain insights from other
thinkers about his/her topic. It may suggest other avenues for exploring or examining the variables
found in the statement of the problem. Moreover, the researcher may be able to find out the
inadequacies, if not, inconsistencies in the analysis of his/her research topic. More importantly, the
researcher may gain insights on the research methods used.

In addition, the review serves to inform the researcher of the conclusions of past studies about his or
her research topic. These conclusions may help the researcher in relating the conclusions of his/her
studies.

Lastly, the researcher, through the review, may feel confident for his/her research since he possesses
adept knowledge about the field and that his/her research is within the province of his control.

How to Conduct a Review

Prepare a Bibliography. In the previous preparations for research, especially in locating the problem,
the researcher has at least gathered several sources to consult in order to have a birds eye view of
the problem. Since the researcher is expected to have a thorough and extensive knowledge of the
problem, then she must undertake to make additions to her collections, other reliable sources
related---no wonder it is called review of related literature---to her problem. The most logical course
to follow is to make a working bibliography.

A bibliography is a list of sources which the researcher used in the making of her research. Ideally,
bibliography contains the materials relating to the problem. However, since such ideal is most often
16
Belen de Jesus, et al., Guidebook on Thesis Writing (Manila, Philippines: The Philippine Association for Graduate
Education, 1984), 18.
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Notes Philosophical Research

not met, the most proper term is supposed to be Selected Bibliography. 17 In preparing the working
bibliography list down the variables found in your statement of the problem. Thereafter, look for the
sources that mention the variables you have listed down.

Evaluate the source. A novice researcher most often commits the mistake of discarding right away
the sources she gathered because of her impression that the material is irrelevant. In order to avoid
such error, the researcher is advised to browse the table of contents of the book. Also, the preface
or the introduction of the same must be examined. And, the index of the book will surely give the
researcher an idea about the book. The purpose of this seemingly unimportant act is to evaluate the
importance of the source. Since research requires a lot of time, then such steps will ensure that the
researcher will not be able to spend enormous amount of time to a source which will enlighten very
little about the research problem.

Examine the Sources. After evaluating the importance of the source, the researcher must thoroughly
examine the materials at hand. Thoroughness here does not mean that the researcher must read all
the pages of each source. But he must at least be able to read the pertinent data on her research.

This is where the role of index comes in. An index is an alphabetical list of topics (words, names or
places) that are considered of special pertinence 18 Through the index, the researcher checks the
variables she has listed down and read the specific page where they are found. The researcher must
also read the words synonymous, if not antonymous, to the variable. These words ay help in the
process in giving insights to the review being conducted.

More importantly, in the examination of the data the researcher can use content analysis as a
technique. A content analysis is any technique for making inferences by systematically and
objectively identifying special characteristics of messages. 19 This means that a researcher may
employ content analysis to examine written or verbal communications.

Various researchers have different opinions regarding the presentation because the content of a
text, that is, any message for that matter, may either be a manifest content or a latent content. The
manifest content refers to elements which are easily discernible because they are physically present
in the message. The latent content, however, consists in the hermeneutic interpretation of the
symbolisms found in the text. A novice researcher is advised to present both. Later, however, the
research will acquire techniques for herself by which she is able to evaluate the importance in
presenting the two types of content.

Write down notes. The researcher must remember this simple precept: If it is not written, it is not
there. This speaks not of metaphysics rather a simple notion that if a researcher merely remembers,
without writing down the ideas, then she has no specific reference. Thus, taking down notes is a
must. [This saves the researcher time and another trip to the library just to check the reference.]

17
Cf. Kate L. Turabian, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 6th ed. (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1996), 165.
18
Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1993 ed., s.v. Index.
19
O.R. Holti, Content Analysis in G. Lindzey @ E. Aaronson (eds.), The Handbook of Social Psychology (Reading,
MA: Addison Wesley, 1968) quoted in Bruce L. Berg Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (Boston, Mass.:
Allyn and Bacon, 1995), 175.
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Notes Philosophical Research

There are several things that must be born in mind in writing down notes. First, write down the
bibliographical entry. A bibliographical entry refers to the facts of publication (in some sources
production), which includes the author, the complete title of the work, the place of publication and
copyright year. Second, write down the whole entry, that is, the researcher must write the whole
passage pertaining to the variable and meticulously making sure that punctuation marks are exactly
copied. While the researcher can just summarize the whole passage, the former method is
recommended for the reason that the researcher, in constructing the paper, may not be able to
accommodate the summary in her manner of presentation. Or better, the researcher may be able to
find a better expression other than her summary.

