Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Science & Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Defect-dominated fatigue behavior in type 630 stainless steel

fabricated by selective laser melting
Masayuki Akita a,n, Yoshihiko Uematsu b, Toshifumi Kakiuchi b, Masaki Nakajima c,
Ryosei Kawaguchi d
a
Faculty of Engineering, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gifu University, Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
c
National Institute of Technology, Toyota College, 2-1 Eisei-cho, Toyota 471-8525, Japan
d
Mechanical and Systems Engineering Division, Graduate School of Engineering, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu 501-1193, Japan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fatigue behavior of type 630 (174 pH) stainless steel specimens fabricated by selective laser melting
Received 1 March 2016 (SLM) was studied. The results obtained were compared with those of the conventionally-melted (CM)
Received in revised form type 630. In the microstructure of SLM type 630, martensite-poor and ferrite-rich areas were recognized,
12 April 2016
while in the CM type 630, acicular martensite uniformly distributed in a matrix. Relatively high tem-
Accepted 13 April 2016
Available online 14 April 2016
perature was held due to the additive lamination of melted powder during SLM process, which pre-
vented full-martensite structure formation. In the SLM-quenched type 630, the microstructure consisted
Keywords: of acicular martensite due to the post heat treatment at 1050 C followed by water quenching. The
Fatigue hardness was the highest in the CM type 630, and followed by SLM-quenched and SLM type 630 in
Selective laser melting
decreasing order. The microstructural observation revealed that some defects ( o 50 mm) distributed in
Martensitic stainless steel
the SLM and SLM-quenched type 630, which were formed during additive lamination of melted powder.
Microstructure
Crack initiation Rotating bending fatigue tests were performed at a frequency of 57 Hz in laboratory air. The SLM and
Crack growth SLM-quenched type 630 exhibited much lower fatigue strengths compared to the CM one. One of the
reasons of lower fatigue strengths in the SLM and SLM-quenched type 630 could be attributed to their
lower hardness. Furthermore, fatigue cracks initiated from the defects in both SLM type 630. Conse-
quently, fatigue crack initiated at an early stage of fatigue life in the SLM and SLM-quenched type 630,
resulting in the lower fatigue strengths. However, fatigue crack growth resistances of the SLM and SLM-
quenched type 630 were higher than that of the CM one due to frequent crack branching and deection.
& 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction workability, namely maraging steels, titanium alloys and pre-

Selective laser melting (SLM) method is one of the additive
manufacturing (AM) processes, in which metallic powder is se-
lectively melted and fused by a high energy density laser beam [1
3]. This fabricating method allows the production of machine
components using an information from a three-dimensional
model CAD data [4]. Compared with conventional manufacturing
methods, SLM offers distinct advantages in terms of design free-
dom, free of tooling, near-net or net shape production, efcient
use of materials, short lead time and cost savings without dies or
substantial machining [3,5,6]. Therefore, SLM technology is greatly
applicable for the use in high value applications such as aerospace
and biomedical industries [79]. In addition, this technology is
particularly applied to the materials with high strength and poor
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: akita@gifu-u.ac.jp (M. Akita).
cipitation-hardening stainless steels, and etc.
Type 630 (174 pH) stainless steel is one of the precipitation-
hardening martensitic stainless steels and is widely used in var-
ious industry elds due to high strength, good ductility and ex-
cellent SCC resistance [1012]. On the other hand, type 630 has
poor workability caused by high strength. It takes much time and
cost to obtain desired shape of product when using conventional
fabricating methods. Therefore, the fabrication by SLM method for
the functional products with a complex geometry is so effective
[13].
The microstructure of material fabricated by SLM method is
different as compared to conventionally-processed material. In
addition, many machine components are subjected to cyclic stress.
Therefore, it is important to clarify the fatigue properties of ma-
terials fabricated by SLM method. Though the fatigue properties of
titanium alloys and type 316 L stainless steels processed by SLM
method have been described in several studies [1418], the studies
on the fatigue properties including crack growth behavior of type

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.04.042
0921-5093/& 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
20 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926

630 stainless steel made by SLM method are very limited [18].
In the present study, rotating bending fatigue tests were con-
ducted using type 630 stainless steel fabricated by SLM method.
Based on the results obtained, the fatigue behavior and fracture
mechanism in the material made by SLM method were discussed
through the comparison to the results of conventional type 630.

2. Materials and experimental procedures

Fig. 1. Conguration of fatigue specimen.

2.1. Materials preparation

Table 1
Mechanical properties of type 630.
In the present study, pre-alloyed type 630 stainless steel
powder was used for the SLM by the additive manufacturing in an Specimen Proof Tensile Elongation Reduction Elastic
EOSINT M280 system. This SLM machine uses Ytterbium-ber la- stress strength (%) of area (%) Modulus E
ser. The processing parameters used were as follows; the max- s0.2 sB (MPa) (GPa)
imum laser output power, the focus diameter and lamination laser (MPa)

thickness were 400 W, 0.1 mm
0.5 mm, 0.02 mm
0.05 mm,
respectively. The other detailed SLM process parameters are not
disclosed from a material supplier. It is well known that the me-
chanical properties of SLM-fabricated materials depend on the
build direction [1926]. In the present study, lamination plane was
parallel to the longitudinal direction of the specimen. These spe-
cimens were referred as SLM specimen. It is considered that the
cooling rate of additively layered powder is slow, because melted
power is continuously supplied on the lamination plane. There-
fore, a post heat treatment was given to the SLM specimen, in
which the temperature was held at 1050 C for 4 h, followed by
water quenching. This material was designated as SLM-quenched
specimen. Furthermore, the conventional type 630 stainless steel
was also prepared. The chemical composition (wt%) of the con-
ventional type 630 was as follows; Cr: 15.58, Ni: 4.22, Cu: 3.31,
Mn: 0.81, P: 0.35, Nb: 0.28, Si: 0.26, C: 0.04, S: 0.01, Fe: bal. This
material had been solution treated at 1050 C for 1 h, followed by
water quenching in the as-received condition. Hereafter, this ma-
terial was referred as conventionally melted (CM) specimen.
The smooth round-bar fatigue specimens with a diameter of
8 mm and a gauge length of 10 mm were fabricated by the SLM
method as shown in Fig. 1. Prior to fatigue tests, the gauge section
of specimen was mechanically polished using progressively ner
grades of emery paper followed by buff-nish. Table 1 shows the
mechanical properties of CM type 630 after solution treatment. In
the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens, tensile test was not per-
formed due to the limitation of sample number.
2.2. Experimental procedures
Fatigue tests in laboratory air at an ambient temperature were
performed using an Ono-type four-point rotating bending fatigue
testing machine with a capacity of 98 Nm operating at a frequency
of 57 Hz. The crack initiation and early crack growth were mon-
itored by a plastic replication technique. After fatigue tests, frac-
ture surfaces were examined in detail using a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). The microstructures of three types of speci-
mens were also observed using an SEM. Measurements of hard-
ness were carried out using a Vickers micro-hardness tester (test
load: 4.9 N, load-holding time: 30 s).
3. Results
3.1. Vickers hardness and microstructures
Vickers hardness of three types of specimens, that is, SLM, SLM-
quenched and CM, was obtained as an average for 20 points
measurement. Vickers hardness is shown in Fig. 2. The average
CM specimen 1011 1089 9 68 174
600
500
Vickers hardness HV
400
300
200
100
SLM SLM CM
quenched
Fig.2. Vickers hardness.
hardness was 275 HV, 340 HV and 454 HV for the SLM, SLM-
quenched and CM specimens, respectively. Hardness in the CM
specimen was the highest and followed by the SLM-quenched and
SLM specimens in decreasing order.
The 3D appearance of microstructure in the SLM specimen is
shown in Fig. 3(a). The anisotropy depending on the build direc-
tion was not identied in the microstructure. Fig. 3(be) show the
SEM micrographs of microstructures in the SLM and SLM-quen-
ched specimens. In the SLM specimen (Fig. 3(b and c)), ferrite-rich,
namely martensite-poor areas are recognized as shown by the
arrows in the gure. On the other hand, the microstructures of the
SLM-quenched specimen (Fig. 3(d and e)) are more uniform, and
consist of rough acicular martensite. It is due to the transformation
from austenite to martensite by water quenching. The micro-
structures of the CM specimen are shown in Fig. 3(f) and (g). As
mentioned above, since the material was solution treated and
water quenched, the microstructure consisted of uniformly-dis-
tributed acicular martensite. It should be noted that the CM spe-
cimen exhibits ner and more uniformly-distributed martensite
than the SLM-quenched one.
In the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens, many microscopic
defects (size o50 mm) are seen. The examples of such defects are
shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), that is, cylindrical and angular defects,
 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926 21