Organize the review. The last part of the review is to put into an organized whole the fragmented
data the researcher collected. In other words, the researcher accommodates in her outline the
information she has gathered. Since the researcher, in this phase, expectedly possesses the whole
grasp of the whole problem, she ought to have an outline of how to present the review.

Oftentimes, novice researchers present a hodgepodge of information rather than a systematic and
comprehensive review of related literature. In this case, a tentative outline of the presentation is
indispensable. In presenting the review, the researcher must take the role of a weaver who tries to
put together with one type of thread all the materials needed in producing a craft. A hodgepodge of
information, in other words, is obviously unasked for.

There are several methods at hand. One is historical or evolutionary. This method does not refer to
history as a discipline. What is meant here is the presentation must be in such a manner that the
review will account for the development of thoughts or theories about a certain variable. If, for
example, the problem is on the relevance of Kierkegaards notion of truth as subjectivity to Filipino
interpersonal relationships, the researcher must then account for the ideas or studies that developed
out of notion of truth and subjectivity. As much as possible, the researcher is expected to present
both sides of the coins, that is, she must objectively present the data. Moreover, she must present
the inconsistencies, or fallacies, if there are any, found in the literatures or studies so that she may
create possible ways of solving her present problem.

Another suggestion for the review is dialectical. This is familiar. Here, the researcher conducts the
review by presenting differing views of various thinkers from different media she has gathered. In a
Hegelian manner, she presents opposing views of philosophers; and thus, she accounts for the
development of literatures or studies made concerning her variable.

Finally, the researcher is advised to use her style as long as she follows the basic rules of composition
and she keeps in mind the different purposes of conducting the review of related literature.

QUOTATION AND DOCUMENTATION

At this point, quotation and documentation will be given importance. Even in the introduction of the
researchers paper, she may use these. One has to admit the fact that ideas are not totally original,
that is, in one way or another a researchers idea is influenced or taken from a material she has
previously read, seen or even watched. And, even if on assumption that an idea or thought is
intuited, there is higher probability that other thinkers have thought of them earlier. One of the
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Notes Philosophical Research

researchers indispensable duties is to find out the state of knowledge in her research area. 20 If in the
process of her research, she makes use of the data from other thinkers, then she is duty bound to
recognize these thinkers. This is because ideas and the expression of ideas are considered to belong
to the individual who first puts them forward. 21 Thus, it is at this point that quotation comes in.

There are two ways of quoting. One is the indirect quotation. An indirect quotation is either a
summary or a paraphrase of an idea based on a source. When a researcher summarizes, she
reformulates the main idea into few words. When she paraphrases, she reformulates the idea in
approximately the same number of words but in an entirely different sentence structure or syntax.
This method is highly recommended so as the integration of ideas from other sources jives with the
researches own style of writing.

In an indirect quotation, the researcher must bear in mind that she will use her own words and
sentence structure. Either she paraphrases or summarizes the thought. (Note: Propositions or
statements without quotation marks but with footnotes which attribute the idea to the source are
construed as indirect quotations; they are therefore either paraphrases or summaries. If they are
verbatim copies of the original source, the author is deemed to have committed plagiarism.)

Another form is direct quotation. This form consists in using the exact words and formulation of the
original source. This is a verbatim quotation. Direct quotation is used primarily when the researcher
feels that any attempt of reformulating the passage will not do justice to the original. It is also useful
in order to give authority to the subject matter being discussed, that is, the researcher is using
accurately the original data in presenting her arguments. Such method, then, makes the
presentation more credible.

There is another form of quotation: the block quotation. Unlike the indirect and direct quotations,
the block quotation includes original passages from the source, which are four or more lines. In this
respect, these statements are set off from the text and indented on both sides of the text.

However heavy the weight of authority and accuracy is in the direct quotation, the researcher is
reminded that these reasons do not amount to excessive direct quotation, that is, numerous direct
quotations do not make the research more academic. In fact, overuse of direct quotations leaves a
question on the originality of the work. Thus, direct quotation is used intermittently and only out of
necessity.