10
m 10
0m

10
m 10
0m

10
m 10m

Fig. 3. Microstructures: (a) 3D macroscopic appearance of SLM specimen, (b), (c) SLM specimen, (d), (e) SLM-quenched specimen, (f), (g) CM specimen. Arrows indicate
ferrite-rich area.
22 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926

1 0m 10m

Fig. 4. Micrographs showing the defects in SLM specimen.

respectively. It is considered that the powder of type 630 did not
melt properly during the SLM process, resulting in porosities
whose sizes are comparable to the laser-lamination thickness,
50 mm (See Section 2.1). Several studies described that some un-
melted-powder regions were observed due to inadequate energy
input [2729]. This suggests that the crack initiation resistances of
the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens might be lower than that
of the CM one.
3.2. Fatigue strength
Fig. 5 shows S-N diagram of three materials. The fatigue
strengths of the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens were much
lower than those of the CM one. The fatigue limits of the SLM,
SLM-quenched and CM specimens at 107 cycles were 350 MPa,
400 MPa and 550 MPa, respectively. The fatigue strength of SLM-
quenched specimen was slightly higher than the SLM one, but was
still lower than the CM one.
3.3. Fatigue crack initiation and early crack growth
Fig. 6 reveals typical fracture surfaces near crack initiation sites
of three types of specimens. In the SLM (Fig. 6(a) and (b)) and
SLM-quenched (Fig. 6(c) and (d)) specimens, defects, which sizes
approximately 70100 mm, were seen at the fatigue crack initiation
sites. In the CM specimen (Fig. 6e), fatigue crack initiated at the
specimen surface due to cyclic slip deformation, showing at crack
initiation site.
The early crack growth behavior was monitored by a plastic
replication technique. The stress amplitude, sa, of the crack growth
test was determined as the value at which the fatigue life would be
approximately 105 cycles. Thus, the stress amplitudes employed
10
000
Type 630
Stress amplitude a (MPa)
were 400 MPa, 500 MPa and 700 MPa for the SLM, SLM-quenched
and CM specimens, respectively. Fig. 7 shows crack length, 2c, as a
function of the number of cycles, N, (Fig. 7a) and the cycle ratio, N/
Nf (Fig. 7b), where Nf is the number of cycles to failure. In the SLM
specimen, owing to the limitation of specimen number, the run-
out specimen (sw 300 MPa, N 107 cycles) was used for crack
growth test. Therefore, SLM specimen exhibits load history.
However, it should be noted that load history before fatigue crack
initiation hardly affects fatigue crack growth behavior, because
fatigue crack growth is dominated by severe plastic deformation at
the crack tips. The tendency of fatigue crack growth behavior is not
clear in Fig. 7(a). But when crack initiation life is estimated using
N/Nf (Fig. 7b), it is clear that crack initiation lives of the SLM and
SLM-quenched specimens are much shorter than that of the CM
one, indicating the lower crack initiation resistances in the SLM
and SLM-quenched specimens. The SLM specimen suddenly failed
with the crack length shorter than 1 mm. That is because multiple
cracks initiations and coalescence occurred.
Subsequently, to evaluate crack growth resistances, the re-
lationships between crack growth rate, da/dN, and maximum
stress intensity factor, Kmax, are revealed in Fig. 8, where the stress
intensity factor was calculated using an analytical solution by
Shiratori et al. [30], assuming an aspect ratio, a/c1 (a: crack
depth, c: half crack length on surface). In the SLM specimen, the
crack growth rates gradually increased. In the SLM-quenched
specimen, the crack growth rates rapidly decreased around
Kmax 6 MPam1/2, and then increased. The da/dN - Kmax relation-
ships of the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens are similar around
Kmax 510 MPam1/2. On the other hand, the crack growth rates of
the CM specimen were higher than those of the SLM and SLM-
quenched ones at the medium Kmax range. At the Kmax level larger
than 30 MPam1/2, the da/dN - Kmax relationship of the CM speci-
men merged into that of the SLM-quenched one. It could be
concluded that the crack growth resistances of the SLM and SLM-
SLM
M quenched specimens were higher than that of the CM one.