After quoting, the researcher must fully credit the source from which she got the material in order to
avoid plagiarism. It results from inaccurate or incomplete attribution of material to its source. 22 It is
considered as an intellectual dishonesty which may result in being considered a pariah in the
academic community or in a violation of intellectual property rights. In order to avoid plagiarism, the
researcher must use proper documentation.

Documentation is an acknowledgment of the source from which the idea is first seen or learned.
There are different forms of documentation. For the field of philosophy, the most common form of
20
See the discussion on the purposes of the review of related literature.
21
William Giles Campbell, et al., Form and Style: Theses, Reports, Term Papers 8th ed. (Boston, Massachusetts:
Houghton Mifflin, 1991), 65.
22
Ibid.
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Notes Philosophical Research

documentation is the Chicago Manual. The social sciences use a different form, the Modern Language
Association (MLA).

IMPORTANT NOTES

Usage of the Following Elements in the Text

Quotation marks. Double quotation marks are used at the beginning and end of a direct quote. Those
quotations within a quotation require only single quotation marks. In using the quotation marks, the
general rule is to put the periods and comma inside the quotation marks while the semicolons and
colons go outside. Question marks and exclamation points should be placed outside the quotation
marks unless the punctuation marks mentioned here are part(s) of the quotation.

Examples:
As a consequence, while technological powers increase the side effects and potential
hazards also escalate.

Technology, historically speaking, is the delayed effect of the scientific and metaphysical
revolution with which the modern age begins, Jonas writes.

Ellipses. These are three-period dots () to indicate the omission of words, phrases or paragraphs in
a quotation. In using the ellipses points, one should bear in mind that the thought of the complete
sentence must not be changed. In case, it is inevitable to use the ellipses points, especially before or
after the sentence, the ellipses must be followed by a period. ( .)

Example:

things grow readily worse and it is disheartening to find technology itself is


increasingly at fault.What we need is a technology of behavior. We could solve are
problems quickly if we could adjust the growth of the worlds population as precisely
as we adjust the course of a spaceship, or improve agriculture and industry with
some of the confidence with which we accelerate high-energy particles 23

Block Quotation. This is a form of a direct quotation usually four or more lines and set off from the
text.

Interpolations. In some cases the writer may attempt to correct by way of an explanation within the
text. If he/she does so, then this interpolation must be enclosed by a bracket [ ]. Also, if the author
sees in the quoted matter grammatical error he/she may indicate in his quotation [that it is found in
the original] the word [sic], enclosed in brackets after the defective part of the statement.

Foreign Words. If the writer-researcher uses foreign words, she must italicize these words.

Titles. Title of books mentioned in the text must be italicized always. Titles of articles in the
periodicals must be enclosed in quotation marks.

23
B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971), 1&3.
Draft for Phil 608 12
Notes Philosophical Research

Arrangement of Authors. The names of the authors must be arranged alphabetically in the
bibliography. Authors of Asian origin, that is, Japanese, Chinese, etc., usually have their name
arranged starting with the surname and followed by the first name. It is therefore important that one
follows the same

Reference. In referring to the published material, the first reference must include the following data:
name of the author(s); title/plus subtitle (if any); name of editor; translator or compiler (if any);
number or title of edition (if any); name of series in which book appears (if any) with volume or
number in the series; facts of publication (place, publisher, and year of publication); and page
number.
Books:
Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press,
1990), 20.

Anne Hiskes and Richard Hiskes. Science, Technology and Policy Decisions. Boulder, Colorada:
Westview Press, 1986.

Article/Periodical:

Carl Mitcham and R. Mackey. Jacques Ellul and the Technological Society, Philosophy Today
15 (1971): 102-121.

Subsequent references. If the subsequent reference is immediately following the citation then Ibid.
and page number is used. In other remote subsequent references, there are two methods used as
suggested in Turabians book. For the purposes of this course and the research format of the USC
Department of Philosophy, the method of subsequent referencing includes the following format:
surname (et. al., if there are others), shortened title, page number. The same principle applies to the
article in a journal or periodical.
Example:
Adas, Measure of Men, 25.
Mitcham, et. al., Jacques Ellul, 30.

Citations taken from secondary source: In referring to the works of primary authors found in
secondary sources, the writer must acknowledge both works.

Example:
B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1971), 1&3 quoted in
Orlando Ali Mandane Jr., Towards a Filipino Orientation in Technology ad Veritatem 3 (March
2004): 437.

ON SAMPLE FORMAT:

Books

One Author
Draft for Phil 608 13
Notes Philosophical Research

Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press,
1990), 20.

Adas, Michael. Machines as the Measure of Men. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1990.

Two Authors

Anne Hiskes and Richard Hiskes. Science, Technology and Policy Decisions. Boulder, Colorada:
Westview Press, 1986.

Hiskes, Anne and Richard Hiskes. Science, Technology and Policy Decisions. Boulder, Colorada:
Westview Press, 1986.

Article/Periodical

Carl Mitcham and R. Mackey. Jacques Ellul and the Technological Society, Philosophy Today
15 (1971): 102-121.

Mitcham, Carl and R. Mackey. Jacques Ellul and the Technological Society. Philosophy Today 15
(1971): 102-121.

Articles in Encyclopedia/Dictionary

Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1993 ed., s.v. Index.

Thesis or Dissertation

Pablito Tagura, A Critical Analysis of Technology Transfer and Development in the Context of
Communication Technology in the Philippines (Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1997), 20.

Tagura, Pablito. A Critical Analysis of Technology Transfer and Development in the Context of
Communication Technology in the Philippines. Ph.D. diss., Marquette University, 1997.

Electronic Source:

Emmanuel Mesthene, Technology and Religion, [article on-line]; 20 May 2003 (*This refers
to the date of posting or reposting); available from http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jan1967/v23-4-
article2.htm; 12 April 2003.

Mesthene, Emmanuel. Technology and Religion. Article on-line. 20 May 2003. Available from
http://theologytoday.ptsem.edu/jan1967/v23-4-article2.htm. 12 April 2003.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This is one of the most important parts of the researchers proposal to conduct research. The reason
is: this section justifies what she would like to do and gives a significant rationale for undertaking
Draft for Phil 608 14
Notes Philosophical Research

the research. The significance may give emphasis on the theory, the practical applications, the
research methodologies or processes and/or the sheer lack of literature about the subject.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

1. Historical Research
a. It aims to assess the meaning and read the message of the happenings in which men
and events relate meaningfully to each other. The object of the historical method is
to interpret the signs of the past times in order to test hypotheses concerning
causes, effects or trends of those events which may help to explain present and
anticipate future events.24

2. Descriptive Research
a. Descriptive-Normative Survey--- It provides descriptive information of the
demographic nature of the population.
b. Case Study--- This seeks to achieve a deep and involved understanding and
description of individuals, situations, groups, and communities.
c. Correlational Survey--- This is designed to estimate the extent to which different
variables are related to each other in the population of interest.
d. Descriptive-Evaluative--- It has at least one criterion measure so that in addition to
description, some evaluative judgment can be made about the research situation.

3. Experimental Research
a. Pre-experimental Designs--- They make use of evaluation measures to determine the
effects of the variables under study. However, external and internal validity are not
ensured because of the lack of controls.
b. True-experimental Designs--- This design has a greater degree of control and a
greater insurance of both internal and external validity.
c. Quasi-experimental Design--- True experimental designs emphasize randomness in
group selection. But there are instances when random selection and assignment are
not possible. Experiments carried on under situations where randomness is not
guaranteed must rely upon designs called quasi-experimental designs.
d. Correlational and Ex-post Facto Studies--- usually attempt to establish cause-effect
relationship between sets of data. Correlational studies with only two variables tend
to be hazardous. Some of the difficulty is their tendency to simplify.

4. Special Designs
a. Ethnographic Research--- This research deals with the descriptive analysis of cultures
and/or races, their origin and filiation. The major technique here is participant-
observation.
b. Biblical Research--- This is a systematic approach to the study of the Bible using
mainly the historical-critical method in the understanding and interpretation of the
written word of God as received by the living community of faith under the general
guidance of the Magisterium of the Church.

24
Belen de Jesus, et al., Guidebook on Thesis Writing (Manila, Philippines: The Philippine Association for Graduate
Education, 1984), 84.
Draft for Phil 608 15
Notes Philosophical Research

c. Content Analysis is any technique for making inferences by systematically and


objectively identifying special characteristics of messages. 25 Here, the researcher
studies written documents and other artifacts of social communication.
In content analysis, the am of the researcher is to uncover the different elements
found in a social artifact. In the conduct of the examination there are two possible
foci: (1) the manifest content, that is, those elements that are physically present and
countable and (2) the latent content, that is, the underlying elements which can be
interpreted to be strongly found in the physical data. 26

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Philosophical research is definitely qualitative. Its weight and validity depends heavily on the
arguments being proffered. Rarely does it rely on statistical data and analyses; and if it does so only
to give a general picture of the thoughts it is offering. Unlike quantitative researches, philosophical
research embarks on analyzing the non-numeric empirical materials gathered from texts. 27 In this
sense, philosophical research is a textual analysis.