9
900 Mquenched
SLM
CM
8
800
4. Discussion
7
700
4.1. Effect of SLM on fatigue strength
6
600
5
500 As shown in Fig. 5, the fatigue strengths of the SLM and SLM-
quenched specimens were much lower than those of the CM one.
4
400
Generally, the fatigue strength in steels depends on their hardness.
Rotary bending
3
300 Vickers hardness of the SLM (275 HV) and SLM-quenched speci-
Laboratory air
men (340 HV) was lower than that of the CM one (454 HV). In
200 4
2 5 6 7 8 addition, it is known that the fatigue limit, sw, linearly increases
10 10 10 10
0 10
with increasing Vickers hardness in the range of 100 oHV o 400.
Number of cycles to failure N f
The linear relation is given as follows; sw 1.6 HV [31,32]. This
Fig. 5. S-N diagram. equation is widely used for mechanical design, because the fatigue
 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926 23

50m 10m

300m 30m

50m
Fig. 6. SEM micrographs showing fracture surfaces near crack initiation sites: (a) SLM specimen (sa 450 MPa, Nf 4.0  104), (b) magnied view of (a), (c) SLM-quenched
specimen (sa 350 MPa, Nf 1.0  107), (d) magnied view of (c), (e) CM specimen (sa 650 MPa, Nf 3.3  105). Arrows indicate defects.

4 4
Surface crack length 2 c (mm)

Type 630
Surface crack length 2 c (mm)

Type 630
Rotary bending Rotary bending
Laboratory air Laboratory air
3 3 SLM ( a =400MPa)
SLM SLMquenched ( a =500MPa)
(a=400MPa) CM ( a =700MPa)
2 SLMquenched
( a= 500MPa) 2
CM ( a = 700MPa)

1 1

0 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Number of cycles N Cycle ratio N/N f
Fig. 7. Surface crack length 2c as a function of (a) number of cycles, N, (b) cycle ratio, N/Nf.

limit could be roughly estimated using a hardness value. Fig. 9 lower limit of scatter band. This means that the fatigue limits of
indicates the relationship between sw and HV, where the scatter the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens are low in terms of their
band of several steels is indicated by the dotted line [32]. The data hardness. The reason of this behavior is as follows; as mentioned
points of the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens are out of the in Section 3.3, fatigue cracks in the SLM and SLM-quenched
24 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926

Type 630

Loading direction
3
Rotary bending
10 Laboratory air
Crack growth rate da/dN (mm/cycle)