In philosophy, several thoughts have been recognized as philosophical movements. These are
phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, existentialism, Marxism, Frankfurt School, Analytic
Philosophy, pragmatism, etc. But behind these so-called philosophical movements, which are
classified based on the characteristics of their philosophical ideas, their divide is one of a method.
Thus, while there are several views concerning human existence (existentialists generally give
emphasis on authentic subjectivity, Marxists focuses on the social existence, etc.) their differences lie
more on the method they employed in arriving towards their claim to truth.

What are the philosophical research methodologies? Insofar as methodology is concerned, this
refers to the different techniques, processes and/or procedures employed in an attempt to solve a
problem or to do something. In this context, the philosophical research methodology is intimately
connected with the different philosophical thoughts.

As philosophical researchers, we must acquaint ourselves with the different schools or methods
which are equally enlightening in the conduct of research.

Phenomenology

Phenomenology is directly attributed to Edmund Husserl, who, in contemplating upon the method of
Rene Descartes commonly known as the methodic doubt or Cartesian doubt, developed such
method. Husserls version of phenomenological methodas other philosophers, like Marcel, have
their own brand of phenomenologyhas three important steps. First, epoch. This step entails the
holding in abeyance of all the biases. Husserls aim is to go back to the thing-itself (ding an-sich). To
achieve such aim, it is necessary that one must rid himself of the presuppositions (or if there will
be, let such presupposition be presuppositionless-ness). Second, eidetic reduction. This step reduces
25
O. R. Holsti, Content Analysis in G. Linzey & E. Aaronson (eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology (Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1968) quoted by Bruce L. Berg, Qualitative research Methods for the Social Sciences
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995), 174-75.
26
Ibid., 176.
27
The term text refers to any interpretable phenomena, be it a literature, visual image, artifact, event, etc.
Draft for Phil 608 16
Notes Philosophical Research

the phenomenon to an eidos or essence. Thus, the essential elements of the phenomenon are
revealed by such step. Here, the consciousness conducts free play until such free play of
consciousness redounds to the invariable, to the essence. Third, transcendental reduction. This time
the phenomenon is described, as this step follows the preceding steps, according to the noetic-
noematic correlate, that is, as the consciousness-of-the-subject and the consciousness-of-the-object.
This reveals the intentionality of consciousness.

How does this translate to a method in qualitative research? Here are some features
phenomenologists use in their conduct of research: 28

1. Phenomenologists tend to oppose the acceptance of unobservable matters and grand systems
erected in speculative thinking.

2. Phenomenologists tend to oppose naturalism (also called objectivism and positivism)

3. phenomenologists tend to justify cognition (and some also evaluation and action) with
reference to what Edmund Husserl called Evidenz, which is awareness of a matter itself as disclosed
in the most clear, distinct, and adequate way for something of its kind.

4. Phenomenologists tend to believe that not only objects in the natural and cultural worlds, but also
ideal objects, such as numbers, and even conscious life itself can be made evident and thus known;

5. Phenomenologists tend to hold that inquiry ought to focus upon what might be called
"encountering" as it is directed at objects and, correlatively, upon "objects as they are encountered"
(this terminology is not widely shared, but the emphasis on a dual problematics and the reflective
approach it requires is);

6. Phenomenologists tend to recognize the role of description in universal, a priori, or "eidetic"


terms as prior to explanation by means of causes, purposes, or grounds; and

7. Phenomenologists tend to debate whether or not what Husserl calls the transcendental
phenomenological epoch and reduction is useful or even possible.

Several thinkers who employed phenomenology: Sartre, Mearleau-Ponty, Marcel, Heidegger,


Husserl, etc.

This means that the researcher uses the phenomenological description in the conduct of research.
Following the steps proffered by Husserl, the researcher describes the phenomenon and reveals the
prevailing prejudices or biases concerning such phenomenon. Then, the researcher discloses the
essential elements of the phenomenon and so on.