Defect

4
10
Branching
5
10
30m

6 Fig. 10. An example of optical micrograph showing crack initiation site in the SLM
10 specimen.
SLM
(a=400MPa)
7 SLMquenched 4.2. Fatigue crack initiation and early-stage growth
10 (a=500MPa)
CM
(a =700MPa) Fatigue cracks initiated from defects near the surfaces in the
8 SLM and SLM-quenched specimens (See Section 3.3). For example,
10
as shown in Fig. 7, the crack initiation of the SLM-quenched spe-
1 2 5 7 10 20 50 70100 cimen was signicantly earlier than the CM one. Defects could
Maximum stress intensity factor enhance early crack initiation. Fig. 10 reveals the small crack just
1/2 after the initiation in the SLM specimen. It should be noted that
Kmax (MPam )
the crack initiated from the defect is indicated by an arrow. Fig. 11
Fig. 8. Relationship between crack growth rate, da/dN, and maximum stress in- shows the SLM-quenched specimen surface observed during crack
tensity factor, Kmax. growth test. Before crack growth test, small defects (o5 mm) were
detected in line (Fig. 11a). Crack initiation occurred at that linearly-
aligned defects and crack propagated along the line in the early
700 stage of crack growth test (Fig. 11b). The crack length estimated on
Type 630 the specimen surface from Fig. 11(b) is about 150 mm, and that
SLM crack length was used for the calculation of Kmax in Fig. 8. But the
600
w (MPa)

SLMquenched small crack coalescence occurred along the linearly-aligned de-

CM fects. It implies that the crack length in the depth direction would
be shorter than the length on the specimen surface (150 mm).
500 Therefore, the drop of crack growth rates of the SLM-quenched
specimen in the early stage (Fig. 8) could be attributed to the
400 overestimation of Kmax value calculated assuming an aspect ratio,
Fatigue limit

a/c1.
Fig. 12 shows the optical micrographs indicating crack growth
300 paths observed on plastic replicas. The crack deection and
branching were observed in the SLM and SLM-quenched speci-
mens (Fig. 12(a) and (b)). Frequent deection and branching in the
200 w=1.6HV crack growth paths could decrease the crack growth rate at a given
Scatter band Kmax (see Fig. 8) in the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens. On the
other hand, the crack in the CM specimen grew straight manner
100 after initiation (Fig. 12c). It could be concluded that the fatigue
0 100 200 300 400 500
crack growth resistances in both SLM specimens were enhanced
Vickers hardness HV by the deection and branching of crack path. The frequent crack
Fig. 9. Fatigue limit as a function of Vickers hardness. deection and branching are attributed to the microstructural
inhomogeneity and defects in the SLM specimens.

specimens initiated from defects near surface (Fig. 6(ad)). Gong
et al. indicated that the defects brought on the decrease of fatigue
strength in the SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloy [33]. Defects are generated
due to incomplete powder melting or improper fusion at the
successive tracks or layers during the SLM process. It is considered
that the lower hardness and defects have detrimental effects on
the fatigue strengths in both SLM specimens. On the other hand,
the fatigue limit of CM specimen is also lower than the expected
value from the hardness. The Vickers hardness of CM specimen is
454 HV, and exceeds the limitation value of 400 HV, in which
sw 1.6 HV is empirically valid. Therefore, it is considered that the
equation, sw 1.6 HV, is not held in the range of HV 4400, re-
sulting in an overestimation of fatigue limit in the CM specimen
from its hardness.
4.3. da/dN-K/E relationships
The crack growth behavior of the SLM, SLM-quenched and CM
specimens was shown in Fig. 8. The results should be compared
with those in the other metallic materials. It is well known that
the fatigue crack growth behavior can be related to the elastic
modulus, E. Fig. 13 summarizes the fatigue crack growth re-
sistances characterized in terms of K/E. It is also known that
fatigue crack growth resistances in many metallic alloys, that is,
mild steels, wrought Al alloys, cast Al alloy, cupper, Ti alloys and Zr
alloy, are within the band enclosed by dotted line [34]. Since these
results were obtained at a stress ratio, R, of 0, K is equivalent to
the Kmax under R
1 in the present study. In the data plotted on
da/dN-K/E relationship, where E 174 GPa in Table 1 was used,
the results of SLM and SLM-quenched specimens are within the
 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926 25

Loading direction

30m 30m

Fig. 11. Optical micrographs showing crack initiation in the SLM-quenched specimen: (a) before crack growth test, N 0 cycle. (b) N 1.0  103 cycles, N/Nf 0.2.