Structuralism

Structuralism is generally attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure, a famous Swiss linguist. It was


introduced by Saussure as a method in linguistic studies. As a method, structuralism studies all
human social phenomena, no matter what their form are, thus embracing not only the social

28
The text that follows can be found in this site http://www.connect.net/ron/phenom.html.
Draft for Phil 608 17
Notes Philosophical Research

sciences properbut also the humanities 29 This means that while structuralism is employed in
philosophy, it is not a monopoly of philosophy since every thing is considered a text waiting to be
interpreted.

Another characteristic of this method is its emphasis on wholes and totalities. While emphasis on the
whole may imply neglect for the parts, structuralism does not emphasize the features of the totality
alone. On the contrary, what it clearly studies is the complex network of relationships that link and
unite those elements.30 In addition, structuralism studies the underlying structure of the observable
phenomena. More importantly, structuralism studies relations of phenomena across a moment in
time and not through time. This means that it does not give much emphasis on the historical
development.31

Several known thinkers employed this method. These are Roland Barthes (history and signs), Levi
Strauss (myths), Julia Kristeva (poetic language), etc.

Semiotics32

Semiotics (or semiology) is first introduced by Saussure a new method of linguistic study. Semiology
means a science (logos) of signs (semeia). Saussure conceived of this method as a study of sign not
based entirely on the signs referential function rather on its complex relations with other signs. In
this sense, semiotics may be considered as part of structuralism.

At the very center of this concern is the sign. The study of signs and the way they work is called
semiotics or semiology Semiotics, as we will call it, has three main areas of study:

1. The sign itself. This consists of the study of different varieties of signs, of the different ways
they have of conveying meaning and of the way they relate to the people who use them. For
signs are human constructs and can only be understood in terms of the uses people put
them.
2. The codes or systems into which signs are organized. This study covers the ways that a
variety of codes have developed in order to meet the needs of a society or culture, or to
exploit the channels of communication available for their transmission.
3. The culture within which these codes and signs operate. This in turn is dependent upon the
use of these codes and signs for its own existence and form.

Semiotics, then, focuses its attention primarily on the text. The linear, process models give the text
no more attention than any other stage in the process: indeed, some of them pass it over almost
without comment. This is one major difference between the two approaches. The other is the status
of the receiver. In semiotics, the receiver, or reader, is seen as playing a more active role than in most
of the process models (Gerbners is an exception). Semiotics prefers the term reader (even of a
photograph or a painting) to receiver because it implies both a greater degree of activity and also
29
Michael Lane, ed., Introduction to Structuralism (New York, USA: Basic Books, 1970), 13.
30

Ibid., 14.
31

Ibid.
32
This section is entirely based on John Fiske, Introduction to Communication Studies (London: Routledge, 1982),
43ff.
Draft for Phil 608 18
Notes Philosophical Research

that reading is something we learn to do; it is thus determined by the cultural experience of the
reader. The reader helps to create the meaning of the text by bringing to it his experience, attitudes
and emotions.

Charles Sanders Peirce (1931-58) and Ogden and Richards (1923) arrived at very similar models of how
signs signify. Both identified a triangular relationship between the sing, the user and external reality
as a necessary means of studying meaning. Peirce, who is commonly regarded as the founder of the
American Tradition of semiotics, explained this model simply:

A sign is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or


capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an
equivalent sign,or perhaps a more developed sign.The sign which it creates I call the
interpretant of the first sign. The sign stands for something, its object. (In Zeman,
1977).

Peirces three terms can be modeled as in figure 12.

SIGN

INTERPRETANT OBJECT

The double-ended arrows emphasize that each term can only be understood in relation to the
others. A sign to something other than itself- the object, and is understood by somebody: that is, it
has an effect in the mind of the user the interpretant. We must realize that the interpretant is not
the user of the sign, but what Peirce calls elsewhere the proper significate effect, that is, it is a
mental concept produced both by the sign and by the users experience of the object. The
interpretant of the word (sign) SCHOOL in any one context will be the result of the users experience
of that word (he would not apply it to a technical college) and of his experience called schools, the
object. Thus, it is not fixed, defined by a dictionary, but may vary within limits according to the
experience of the user. The limits are set by social convention (in this case the conventions of English
language); the variation within them allows for the social and psychological differences between the
users.