Crack initiation

50m

Branching:
Branching: Crack initiation 100m
Loading direction

Crack initiation

100m

Fig. 12. Macroscopic appearances of crack growth paths: (a) SLM specimen (sa 400 MPa, N 1.7  104 cycles), (b) SLM-quenched specimen (sa 500 MPa, N 4.4  105
cycles), (c) CM specimen (sa 700 MPa, N 8.0  104 cycles).

2 specimens are similar to the other metallic materials, while the

10 Type 630 CM specimen has slightly lower growth resistance. In the present
Rotary bending study, the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens had lower fatigue
3 Laboratory air strengths than the CM one in spite of higher growth resistances.
Crack growth rate da/dN (mm/cycle)

10 That is because specimen size is relatively small as shown in Fig. 1,

and consequently fatigue lives are mainly dominated by fatigue
4
crack initiation resistances.
10
R=0
5. Conclusion
5
10
Fatigue tests of type 630 stainless steel fabricated by selective
laser melting (SLM) method were conducted. Post-heat-treated
6 (SLM-quenched) and conventionally-melted (CM) type 630 were
10
also used for comparison. The fatigue strengths and crack growth
SLM behavior were discussed on the basis of the results of fatigue tests
(a=400MPa)
7 and fractographic observations. The results obtained are as
10 SLMquenched
follows.
(a=500MPa)
CM
8 (a =700MPa) 1) In the CM specimen, the microstructure consisted of uniformly-
10 distributed ne acicular martensite. In the SLM specimen, fer-
1 2 5 10 20 50 rite-rich areas were recognized due to the slow cooling rate
5 during SLM process. Quenching after SLM process could make
( 10 )
1/2 the macrostructure uniformly-distributed ne acicular marten-
K / E m
site, while the acicular martensite was still coarser than the CM
Fig. 13. Crack growth rate, da/ dN, as a function of K/E. specimen. In addition, small defects (o50 mm) were seen in the
SLM and SLM-quenched specimens, which were formed during
band. On the other hand, the data of CM specimen are on the additive lamination of melted powder.
upper boundary of the band. Therefore, it is concluded that the 2) Depending on the microstructure, the hardness of SLM (275 HV)
fatigue crack growth resistances of SLM and SLM-quenched and SLM-quenched (340 HV) specimens was lower than the CM
26 M. Akita et al. / Materials Science & Engineering A 666 (2016) 1926
one (454 HV). Accompanied by the hardness, the fatigue limit of
SLM specimen (sw 350 MPa) was lower than the CM one
(sw 550 MPa). Quenching after SLM could slightly improve the
fatigue strength (sw 400 MPa) but still lower than the CM
specimen due to the existence of defects.
3) In the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens, fatigue cracks in-
itiated from defects located near the surfaces. The fatigue crack
initiation resistances of both SLM specimens were lower than
the CM one. The lower hardness and defects in the micro-
structure had detrimental inuences on the fatigue crack in-
itiation resistances in the SLM and SLM-quenched specimens.
4) The crack growth rates of the SLM and SLM-quenched speci-
mens were lower than the CM one. In both SLM specimens, the
crack deection and branching were frequently observed. On
the other hand, the crack in CM specimen grew straight manner
after initiation. The higher fatigue crack growth resistances of