Saussure

If the American logician and philosopher, C.S. Peirce, was one of the founders of semiotics, the other
was undoubtedly the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. Peirces concern as a philosopher was
with mans understanding of his experience and of the world around him. It was only gradually that
he came to realize the importance of semiotics, the act signifying, in this. His interest was in meaning,
which he founded in the structural relationship of signs, people and objects.
Saussure, as a linguist, was primarily interested in language. He was more concerned with the
way signs (or, in his case words) related to other signs than he was in the way they related to
Peirces object. So, Saussures basic model differs in emphasis from Peirces. He focuses his
attention much more directly on the sign itself. The sign, Saussure, was a physical object with a
Draft for Phil 608 19
Notes Philosophical Research

meaning, or to use his terms, a sign consisted of a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the signs
image as we perceive it the marks on the paper or the sounds in the air, the signified is the mental
concept to which it refers. This mental concept is broadly common to all members of the same
culture who share the same language.

We can see immediately similarities between Saussures signifier and Peirces sign, and Saussures
signified and Peirces interpretant. Saussure, however, is less concerned than Peirce with the
relationship of those two elements with Peirces object or external meaning. When Saussure does
turn to this he calls it signification but spends comparatively little time on it. So Saussures model may
be visualized as in figure 14.

SIGN

signification external reality or


SIGNIFIER SIGNIFIED meaning
(physical existence of (mental concept)
the sign)

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content Analysis is any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively
identifying special characteristics of messages. 33 Here, the researcher studies written documents
and other artifacts of social communication. In content analysis, the aim of the researcher is to
uncover the different elements found in a social artifact. In the conduct of the examination there are
two possible foci: (1) the manifest content, that is, those elements that are physically present and
countable and (2) the latent content, that is, the underlying elements which can be interpreted to
be strongly found in the physical data.34

Content analysis is designed to produce an objective, measurable, verifiable account of the manifest
content of messages. It analyses the denotative order of signification. It works best on a large scale:
the more it has to deal with, the more accurate it is. It works through identifying and counting
chosen units in a communication system.The units counted can be anything that the researcher
wishes to investigate: the only criteria are that they should be readily identifiable and that they
should occur frequently enough for statistical methods of analysis to be valid. (Fiske, 119)

While there is no clear defining line that distinguishes whether content analysis belong to
quantitative or qualitative method, still, content analysis, though indispensable in the analysis of
texts, confine itself into the language of texts.

33
O. R. Holsti, Content Analysis in G. Linzey & E. Aaronson (eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology (Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1968) quoted by Bruce L. Berg, Qualitative research Methods for the Social Sciences
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995), 174-75.

34
Ibid., 176.
Draft for Phil 608 20
Notes Philosophical Research

While content analysis may be used, still philosophers have to contend that [W]ords and phrases do
not come ready packaged with a specific delimited meaning that a researcher can be sure to know as
if they were fixed and self-contained. 35 Even philosophers themselves find no agreement in
interpreting texts.

How is this so? It is not because dialectical contradictions are necessary in attaining the veracity of
the text; rather, the textual foci are so rich that a philosopher may become too engrossed on the one
side of the text that he fails to see other aspects of the text. Making sense of out of a text must not
be construed as easy task since

it is the interweaving of words and phrases in different contexts that gives them
their sense, and when we attempt to grasp patterns in a text we always have to carry
out that exercise against a cultural backdrop. The cultural backdrop is made up of
different social worlds (such as classrooms, families, clubs), subcultures (including
age bands, classes and regions) and, in most societies, languages (and dialects). 36

But as students of philosophy, neophytes in the realm of philosophical research, we acquaint


ourselves with the different schools, or methods which are essential in the conduct of a qualitative
research.

CRITICAL THEORY

This method is far different. In interpreting texts, ideological analysis is not merely confined to the
world of the texts, that is, in revealing the meaning of the text, analysis is not similar to merely
reading the text. Ideological analysis presupposes a network of relations in the creation of the
meaning inherent in the text. Fiske notes,

Reading is not akin to using a can opener to reveal the meaning in the message.
Meanings are produced in the interactions between text and audience. It is a dynamic
act in which both elements contribute equally. When the text and the audience are
members of a tightly knit culture or subculture, the interaction is smooth and
effortless: the connotations and myths upon which the text draws fit closely, if not
exactly, with those of the audience members. 37

Ideological analysis, then, is not merely the reading of the text; rather, it is reading of the text as a
product of a relation, that is, social relation, totally embedded in a culture. Thus, the task of the
analysis is not just to interpret the meaning of the text but also to unmask the meanings created by
the social relations and the cultural meanings evoked and invoked by such text.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD

35
Ian Parker and the Bolton Discourse Network, Critical Textwork: An Introduction to Varieties of Discourse and
Analysis (Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999), 2.
36
Ibid.
37
Fiske, 143.
Draft for Phil 608 21
Notes Philosophical Research

Each of the research methods discussed above uses one or more techniques for collecting empirical
data (many qualitative researchers prefer the term "empirical materials" to the word "data" since
most qualitative data is non-numeric). These techniques range from interviews, observational
techniques such as participant observation and fieldwork, through to archival research. Written data
sources can include published and unpublished documents, company reports, memos, letters,
reports, email messages, faxes, newspaper articles and so forth.
[http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/#Qualitative%20Techniques]

Below are samples from approved theses and dissertations:

In the present study, this researcher endeavors to show the relevance of Habermas
Discourse Ethics to the Filipino Society, taking into account the different works just
reviewed and considering the impact of the development of science and technology. By
analyzing Habermas Discourse Ethics, the study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What is Habermas Discourse Ethics?
2. What is the relevance of Habermas Discourse Ethics to the Filipino society in the
following aspect:
a. as to its moral-religious aspect?
b. as to its social aspect?
c. as to its political aspect?
Draft for Phil 608 22
Notes Philosophical Research

[Alvin A. Galeon, Habermas Discourse Ethics and Its Relevance to the Filipino Society
(Masters Thesis, University of San Carlos, 1998), 14.]

The study aims to disclose the human persons limit-transcending power called nayanaya
and its principle as experienced by a Filipino; and as interpreted in the light of silence in the
thinking of Zhuang Zi. It answers the following questions:

1. What does silence mean in the philosophy of Zhuang Zi?


2. What are the Filipino ways of nayanaya?
How effective is nayanaya in preserving a persons sanity when thrown into a maddening
situation?
What values are contributive to the effectiveness of nayanaya?
What values are strengthened by its practice?
3. What are the points of convergence between nayanaya and silence in Zhuang Zi?
4. How is and silence in Zhuang Zi?
5. How is nayanaya a Filipino philosophy of survival?

[Amosa Velez, Phenomenology of Nayanaya: A Filipino Philosophy of Survival Interpreted in


the Light of Silence in Zhuang Zi (PhD Diss. University of San Carlos, 1998), 10.]

The study aimed to analyze Deweys philosophy of education and its influence on Philippine
education.
Specifically the study will
1. discuss Deweys Philosophy of Education in terms of
the pragmatic, democratic and social aspects
educational theories
educational goals
curricular content
teaching methodologies
2. identify Deweys influence on Philippine education.
3. critically reflect on this influences suitability to Filipino mentality and culture.

[Harold A. Jumuad, John Deweys Philosophy of Education and Its Influence on Philippine
Education (Masters Thesis, University of San Carlos, 2000), 17.]

The general objectives of this dissertation are:


1. To understand, by making a systematic presentation of, the prolific thoughts of
Augustine (the first explorer of the self) and those of Husserl (the prince of the
phenomenological movement) regarding a familiar, yet mysterious, topic called time.
2. To have a clearer understanding of God, the world, and the self by dialogueing with
Augustine and Husserl on time in its relation to the self, and the world, and God.
3. To show that these philosophers doctrines on time are timeless, are still relevant today
and can be applied also to the Philippine setting.

This research works specific objectives are:


Draft for Phil 608 23
Notes Philosophical Research

1. To show that there is a connection between Augustine and Husserl, notwithstanding


the more or less fifteen hundred years gap between them. And this connection
consists precisely in their reflections on internal time.
2. To compare their doctrines on time under three aspects:
time and the self (psychological aspect);
time and the world (cosmological);
time and God (theological aspect).
3. To make some applications of their views on time to Filipino time, a Philippine
cultural fact, thus proving that their doctrines are universal, i.e., true not only during
those two philosophers eras and in their respective countries but also today and in
the Philippines.

[Agustin Sollano, Agustine and Husserl on Time: An Analytico-Comparative Study (PhD Diss.,
University of San Carlos, 1984), 14.]

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