both SLM specimens were attributed to the frequent crack de-
ection and branching.
References
[1] G.N. Levy, Phys. Proc. 5 (2010) 6580.
[2] J.P. Kruth, G. Levy, F. Klocke, T.H.C. Childs, Ann. CIRP 56 (2007) 730759.
[3] N.J. Harrison, I. Todd, K. Mumtaz, Acta Mater. 94 (2015) 5968.
[4] A.L. Jardini, M.A. Larosa, R.M. Filho, C.A.C. Zavaglia, L.F. Bernardes, C.S. Lambert,
D.R. Calderoni, P. Kharmandayan, J. Cranio-Maxillo-Facial Surg. 42 (2014)
18771884.
[5] B. Vrancken, L. Thijs, J.-P. Kruth, J.V. Humbeeck, J. Alloys Compd. 541 (2012)
177185.
[6] W. Xu, M. Brandt, S. Sun, J. Elambasseril, Q. Liu, K. Latham, K. Xia, M. Qian, Acta
Mater. 85 (2015) 7484.
[7] H. Miura, J. KONA Powder Part. 32 (2015) 253263.
[8] I. Yadroitsev, P. Krakhmalev, I. Yadroitsava, J. Alloys Compd. 583 (2014)
404409.
[9] P. Heinl, L. Mller, C. Krner, R.F. Singer, F.A. Mller, Acta Biomater. 4 (2008)
15361544.
[10] H.J. Rack, D. Kalish, Metall. Mater. Trans. 5 (1974) 15951605.
[11] L.W. Tsay, T.Y. Yang, M.C. Young, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 311 (2001) 6473.
[12] K.-C. Hsu, C.-K. Lin, Int. J. Fatigue 30 (2008) 21472155.
[13] I. Yadroitsev, I. Smurov, Phys. Procedia 5 (2010) 551560.
[14] S. Leuders, M. Vollmer, F. Brenne, T. Trster, T. Niendorf, Metall. Mater. Trans. A
46 (2015) 38163823.
[15] G. Kasperovich, J. Hausmann, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 220 (2015) 202214.
[16] V. Cain, L. Thijs, J.V. Humbeeck, B.V. Hooreweder, R. Knutsen, Addit. Manuf. 5
(2015) 6876.
[17] A. Riemer, S. Leuders, M. Trne, H.A. Richard, T. Trster, T. Niendorf, Eng. Fract.
Mech. 120 (2014) 1525.
[18] T.M. Mower, M.J. Long, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 651 (2016) 198213.
[19] A.A. Antonysamy, J. Meyer, P.B. Prangnell, Mater. Charact. 84 (2013) 153168.
[20] K. Guan, Z. Wang, M. Gao, X. Li, X. Zeng, Mater. Des. 50 (2013) 581586.
[21] M. Simonelli, Y.Y. Tse, C. Tuck, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 616 (2014) 111.
[22] K. Kunze, T. Etter, J. Grsslin, V. Shklover, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 620 (2015)
213222.
[23] T. Vilaro, C. Colin, J.D. Bartout, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 42 (2011) 31903199.
[24] E. Chlebus, B. Kunicka, T. Kurzynowski, B. Dybala, Mater. Charact. 62 (2011)
488495.
[25] B. Zhang, L. Dembinski, C. Coddet, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 584 (2013) 2131.
[26] G. Zilkowski, E. Chlebus, P. Szymczyk, J. Kurzac, Arch. Civ. Mech. Eng. 14
(2014) 608614.
[27] H.P. Tang, G.Y. Yang, W.P. Jia, W.W. He, S.L. Lu, M. Qian, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 636
(2015) 103107.
[28] A. Yadollahi, N. Shamsaei, S.M. Tompson, D.W. Seely, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 644
(2015) 171183.
[29] P.A. Kobryn, E.H. Moore, S.L. Semiatin, Scr. Mater. 43 (2000) 299305.
[30] M. Shiratori, T. Miyoshi, Y. Sakai, G.R. Zhang, J. Soc. Mater. Eng. 53 (1987)
779785 (in Japanese).
[31] S. Nisijima, J. Soc, Mater. Eng. 29 (1980) 2429 (in Japanese).
[32] Y. Murakami, K. Kawakami, W.E. Duckworth, Int. J. Fatigue 13 (1991) 489499.
[33] H. Gong, K. Ra, H. Gu, G.D.J. Ram, T. Starr, B. Stucker, Mater. Des. 86 (2015)
545554.
[34] S. Usami, Fatigue Thresholds, Fundamentals and Engineering Applications,
EMAS Publications, United Kingdom 1981, pp. 205238.